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57th  Congress,  )  SENATP1  j  Document 

1st  Session.      \  I      No.  54. 


REPORT 


OF  THE 


ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION, 


1899-1901. 


Rear-Admiral  JOHN  G.  WALKER, 

United  States  Navy, 
President. 

Hon.  SAMUEL  PASCO.  ALFRED  NOBLE,  C.  E. 

Mr.  GEORGE  S.  MORISON.  Col.  PETER  C.  HAINS, 
Lieut.  Col.  OSWALD  H.  ERNST,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army. 

Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army.  WILLIAM  H.  BURR,  C.  E. 

LEWIS  M.  HAUPT,  C.  E.  Prof.  EMORY  R.  JOHNSON. 

Lieut.  Commander  SIDNEY  A.  STAUNTON, 

United  States  Navy, 
Secretary. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 
1901. 


S  D— 57-1— Vol  7- 


3Qk 


To  the  Congress  of  the  United  States: 

I  transmit  herewith  the  report,  with  appendices  in  three  parts,  of 
the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  established  under  section  4  of  the  river 
and  harbor  act,  approved  March  3,  1899,  of  its  investigations  made  in 
pursuance  of  section  3  of  said  act. 

Theodore  Roosevelt. 

White  House,  December  %,,  1901. 


Department  of  State, 
Washington,  November  30,  1901. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  the  Report  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission,  with  appendices  in  three  parts,  all  in  duplicate,  accompa- 
nied by  one  set  of  maps,  profiles,  and  illustrations,  which  have  this 
day  been  delivered   at  this  Department  by  Rear-Admiral  John  G. 
Walker,  president  of  the  Commission. 
I  am,  sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

John  Hay. 
The  President. 

3 


62.C9? 


CONTENTS. 


Sections  of  act  approved  March  3,  1899,  authorizing  the  appointment  of  the 

Commission 9 

Letter  of  appointment  and  instructions  to  commissioners 11 

Organization  of  the  Commission  hy  committees 12 

Chapters: 

1.  Introduction 13 

2.  History  of  interoceanic  projects  and  communications 20 

3.  Dimensions  and  unit  prices 63 

4.  Other  possible  routes 69 

5.  Panama  route 80 

6.  Nicaragua  route 104 

7.  Earthquakes,  volcanoes,  climate,  health 167 

8.  Rights,  privileges,  and  franchises 172 

9.  Industrial  and  commercial  value  of  canal 243 

10.  Military  value 252 

11.  Cost  of  maintenance  and  operation 255 

12.  Conclusions 257 

APPENDICES. 

A.  Study  of  locks  for  Nicaragua  and  Panama  routes,  by  Mr.  S.  H.  Woodard. 

B.  Historical  notes  relative  to  the  Universal  Interoceanic  Canal  Company,  1880- 

1894,  prior  to  the  organization  of  the  new  company. 

C.  List  of  documents  furnished  to  the  Commission  by  the  New  Panama  Canal 

Company. 

D.  Report  on  the  hydrography  of  the  Panama  canal  route,  by  Mr.  A.  P.  Davis, 

chief  hydrographer. 

E.  Waste  weir  dimensions  and  discharges  for  Lake  Bohio. 

F.  Description  of  alternative  location  for  canal  between  Gatun  and  Bohio. 

G.  Discussion  of  the  time  required  for  transit  through  an  Isthmian  canal  by  the 

two  routes. 
H.  Discharge  of  the  canalized  San  Juan  River. 
I.  Report  of  hydrographic  investigations  in  Nicaragua,  by  Mr.  A.  P.  Davis,  chief 

hydrographer. 
J.  Surveys  from  the  Upper  San  Juan  to  the  Indio  River,  by  Mr.  A.  B.  Nichols, 

division  engineer. 
K.  Treaty  between  Nicaragua  and  the  United  States,  1867,  Dickenson- Ayon. 
L.  Treaty  negotiated  between  the  United  States  and  Nicaragua,  December,  1884, 

Frelinghuysen-Zavala. 
M.  Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Nicaragua,  relative  to  the  Mosquito  Indians 

and  the  rights  and  claims  of  British  subjects,  February  11,  1860. 
N.  Treaty  between  Nicaragua  and  Great  Britain,  January  28,  1860. 
O.  Treaty  between  Nicaragua  and  France,  April  11,  1859. 
P.  List  of  treaties  made  or  negotiated  by  Nicaragua  with  other  countries. 
Q.  Treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  April  19,  1850,  Clayton- 

Bulwer. 

5 


6  CONTENTS. 

R.  Contract  between  Nicaragua  and  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Association. 
S.  Act  of  Congress  incorporating  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua. 
T.  Contract  between  Nicaragua  and  Eyre  and  Cragin,  representing  the  Inter- 
oceanic  Canal  Company. 
U.  Contract  between  Nicaragua  and  the  Atlas  Steamship  Company. 
V.  Treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Costa  Rica,  July,  1851. 
W.  Treaty  between  Spain  and  Costa  Rica,  May,  1860. 
X.  Treaty  between  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua,  June,  1869. 
Y.  List  of  treaties  made  by  Costa  Rica  with  other  countries. 
Z.  Contract  between  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua  Canal  Association. 
AA.  Protocol  of  agreement  between  the  United  States  and  Costa  Rica,  December, 

1900. 
BB.  Treaty  between  the  United  States  and  New  Granada,  concluded  December, 

1846. 
CC.  Treaties  between  France  and  New  Granada,  1856,  and  France  and  Colombia, 

1892. 
DD.  Treaty  between  Spain  and  Colombia,  1881. 

EE.  List  of  treaties  made  by  New  Granada,  or  Colombia,  with  other  countries. 
FF.  Amended  contract  between  Colombia  and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company. 
GG.  Contract  between  Colombia  and  Interoceanic  Canal  Association,  March  20, 

1878.     (Wyse  concession.) 
HH.  Additional  contract  modifying  that  of  May  20,  1878,  December  10,  1890. 
II.  Contract  granting  extension  to  the  Panama  Canal  Company  in  liquidation, 

April  4,  1893. 
JJ.  Contract  granting  further  extension  of  time  to  the  New  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany, April  25,  1900. 
KK.  Memorandum  showing  legal  status  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  with 

laws,  decrees  of  court,  and  charter. 
LL.  Treaty  negotiated  by  Mr.  Hise  between  the  United  States  and  Nicaragua,  June, 

1849. 
MM.  Contract  between  Nicaragua  and  the  American  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal 

Company,  August  27,  1849. 
NN.  Report  on   industrial  and    commercial  value  of  canal,  by    Prof.  Emory   R. 
Johnson. 

PLATES. 

1.  General  map  of  the  Central  American  isthmus,  from  Tehuantepec  to  Buenaven- 

tura Bay,  showing  all  the  canal  routes  investigated.    Scale  ^sTsirwt  40  miles  to 
an  inch. 

2.  General  map  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Panama  to  Atrato  River,  Republic 

of  Colombia,  showing  water  courses  and  mountain  ranges.      Scale  sTrcWtb  5 
miles  to  an  inch. 

3.  Map,  Mandinga  Harbor  to  mouth  of  Rio  Chepo,  Republic  of  Colombia,  showing 

proposed  San  Bias  Canal  route.     Scale  ^Ivs- 

4.  Profile  of  possible  canal  route  from  Mandinga  Harbor,  Gulf  of  San  Bias,  to  Bay 

of  Panama.     Horizontal  scale  s^ffff>  vertical  scale  2«Vij- 

5.  Map,  Caledonia  Bay  to  Rio  Sabana,  Republic  of  Colombia,  showing  topography 

to  the  divide  and  drainage.    Scale  gff&Vo. 

6.  Profile  of  possible  canal  routes  from  Caledonia  Bay  to  San  Miguel  Bay.     Hori- 

zontal scale  si^tftj,  vertical  scale  jSVtf- 

7.  Map,  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  San  Bias  to  Caledonia  Bay, 

Republic  of  Colombia,  showing  elevations  observed  from  sea.     Scale  55^5. 

8.  Map,  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Carreto  Bay  to  the  Atrato 

Valley,    Republic    of    Colombia,    showing    elevations    observed    from    sea. 
Scale  ssfonf. 


CONTENTS.  7 

9.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Rio  Mangle 
to  Rio  Mandinga,  Gulf  of  San  Bias.  Taken  from  point  near  Point  San  Bias. 
No.  1. 

10.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Ratones 

Cay  to  Rio  Diablo.     Taken  from  a  point  near  Puyadas  Cays.     No.  2. 

11.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Ratones  Cay 

to  Rio  Diablo.     Taken  from  sloop  going  toward  Ratones  Cay.     No.  3. 

12.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Piedras 

Cays  to  Rio  Playa.     Taken  from  a  point  near  Ratones  Cay.     No.  4. 

13.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Rio  Tres 

Bocas  to  Rio  Pitgandi.     Taken  from  a  point  near  Limones  Cays.     No.  5. 

14.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Caledonia 

Hills  to  Rio  Grande.     Taken  from  a  point  near  mouth  of  Rio  Tres  Bocas. 
No.  6. 

15.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Cape  Tibu- 

ron  to  Piedras  Cays.     Taken  from  points  near  Isla  Pajaros  and  Isla  Pinos. 
No.  7. 

16.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Caledonia 

Mountain  to  Sassardi  Gap.     Taken  from  a  point  in  front  of  Sassardi.     No.  8. 

17.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  showing  the 

Caledonia  Gap.     Taken  from  a  point  near  Isla  d'Oro.     No.  9. 

18.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Cape  Tiburon 

to  Pt.  Escoces.     Taken  from  sloop  off  Pt.  Carreto.     No.  10. 

19 .  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  Tutumate 

River  to  Pt.  Tiburon.     Taken  from  point  near  Piton  Island.     No.  11. 

20.  Panoramic  view  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  from  the  Atrato 

Flat  to  Piton  Island.     Taken  from  sloop  off  Point  Choco.     No.  12. 

21.  General  map  of  Panama  route.     Scale  rffsW^ 

22.  Profile  of  Panama  route.     Horizontal  scale  tqtststhsj  vertical  scale  ttj1^- 

23.  Sheet  of  sections.     Scale  tsW- 

a.  Colon  Harbor. 

b.  Swamp  silt. 

c.  Firm  earth. 

d.  Lake  Bohio.     Drowned  Channel. 

e.  Culebra. 

24.  Plan  of  Bohio  Locks.     Scale  jfa,  407  to  an  inch. 

25.  Pedro  Miguel  and  Miraflores  Locks.     Scale  ^5,  SO7  to  an  inch. 

26.  Bohio  Dam.     Scales  7oW>  :nnn>>  *iv 

27.  Gigante  Spillway.     Scales  ^V<y.  4<r>  ?h>- 

28.  Map  No.  1.     General  Map  of  Nicaragua  Route.     Scale  r^Wir- 

Map  No.  2.     Canal  line  and  general  topography  through  the  canal  region,  scale 
sihrn,  in  4  sheets. 

29.  Sheet  1.     Carribean  Sea  to  Boca  San  Carlos. 

30.  Sheet  2.     Boca  San  Carlos  to  Lake  Nicaragua. 

31.  Sheet  3.     Fort  San  Carlos  to  Las  Lajas. 

32.  Sheet  4.     Lake  Nicaragua  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Map  No.  3.     Canal  line,  borings,  service  railroad,  and  detail  topography,  scale 
t?2tmx> m  14  sheets,  and  1  index  sheet,  scale  xirooff- 

33.  Index  sheet. 

34.  Sheet  1.    Grey  town  to  San  Juanillo. 

35.  Sheet  la.  Rio  Indio  to  Rio  Misterioso. 

36.  Sheet  2.     Rio  San  Juanillo  to  Rio  Negro. 

37.  Sheet  3.     Rio  Negro  to  Serapiqui  Hills. 

38.  Sheet  4.     Lock  2  to  Rio  San  Francisco- 


8  CONTENTS. 

39.  Sheet  5.  Rio  San  Francisco  to  Cafio  Machado. 

40.  Sheet   6.  Conchuda  cut-off  and  dam  sites. 

41.  Sheet    7.  La  Lucha  to  Agua  Fresca. 

42.  Sheet   8.  Agua  Fresca  to  Santa  Cruz  cut-off. 

43.  Sheet   9.  Isla  Sombrero  de  Cuero  to  Isla  Grande. 

44.  Sheet  10.  Rio  Chico  to  San  Francisco  cut-off. 

45.  Sheet  11.  Rio  Medio  Queso  to  Lake  Nicaragua. 

46.  Sheet  12.  Lake  Nicaragua  to  Cafio  Guachipilin. 

47.  Sheet  13.  Cafio  Guachipilin  to  Pacific  Ocean. 

Profile  of  Nicaragua  Route.     Horizontal  scale  u^w,  vertical  scale  jh^,  in  5  sheets. 

48.  Profile  1.     Caribbean  Sea  to  Conchuda. 

49.  Profile  2.     Conchuda  to  Lake  Nicaragua. 

49a.  Profile  2a.  Profile  of  canal  on  adopted  lines  near  Rio  Sabalos,  etc. 

50.  Profile  3.     Lake  Nicaragua. 

51.  Profile  4.     Lake  Nicaragua  to  Pacific  Ocean. 
Eight  maps  of  Greytown  Harbor,  scale  t^to- 

52.  Puerto  y  Boca  del  Rio  San  Juan  de  Nicaragua,  1809. 

53.  San  Juan  de  Nicaragua,  by  Geo.  Peacock,  1832. 

54.  Greytown  Harbor,  by  Commander  Nolloth,  1850. 

55.  Greytown  Harbor,  by  John  Richards,  1853. 

56.  Greytown  Harbor,  by  John  Scott,  1856. 

57.  Greytown  Harbor,  by  P.  C.  F.  West,  1865. 

58.  Greytown  Harbor,  by  Lieut.  Jas.  M.  Miller,  1872. 

59.  Greytown  Harbor,  by  officers  of  U.  S.  S.  Newport,  1898. 

60.  One  sheet  of  canal  cross  sections,  scale  ^j^. 

Two  profiles  of  route  from  Upper  San  Juan  River,  near  Machuca,  to  Indio. 

61.  1.  Machuca-Negro  Line. 

62.  2.  La  Cruz  del  Norte  Line. 

63.  Map  No.  4.     Showing  borings  in  Lake  Nicaragua,  scale  ^sros- 

64.  Lock  No.  1,  scale  -i\JS. 

65.  Locks  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4,  scale  ^T. 

66.  Locks  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  and  8,  scale  -g\-$. 

67.  Waste  ways,  Eastern  Division,  scale  T2Vtf- 

68.  Conchuda  waste  way,  scale  yaW 

69.  Conchuda  Dam,  scale  T2Vo- 

70.  Map  of  Central  America  and  neighboring  countries,  showing  location  of  volca- 

noes, active  and  extinct.     Scale  sT3STyiny>  100  miles  to  an  inch. 

71.  Map  of  Panama  Route,  showing  zones  of  mean  annual  rainfall,  scale  TTTtnnre- 

72.  Map  of  Nicaragua,  showing  rainfall  areas,  1890.     Scale  zszjs-uj  8  miles  to  1  inch. 

73.  Map  of  Nicaragua,  showing  rainfall  areas,  1900.     Same  scale  as  72. 

74.  Map  of  the  World,  on  Mercator  projection,  showing  routes  for  steam  and  sail. 

75.  Map  of  Western  Hemisphere,  on  Polyconic  projection,  showing  routes,  currents, 

wind  areas,  etc. 
Map  of  Central  Chile,  showing  resources  and  industries,  on  two  sheets. 

76.  Sheet  1. 

77.  Sheet  2. 

78.  Map  of  Northwestern  South  America,  showing  resources  and  industries. 

79.  Map  of  Japan,  showing  resources  and  industries. 

80.  Map  of  China,  showing  resources  and  industries. 

81.  Map  of  Eastern  Australia,  showing  resources  and  industries. 

82.  Map  of  New  Zealand,  showing  resources  and  industries. 

83.  Map  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  showing  resources  and  industries. 

84.  Map  of  Central  America,  showing  resources  and  industries. 

85.  Map  of  Mexico,  showing  resources  and  industries. 

86.  Map  of  Transportation  Divides. 


AN  ACT  Making  appropriations  for  the    construction,  repair,  and  preservation  of  certain  public 
works  on  rivers  and  harbors,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  Untied  States  of  America 
in  Congress  assembled,  That    *    *    * 

Sec.  3.  That  the  President  of  the  United  States  of  America  he,  and  he  is  herehy, 
authorized  and  empowered  to  make  full  and  complete  investigation  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  with  a  view  to  the  construction  of  a  canal  by  the  United  States  across  the 
same  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans;  that  the  President  is  authorized  to 
make  investigation  of  any  and  all  practicable  routes  for  a  canal  across  said  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  and  particularly  to  investigate  the  two  routes  known  respectively  as 
the  Nicaraguan  route  and  the  Panama  route,  with  a  view  to  determining  the  most 
.  practicable  and  feasible  route  for  such  canal,  together  with  the  proximate  and  prob- 
able cost  of  constructing  a  canal  at  each  of  two  or  more  of  said  routes;  and  the  Presi- 
dent is  further  authorized  to  investigate  and  ascertain  what  rights,  privileges,  and 
franchises,  if  any,  may  be  held  and  owned  by  any  corporations,  associations,  or  indi- 
viduals, and  what  work,  if  any,  has  been  done  by  such  corporations,  associations,  or 
individuals  in  the  construction  of  a  canal  at  either  or  any  of  said  routes,  and  particu- 
larly at  the  so-called  Nicaraguan  and  Panama  routes,  respectively;  and  likewise  to 
ascertain  the  cost  of  purchasing  all  of  the  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises  held  and 
owned  by  any  such  corporations,  associations,  and  individuals  in  any  and  all  of  such 
routes,  particularly  the  said  Nicaraguan  route  and  the  said  Panama  route;  and  like- 
wise to  ascertain  the  probable  or  proximate  cost  of  constructing  a  suitable  harbor  at 
each  of  the  termini  of  said  canal,  with  the  probable  annual  cost  of  maintenance  of 
said  harbors,  respectively;  and  generally  the  President  is  authorized  to  make  such 
full  and  complete  investigation  as  to  determine  the  most  feasible  and  practicable 
route  across  said  isthmus  for  a  canal,  together  with  the  cost  of  constructing  the  same 
and  placing  the  same  under  the  control,  management,  and  ownership  of  the  United 
States. 

Sec.  4.  To  enable  the  President  to  make  the  investigations  and  ascertainments 
herein  provided  for,  he  is  hereby  authorized  to  employ  in  said  service  any  of  the 
engineers  of  the  United  States  Army  at  his  discretion,  and  likewise  to  employ  any 
engineers  in  civil  life,  at  his  discretion,  and  any  other  persons  necessary  to  make  such 
investigation,  and  to  fix  the  compensation  of  any  and  all  of  such  engineers  and  other 
persons. 

Sec  5.  For  the  purpose  of  defraying  the  expenses  necessary  to  be  incurred  in 
making  the  investigations  herein  provided  for,  there  is  hereby  appropriated,  out  of 
any  money  in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  the  sum  of  one  million 
dollars,  or  so  much  thereof  as  may  be  necessary,  to  be  disbursed  by  order  of  the 
President. 

Sec  6.  That  the  President  is  hereby  requested  to  report  to  Congress  the  results  of 
such  investigations,  together  with  his  recommendations  in  the  premises. 

*  *  *  *  -H-  *  * 

Approved,  March  3,  1899. 


Department  of  State, 

Washington.,  June  10,  1899. 
Rear-Admiral  John  G.  Walker,  U.  S.  N.,  retired, 

Member  of  the  Interoceanic  Canal  Commission  appointed  tinder 

sections  3  and  If.  of  the  act  of  Congress  approved  March  3, 

1899. 

Sir:  The  Congress  of  the  United  States  passed  at  its  recent  session, 

and  the   President,  on  the  3d  of  March,  1899,  approved,  "An  act 

making  appropriations  for  the  construction,  repair,  and  preservation 

of  certain  public  works  on  rivers  and  harbors,  and  for  other  purposes," 

the  third,  fourth,  and  sixth  sections  of  which  read  as  follows: 

Sec.  3.  That  the  President  of  the  United  States  of  America  be,  and  he  is  hereby, 
authorized  and  empowered  to  make  full  and  complete  investigation  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  with  a  view  to  the  construction  of  a  canal  by  the  United  States  across  the 
same  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans;  that  the  President  is  authorized  to 
make  investigation  of  any  and  all  practicable  routes  for  a  canal  across  said  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  and  particularly  to  investigate  the  two  routes  known,  respectively,  as  the 
Nicaraguan  route  and  the  Panama  route,  with  a  view  to  determining  the  most  prac- 
ticable and  feasible  route  for  such  canal,  together  with  the  proximate  and  probable 
cost  of  constructing  a  canal  at  each  of  two  or  more  of  said  routes;  and  the  Presi- 
dent is  further  authorized  to  investigate  and  ascertain  what  rights,  privileges,  and 
franchises,  if  any,  may  be  held  and  owned  by  any  corporations,  associations,  or  indi- 
viduals, and  what  work,  if  any,  has  been  done  by  such  corporations,  associations,  or 
individuals  in  the  construction  of  a  canal  at  either  or  any  of  said  routes,  and  particu- 
larly at  the  so-called  Nicaraguan  and  Panama  routes,  respectively;  and  likewise  to 
ascertain  the  cost  of  purchasing  all  of  the  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises  held  and 
owned  by  any  such  corporations,  associations,  and  individuals  in  any  and  all  of  such 
routes,  particularly  the  said  Nicaraguan  route  and  the  said  Panama  route,  and  likewise 
to  ascertain  the  probable  or  proximate  cost  of  constructing  a  suitable  harbor  at  each 
of  the  termini  of  said  canal,  with  the  probable  annual  cost  of  maintenance  of  said 
harbors,  respectively.  And  generally  the  President  is  authorized  to  make  such  full 
and  complete  investigation  as  to  determine  the  most  feasible  and  practicable  route 
across  said  isthmus  for  a  canal,  together  with  the  cost  of  constructing  the  same  and 
placing  the  same  under  the  control,  management,  and  ownership  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  4.  To  enable  the  President  to  make  the  investigations  and  ascertainments 
herein  provided  for,  he  is  hereby  authorized  to  employ  in  said  service  any  of  the 
engineers  of  the  United  States  Army  at  his  discretion,  and  likewise  to  employ  any 
engineers  in  civil  life,  at  his  discretion,  and  any  other  persons  necessary  to  make 
such  investigation,  and  to  fix  the  compensation  of  any  and  all  such  engineers  and 
other  persons. 

Sec.  6.  That  the  President  is  hereby  requested  to  report  to  Congress  the  results  of 
such  investigations,  together  with  his  recommendations  in  the  premises. 

The  President,  in  pursuance  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  has 
appointed  you  one  of  the  members  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 

11 


12  EEPOET    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

provided  for  in  it.  You  will  be  guided  in  the  execution  of  the  trust 
thus  confided  to  you  by  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  Congress  which  I 
have  quoted  above,  and  your  eminence  in  your  profession  is  a  sufficient 
guaranty  of  the  energy  and  ability  which  the  President  is  sure  you 
will  bring  to  the  accomplishment  of  this  task.  At  the  same  time  your 
duties  will  not  be  limited  by  the  terms  of  the  act,  but  if  any  line  of 
inquiry  should  suggest  itself  to  you  in  the  course  of  your  work  as 
being  of  interest  or  benefit,  I  am  confident  }Tou  will  not  fail  to  give  it 
whatever  attention  it  may  seem  to  deserve.  The  President  trusts  that 
the  Commission  will  fulfill  the  important  duties  confided  to  them  in 
such  a  manner  that  when  their  report  is  prepared  it  will  embrace  all 
the  elements  required  for  his  own  guidance  and  for  the  final  action  of 
Congress  upon  the  subject  of  the  location  and  construction  of  the 
interoceanic  canal. 

I  am,  sir,  with  great  respect,  your  obedient  servant, 

John  Hay. 


ORGANIZATION   OF   COMMISSION   BY   COMMITTEES,    THE    PRESIDENT 
BEING  EX  OFFICIO  A  MEMBER  OF  EACH  COMMITTEE. 

For  the  investigation  of  the  Nicaragua  route: 

Mr.  Noble. 

Mr.  Burr. 

Colonel  Hains. 
For  the  investigation  of  the  Panama  route: 

Mr.  Burr. 

Mr.  Morison. 

Lieutenant-Colonel  Ernst. 
For  the  investigation  of  other  possible  routes: 

Mr.  Morison. 

Mr.  Noble. 

Colonel  Hains. 
For  the  investigation  of  the  industrial,  commercial,  and  military  value  of  an  inter- 
oceanic canal: 

Mr.  Johnson. 

Mr.  Haupt. 

Mr.  Pasco. 
For  the  investigation  of  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises: 

Mr.  Pascoe. 

Lieutenant-Colonel  Ernst. 

Mr  Johnson. 


Department  of  State, 

Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 
Washington,  D.  C,  November  16,  1901. 
The  President  of  the  United  States. 

Sir:  The  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  having  completed  the  investi- 
gations with  which  it  was  charged  under  the  act  of  Congress  approved 
March  3,  1899,  and  your  instructions  thereunder,  communicated 
through  the  Secretary  of  State  by  letter  of  June  10,  1899,  has  the 
honor  to  submit  the  following  report: 

Chapter  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 


Organization  of  Com  mis 
slon. 


The  Commission  was  organized  in  the  city  of 
Washington,  with  Rear-Admiral  John  G.  Walker 
as  president,  on  the  15th  day  of  June,  1899,  and 
at  a  subsequent  meeting,  held  on  the  6th  day  of  July,  Lieut.  Commander 
Sidney  A.  Staunton,  of  the  United  States  Navy,  was  chosen  as  secre- 
tary.    It  at  once  entered  upon  its  duties,  taking 
as  a  guide  the   sections  of  the   act  of    Congress 
entitled  "An  act  making  appropriations  for  the  construction,  repair, 
and  preservation  of  certain  public  works  on  rivers  and  harbors,  and 
for  other  purposes,"  approved  March  3, 1899,  under  which  its  members 
were   appointed,  and  also  the  instructions  commu- 

Instructlons.  .  1A  .,. 

nicated  to  them  by  the  Secretary  ot  State  in  his 
letter  of  June  10,  1899. 

The  investigations  and  ascertainments  provided  for  in  the  law 
involved  many  different  lines  of  inquiry,  and  in  order  to  promote  the 
progress  of    the   work  and  procure  the  best  results  it  was  divided 

among  several  committees,  each  of  which  was  to 

Committees.  °  7 

take  the  lead  in  examining  the  particular  subject 
intrusted  to  it;  but  before  entering  upon  its  special  work  each  com- 
mittee was  to  prepare  an  outline  of  its  plan  of  investigation  and  sub- 
mit it  to  the  Commission  for  amendment  or  approval.  The  acts  and 
conclusions  of  these  committees  were  to  be  reported  to  the  Commis- 
sion, subject  to  modification  and  amendment  before  approval  and 
adoption,  so  that  the  final  results  and  determinations  represent  not 
only  the  views  and  opinions  of  the  several  committees,  but  of  the 
entire  Commission. 

13 


14  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The   following   subjects   of  investigation  were 

Subjects  of  Investigation.  .  .        f3  ° 

then  determined  upon,  and  each  was  referred  to  a 
separate  committee,  to  be  designated  accordingly  : 

The  Nicaragua  route. 

The  Panama  route. 

Other  possible  routes. 

The  industrial,  commercial,  and  military  value  of  an  interoceanic 
canal. 

Rights,  privileges,  and  franchises. 

The  president  of  the  Commission  was  made  ex  officio  a  member  of 
each  of  these  committees. 

The  two  canal  routes  to  which  the  attention  of  the  Commission  was 
specially  directed  by  the  law  were  in  Nicaragua 

Appointment    of     chief  j    t»  j  l  •    j»  •  •    j.     i 

engineers.  anc*  "anama)  and  a  chief  engineer  was  appointed 

for  each,  to  make  his  headquarters  in  the  country 
and  take  the  general  control  of  the  field  operations  to  be  inaugurated 
upon  each  line. 

After  considering  the  results  of  surveys  made  in  the  past,  it  was 
judged  best  to  limit  the  explorations  in  the  search  for  other  possible 
routes  to  that  part  of  Colombia  known  as  Darien,  extending  from 
Panama  to  the  Atrato  River,  and  a  third  chief  engineer  was  appointed 
to  direct  the  field  work  there. 

Competent  assistants,  whose  education  and  train- 
an^sTn^^borerL  aSSlSt"  m£  had  fitted  them  f or  the  special  work  to  be  done, 
were  assigned  to  service  under  the  chief  engineers, 
and  laborers,  boatmen,  and  other  workmen  were  emploj^ed  wherever 
their  services  were  required.  In  all  20  working  parties  were  organized 
in  Nicaragua,  with  159  engineers  and  other  assistants  and  155  laborers; 
5  in  Panama,  with  20  engineers  and  other  assistants  and  11  laborers; 
and  6  in  Darien,  with  51  engineers  and  other  assistants  and  112  laborers, 
making  a  total  force  of  about  850,  the  number  varying  from  time  to 
time  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  work. 

The  chief  engineers  were  directed,  with  the  aid 

Directions  for  the  work.  .  .  ; 

of  these  working  parties,  to  examine  the  geog- 
raphy, topography,  hydrology,  and  other  physical  features  of  the  dif- 
ferent countries  and  to  make  a  special  study  of  the  routes  in  Nicaragua 
and  Panama.  The  schemes  already  planned  were  to  be  thoroughly 
tested  and  further  surveys  were  to  be  made,  in  order  to  vary  the  line 
and  select  better  locations  wherever  the  conditions  were  found  to  be 
unsatisfactory.  A  complete  project  was  to  be  prepared  for  each  route 
and  the  center  line  of  a  canal  was  to  be  marked  upon  the  ground  where 
it  had  not  already  been  done.  The  cost  of  a  canal  in  each  country, 
according  to  these  projects,  could  then  be  closely  approximated,  the 
advantages  of  each  be  compared,  and  an  intelligent  conclusion  be 
reached  as  to  which  of  the  two  routes  is  the  more  desirable  from  an 
engineering  standpoint. 


REPORT   OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  15 

This  study  involved  examinations  of  the  terminal  harbors  and 
approaches  and  the  locations  selected  for  dams,  locks,  and  other  aux- 
iliary works ;  a  series  of  borings  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
surface material  at  the  sites  for  locks  and  dams  and  along  the  canal 
lines,  and  a  continuance  of  the  observations  of  rainfall  and  stream 
flow,  and  of  the  lake  fluctuations  in  Nicaragua.  Attention  was  also 
to  be  given  to  the  supply  of  rock,  timber,  and  other  materials  in  each 
country  available  for  purposes  of  construction  and  maintenance. 

The  results  of  these  examinations  and  observations  and  the  data  and 
material  obtained  were  sent  from  time  to  time  to  the  headquarters  of 
the  Commission  at  Washington,  where  they  were  arranged  and  entered 
upon  the  plats  and  profiles  of  the  canals,  under  the  direction  of  the 
committees,  for  examination  and  consideration  in  reaching  their  con- 
clusions and  making  their  recommendations. 

On  the  9th  of  August,  1899,  the  Commission  left 

New  York  for  Paris,  where  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company  opened  to  its  members  its  records,  maps,  plans,  and  profiles, 
and  the  results  of  the  surveys  made  and  the  data  collected  by  it  and 
the  old  Panama  Canal  Company.  Mr.  Maurice  Hutin,  the  director- 
general,  Mr.  L.  Choron,  the  chief  engineer,  and  other  officers  of  the 
company  received  the  commissioners  with  great  courtesy  and  were 
ready  at  all  times  to  assist  them  in  making  a  study  of  this  route  in  all 
its  aspects.  A  special  meeting  of  the  Comite  Technique  was  also 
called  to  give  the  commissioners  such  oral  explanations  as  they  might 
desire,  some  of  its  members  coming  from  distant  parts  of  "Europe  for 
the  purpose. 

While  in  Europe  the  Commission  also  visited  and 
EaTpe'  Tl8ltS  WMle  ,n    examined  the  Kiel  Canal  in  Germany,  the  North 

Sea  Canal  in  Holland,  and  the  Manchester  Canal 
and  Liverpool  docks  in  England  and  returned  to  New  York  on  the 
29th  of  September. 

In   accordance  with    the  plan  of  investigation 
sorthtAm^rica!ntral  ^    determined  upon,  a  visit  was  afterwards  made  by 

the  Commissioners  to  Central  and  South  America. 
The  purposes  of  this  visit  were  to  make  a  personal  inspection  of  the 
entire  canal  lines  in  Nicaragua  and  Panama,  examine  the  work  already 
done  by  the  parties  in  the  field,  give  instructions  as  to  its  continuance, 
familiarize  themselves  with  the  local  surroundings  and  physical  fea- 
tures of  the  sections  in  which  these  routes  are  located,  and  gather  such 
information  as  would  promote  the  object  for  which  the  Commission 
was  organized. 

They  left  New  York  on  the  6th  of  January,  1900, 

for  Greytown,  Nicaragua.  After  spending  a  week 
in  inspecting  the  harbor,  the  coast  line  near  the  eastern  terminus  of 
the  canal,  the  work  commenced  by  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  of 
Nicaragua,  and  the  dredges,  railroad  plant,  and  other  property  it  had 


16  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

left  there,  they  passed  over  the  canal  line  from  the  mouth  of  the  San 
Juan  to  Brito  on  the  Pacific,  stopping  at  the  locations  selected  or 
deemed  suitable  for  dams,  locks,  and  other  auxiliary  works,  and  at 
other  points  where  a  careful  examination  was  desirable,  and  making 
detours  from  the  main  line  when  necessary.  From  Brito  they  returned 
to  the  lake  and  proceeded  to  Managua,  the  capital,  where  they  had 
several  interviews  with  President  Zela}ra,  with  reference  to  the  con- 
struction of  a  navigable  canal  through  Niearaguan 
territory  by  the  United  States.  They  were  cor- 
dially welcomed  by  the  President,  and  he  expressed  himself  favorably 
with  reference  to  the  proposed  maritime  communication.  They  went 
from  Managua  to  Corinto,  and  there  took  a  steamer  for  Panama, 
where  they  arrived  on  the  3d  of  March. 

As  the  disturbed  conditions  in  Colombia  ren- 

■  Panama.  .        .         ,     .  /^l 

dered  it  inadvisable  for  the  Commission  to  at- 
tempt to  meet  the  President  at  Bogota,  the  State  Department,  at  the 
request  of  this  Commission,  communicated  with  the  Colombian  authori- 
ties through  the  United  States  minister  there  and  asked  that  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Government  be  appointed  to  meet  the  commissioners 
when  they  reached  the  country  and  give  them  such  information  and 
assistance  relative  to  their  mission  as  he  conveniently  could.  In  ac- 
cordance with  this  request  Mr.  J.  T.  Ford,  the  consulting  engineer  of 
the  Republic  in  technical  matters  connected  with  the  Panama  Canal, 
was  assigned  to  this  duty.  He  met  them  in  this  official  capacity  on 
their  arrival  at  Panama,  courteousl}r  expressed  an  entire  willingness 
to  aid  them  in  their  investigations,  and  accompanied  them  from  day  to 
day  upon  their  visits  to  different  points  upon  the  canal  line  and  else- 
where during  their  stay  upon  the  isthmus. 

Fifteen  days  were  spent  in  the  department  of  Panama,  during  which 
an  investigation  of  the  route  from  sea  to  sea  was  made,  as  had  been 
done  in  Nicaragua.  The  work  was  greatly  facilitated  by  the  local 
officers  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  who  placed  two  houses  in 
Colon  at  the  service  of  the  commissioners,  furnished  a  special  train 
each  day  to  take  them  from  point  to  point  as  the  work  progressed, 
permitted  them  to  use  their  maps  and  plans,  informed  them  as  to  the 
work  then  going  on,  accompanied  them  in  their  inspection  of  the  line, 
and  exhibited  to  them  the  plant  and  materials  purchased  by  the  old 
canal  company  for  construction  purposes,  much  of  which  was  stored 
in  sheds  and  warehouses  at  different  points  on  the  isthmus.  During 
this  period  the  commissioners  went  over  the  entire  line  of  the*  canal 
from  Colon  to  Panama,  and  examined  the  sites  for  the  differentiauxil- 
iary  works.  This  included  a  trip  to  the  upper  waters  of  the  Chagres, 
in  the  Alhajuela  region,  and  they  returned  in  boats,  so  as  to  have  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  the  river. 

The  Commission  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Louis  Royer,  director  on  the 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  17 

isthmus  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  and  to  Col.  J.  R.  Shaler, 
superintendent  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  for  courteous 
attentions. 

On  the  16th  of  March  Mr.  George  S.  Morison 

Visit  of  Mr.  Morison  to      ir-i.ii.  j.u       tt     o     o      o  • 

DarlolK  left  the  party  on  the  U.  S.  b.  Scorpion  to  ascer- 

tain the  progress  of  the  explorations  in  Darien, 
with  full  authority  to  give  instructions  as  to  the  continuance  of  the 
work  according  to  the  conditions  which  he  might  find  upon  reaching 
the  camps  of  the  different  working  parties.     The 

The  Scorpion.  .         i       i     ,  •  i    ,  ,       -Tt  -tv 

scorpion  had  been  assigned  by  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment to  aid  in  the  search  for  other  possible  routes  in  Darien,  and  was 
commanded  h\  Lieut.  Commander  Nathan  Sargent,  United  States 
Navy,  who  rendered  valuable  assistance  in  the  explorations  made  in 
that  section,  and  met  the  responsibilities  which  rested  upon  him  credita- 
bly and  successfully. 

From  Colon  the  majority  of  the  commissioners 

Costa  tilca. 

went  to  Limon,  in  Costa  Rica.     Here  a  special 

San  Jose.  .  .  *■ 

train  was  placed  at  their  disposal  to  convey  them 
to  San  Jose,  the  capital.  During  the  week  that  they  spent  in  this  city 
they  conferred  freety  with  President  Iglesias  upon  the  subject  of  an 
interoceanic  canal  and  the  use  of  the  territory  of  the  Republic,  as 
far  as  necessary,  in  case  the  United  States  should  desire  to  use  the 
Nicaragua  route.  The  President  manifested  a  deep  interest  in  the 
canal  project  and  expressed  the  hope  that  it  would  be  successfully 
accomplished. 

In  the  absence  of  Mr.  William  L.  Merry,  envoy  extraordinary  and 
minister  plenipotentiary,  accredited  to  Nicaragua  as  well  as  to  Costa 
Rica,  the  Commission  was  greatly  aided  in  accomplishing  the  purposes 
of  its  visits  at  San  Jose  b}^  Mr.  Ruf  us  A.  Lane,  secretary  of  legation  and 
charge  d'affaires,  and  at  Managua  by  Mr.  Chester  Donaldson,  United 
States  consul.  The  members  of  the  Commission  are  also  indebted  to 
these  gentlemen  for  many  personal  courtesies  which  were  highly 
appreciated. 

After  returning  to  the  United  States,  the  Com- 

Dlraenslons  and  unit  prices.        .  ° 

mission  took  up  for  consideration  certain  ques- 
tions relating  to  canal  construction,  which  had  to  be  determined  before 
completing  the  projects,  preparing  the  plans,  and  making  the  calcula- 
tions and  estimates  for  the  principal  work  at  each  route  and  its  auxil- 
iaries. The  most  important  of  these  were  the  dimensions  of  such  a 
canal  as  was  contemplated,  its  locks  and  other  works,  the  best  method 
of  constructing  the  dams  and  the  materials  to  be  used,  and  the  unit 
prices  of  work  and  materials.  The  settlement  of  these  questions 
required  a  knowledge  not  only  of  vessels  then  in  use  but  of  those 
which  were  being  constructed  and  planned,  so  as  to  form  a  correct 
judgment  as  to  what  the  shipping  interests  will  demand  by  the  time 

S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 2 


18  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

a  canal  can  be  completed;  also  the  cost  of  excavating  and  removing 
vast  quantities  of  earth  and  rock,  at  different  depths  and  under  differ- 
ent conditions,  by  using  the  most  satisfactory  methods  and  the  latest 
improvements  and  inventions  in  machinery.  The  conclusions  reached 
were  used  in  making  the  subsequent  plans,  computations,  and  estimates. 
Besides  these  questions  of  a  preliminary  char- 
ered  '"  qUeS  10nS  CM1S  "  a°ter,  which  related  to  the  engineering  features  of 
the  canals,  there  were  others  which  had  to  be  con- 
sidered. Among  them  were  the  treaty  relations  which  the  Republics, 
within  whose  boundaries  these  canal  routes  are  situated,  hold  toward 
the  United  States  and  other  powers;  the  grants  and  concessions  made 
by  them  to  corporations,  associations,  and  individuals,  and  the  cost  of 
purchasing  those  still  in  force;  the  industrial  and  military  value  of  an 
interoceanic  canal;  the  cost  of  operation  and  maintenance  at  each 
route;  also  the  liability  of  seismic  and  other  disturbances  in  the  isth- 
mian country  and  their  probable  effect  upon  a  canal  and  its  auxiliaiy 
works  when  completed  and  in  operation. 

A  second  visit  was  made  to  Nicaragua  by  Mr. 

su-arag™.  *""  N°M'  *°    Alfred  Noble  to  make  some  special  examinations, 

inspect  the  work  of  the  parties  in  the  field,  and 

give  them  such  further  information  as  he  deemed  proper.     He  left  New 

York  February  16,  1901,  and  returned  March  26. 

The  different  working  parties  were  disbanded  as  they  finished  their 
work,  the  laborers  were  at  once  discharged,  and  the  engineers  and 
other  assistants  were  brought  back  to  the  United  States,  where  some 
of  them  have  since  been  employed  in  office  work  in  Washington 
under  the  direction  of  the  Commission.  The  field  work  was  not  com- 
pleted till  June,  1901,  when  the  last  detachment  of  assistants  returned 
from  Nicaragua. 

The  results  of  all  these  investigations  and  the 
final  conclusions  of  the  Commission  are  embraced 
in  different  chapters  of  this  report.     In  order  that  these  chapters  may 
not  be  incumbered  with  matter  which  is  useful  mainly  for  reference, 
verification,  and  special  study,  many  of  the  papers,  documents,  treaties, 
concessions,  grants,  special  reports,  and  discussions  mentioned  in  the 
text  are  attached  as  appendixes  and  are  appro- 
priately designated  so  that  eas}T  reference  may  be 
made  to  them  when  their  examination  is  desired. 
_     ,  ,  .  .  In  order  to  present  a  fuller  view  of  the  indus- 

Spcrlal  report  on  Indus-  r 

trial  and  commercial  value  trial  and  commercial  value  of  an  isthmian  canal 
than  could  be  conveniently  done  within  the  limits 
of  the  report  of  the  Commission,  Prof.  Emory  R.  Johnson,  a  member 
of  the  Commission,  whose  previous  studies  had  qualified  him  to  deal 
with  these  questions,  was  requested  to  make  a  thorough  investigation 
of  this  subject  and  present  the  results  in  a  special  report.     This  has 


REPORT    OB"    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  19 

been  done,  and  it  i.s  submitted  in  connection  with  this  report,  accom- 
panied by  appropriate  charts  and  diagrams. 

The  report  is  also  accompanied  by  maps  of  the 

canal  routes  and  the  countries  where  they  are  loca- 
ted, charts  of  the  terminal  harbors,  plans  and  profiles  of  the  projects, 
sketches  and  views  taken  at  different  points  along  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  canal  lines,  and  diagrams  and  other  representations  for  purposes 
of  description  and  explanation. 

A  chapter  has  also  been  included,  giving  a  his- 

tory  of  the  early  efforts  to  find  a  waterway  to  the 
Orient,  of  the  transit  routes  used  and  established  across  the  American 
isthmus,  when  no  strait  could  be  found  there  connecting  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans,  and  of  the  different  plans  for  establishing  an  arti- 
ficial maritime  communication. 

The  explorations  and  researches  of  the  past  have  developed  the 
projects  which  now  exist,  and  it  is  believed  that  this  account  will  add 
to  the  value  and  completeness  of  the  report  and  be  in  harmony  with 
the  purposes  of  the  investigation. 


Chapter  II. 

HISTORY   OF   INTEROCEANIC   PROJECTS  AND   COMMUNICATIONS. 

During  the  fifteenth  century  the  subject  of  a  maritime  communica- 
tion with  the  countries  and  people  in  the  far  East  engaged  the  earnest 
attention  of  many  enterprising  and  thoughtful  men  in  the  European 
States  bordering  upon  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
in  the  belief  and  expectation  that  a  more  direct  route  to  those  distant 
lands  would  result  in  greatly  increasing  the  interchange  of  produc- 
tions which  had  for  many  centuries  contributed  to  the  wealth  of  the 
Western  nations,  notwithstanding  the  difficulties  and  disadvantages 
under  which  commercial  intercourse  had  been  maintained. 

During  this  period  the  art  of  navigation  was  largely  and  contin- 
uously developed,  the  mariner's  compass  was  evolved  from  the  electric 
needle,  the  properties  of  which  had  long  been  known,  rough  instru- 
ments were  devised  for  ascertaining  and  determining  the  position  of 
vessels  upon  the  great  deep,  and  the  mariner  began  to  venture  beyond 
the  sight  of  familiar  landmarks;  the  Portuguese  resolutely  pushed 
forward  their  explorations  southward  along  and  near  the  west  side  of 
Africa,  new  capes  and  headlands  and  river  mouths  were  passed,  and 
islands  and  groups  of  islands  distant  from  the  coast  line  were  discov- 
ered, some  by  those  who  were  driven  from  their  course,  others  by  the 
more  daring  who  steered  from  the  land  and  risked  for  a  while  the 
dangers  of  the  open  sea.  The  diffusion  of  the  geographic  knowledge 
thus  gained  and  the  constant  improvement  in  nautical  appliances  and 
charts  inspired  increased  confidence  in  the  theory  of  the  maritime 
communication  and  its  ultimate  discovery,  and,  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  century,  brave  navigators  and  seamen  voluntarily  entered  upon 
long  vo}7ages,  through  untried  seas,  in  search  of  new  pathways,  east- 
ward and  westward,  to  India,  China,  and  the  spice  islands,  under  the 
patronage  of  enlightened  monarchs,  who,  in  addition  to  their  desire  to 
advance  the  commercial  interests  of  their  people,  hoped  and  expected 
that  new  possessions,  abounding  in  wealth,  would  be  added  to  their 
dominions. 

It  is  claimed  that  Africa  had  been  circumnavigated  and  was  known 

to  be  a  great  peninsula  many  centuries   before   the   Christian   era. 

Herodotus  states  that  Pharaoh  Necho,  who  reigned  in  Egypt  from  016 

to  600  B.  C. ,  sent  out  an  expedition  from  the  Red 

Early  voyages.  .  J  ,  -  ,      . 

Sea  to  explore  its  coast,  which  passed  around  the 
continent,  sailed  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  in  the  third  year 
20 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  21 

returned  to  Egypt  by  the  Mediterranean.  But  the  evidence  upon 
which  this  and  other  early  voyages  rest  is  scarcely  more  than  tradi- 
tional and  they  left  no  permanent  impressions  and  were  followed  by  no 
practical  results. 

But  if  there  was  a  sea  route  to  India  eastward  it  was  surely  in  this 

direction,  and  the  Portuguese  had  been  persistent 
JSS^SS^ST    in   theil\  efforts  to  discover  it.      By  1486  their 

explorations  along  the  west  coast  of  Africa  had 
extended  to  about  the  twentieth  degree  of  south  latitude.  In  1487 
an  expedition  was  sent  out  by  John  II,  under  the  command  of  Bar- 
tholemew  Dias,  to  continue  the  explorations  until  the  southern  point 
of  the  continent  should  be  reached.  Near  Cape  Voltas,  on  the  south- 
ern bank  of  Orange  River,  he  met  tempestuous  weather  and  was 
driven  far  below  the  cape  of  which  he  was  in  search  without  seeing  it. 
When  he  regained  the  land  he  advanced  easterly  as  far  as  a  point  he 
named  Santa  Cruz,  near  Algoa  Bay,  where  he  raised  a  stone  cross,  as 
had  been  done  at  other  points  along  the  coast,  in  proof  of  the  fact 
that  he  claimed  the  country  for  his  king.  The  cape  was  not  seen  till 
he  sailed  homeward,  and  in  memory  of  the  trying  circumstances  under 
which  he  had  gone  by  it  on  the  outward  voyage  he  named  it  the 

Stormy  Cape,  but  King  John,  in  full  belief  that 

Cape  of  (lood  Hope  (lis-       ,i  ,  .-,         -17,  -,.  .     -, 

coyeJ.ed  the  gateway  to  the  East  was  now  open,  directed 

that  it  should  be  called  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Notwithstanding  the  general  rejoicing  over  the  successful  voyage 
nade  by  Dias,  this  hope  was  not  realized  till  eleven  years  later.     Vari- 
ous causes  delayed  the  sending  out  of  another  expedition,  but  at  length 
Vasco  de  Gama  sailed  with  four  vessels  to  follow 
Atrill  to  incmT    At0Um     UP  ^e  results  already  obtained  and,  if  practi- 
cable, to  proceed   to  the  eastern  countries.     He 
left  Lisbon  July  8,  1497,  passed  safely  around  the  southernmost  point 
of  Africa,  crossed  the  Indian  Ocean,  touching  at  various  points  on  his 
way,  and  on  the  17th  of  May,  1498,  sighted  the  high  land  on  the  coast 
of  India.     Three  days  later  he  anchored  his  fleet  before  Calicut  on  the 
Malibar  coast.     After  an  eventful  voyage  he  returned  to  Portugal 
in  August  or  September,  1499,  and  was  received  with  distinguished 
honors  and  magnificent  displays.     Two  of  his  vessels  and  more  than 
half  of  his  men  had  been  lost,  but  the  great  problem  of  opening  a 
maritime  communication  with  the  eastern  countries  had  been  solved 
and  the  most  sanguine  expectations  that  had  been  indulged  in  were 
more  than  realized. 

Portugal  improved  the  opportunities  which  this 

Results  of  maritime  com-  ,    j.  ■.  .,  ,... 

munication  with  orient.      great  discovery  opened;   other  expeditions  were 

sent  by  this  new  route  to  the  Orient;  every  sea 

was  entered  and  every  coast  explored;  she  planted  her  colonies  and 

trading  stations  wherever  desirable  locations  were  found;  her  arms 


22  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

were  everywhere  triumphant;  her  ship*  opened  and  maintained  a 
lucrative  commerce  with  India,  China,  and  the  Spice  Islands.  This 
commerce  stimulated  her  home  industries  and  brought  vast  wealth  to 
the  Kingdom,  and  for  nearly  half  a  century  she  enjoyed  wonderful 
prosperity  and  power  and  held  a  foremost  place  among  the  nations  of 
Europe. 

But  before  the  discovery  of  the  eastern  commu- 
nication had  been  completed  the  studies  of  Colum- 
bus had  convinced  him  that  the  same  countries  could  be  more  speedily 
reached  by  sailing  westward.  He  had  no  correct  idea  of  the  size  of 
the  world  nor  of  the  distance  from  Europe  to  the  Asiatic  coast  and  the 
neighboring  islands,  but  supposed  that  it  was  several  thousand  miles 
less  than  it  afterwards  proved  to  be.  He  reached  this  conclusion  from 
the  delineations  upon  the  rude  maps  of  the  world  then  in  existence, 
based  upon  actual  geographic  knowledge  when  it  was  available,  and 
when  it  was  wanting  upon  hearsay  and  imagination  and  conjecture. 

When  he  embarked,  under  the  auspices  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
at  Palos  on  the  3d  day  of  August,  1492,  upon  the  voyage  which  resulted 
in  the  discovery  of  America,  it  was  with  the  confident  expectation  that 
a  favorable  result  would  carry  him  to  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Old 
World  or  to  some  island  in  those  regions  which  might  lie  across  the 
track  of  his  vessels.  He  was  therefore  not  disappointed  when  he  dis- 
covered island  after  island  but  not  the  mainland,  and  be  believed  that 
by  sailing  beyond  these  the  continent  could  be  found.  When  upon 
his  second  voyage  he  passed  along  the  southern  coast  of  Cuba,  in  1494, 
he  announced  that  it  was  some  part  of  the  Old  World  far  remote  from 
Europe,  and  his  officers  and  crew  joined  in  certifying  their  belief  in 
this  opinion.  When  he  felt  obliged  to  turn  back,  he  still  believed  that 
if  he  could  continue  his  voyage  in  the  same  direction  some  port  would 
in  the  end  be  reached  whence  he  could  communicate  with  the  Grand 
Khan  of  Tartary,  to  whom  Ferdinand  had  given  him  letters.  On  his 
third  voyage,  in  1498,  he  discovered  South  America,  near  the  delta  of 
the  Orinoco.  He  named  it  Tierra  Firma  and  regarded  it  as  another  part 
of  the  Asiatic  continent.  When  he  left  Spain  in  1502,  on  his  fourth 
and  last  voyage,  his  intention  was  to  go  still  farther  westward  and 
endeavor  to  find  a  strait  that  would  lead  to  India.  He  would  thus  com- 
plete his  great  discovery  and  demonstrate  the  correctness  of  the  theo- 
ries upon  which  his  expeditions  had  been  undertaken.  He  reached 
Honduras  and  followed  the  coast  line  to  Darien,  but  long-continued 
and  severe  storms,  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  Indians,  and  the  dis- 
couragement of  his  followers  interfered  with  his  plans  and  progress, 
and  with  sorrow  and  regret  he  turned  toward  Hispaniola  with  his 
shattered  ships  before  he  had  accomplished  the  long-hoped-for  result, 
in  which,  however,  his  faith  had  not  abated.  When  he  died,  on  the 
26th  day  of  May,  1506,  he  was  still  fully  satisfied  that  his  discoveries 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  23 

were  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Old  World  and  never  fully  realized  the 
extent  and  grandeur  of  his  achievements. 

The  success  of  these  voyages  aroused  the  activ- 

Other  expeditions  west-       «x  »       ji  ••  j    t^        1         i       m  j 

ward  tor  discovery.  ]ty  oi  other  nations,  and  England,  b  ranee,  and 

Portugal  vied  with  Spain  in  this  field  of  enter- 
prise and  adventure.  Each  expedition  returned  with  reports  of 
additional  discoveries,  northward  and  southward,  from  Labrador  to 
Brazil,  but  no  strait  was  found  which  opened  a  wa}r  to  the  Asiatic 
coast,  and  it  began  to  be  realized  that  these  newly  found  islands  and 
countries  did  not  belong  to  the  Eastern  continent,  but  that  a  new 
world  had  been  discovered. 

Strong   confirmatory  proof  in    support  of  this 

Balboa  discovers  the  Pa-  •  j*       j     i     •       o  i  -<  k-i  r.     1        tr 

clfl(,  view  was  afforded  in  September,  1513,  by  Vasco 

Nunez  de  Balboa,  then  governor  of  a  province  in 
Darien  known  as  Castilla  del  Oro.  The  Indians  had  told  him  of  a 
great  sea  beyond  the  mountains,  and  he  determined  to  organize  an 
expedition  and  go  in  search  of  it.  He  crossed  from  Santa  Maria  de 
la  Antigua,  the  capital  of  his  province,  a  city  founded  in  1509  or  1510, 
near  the  Atrato  River,  to  a  point  near  Caledonia  Bay,  where  Acla  was 
afterwards  built;  thence  he  proceeded  with  a  considerable  force  of 
Spaniards  and  Indians  across  the  divide,  and  on  the  25th  day  of  the 
month  reached  a  high  ridge  above  the  gulf  which  he  named  San  Mi- 
guel. Advancing  beyond  his  companions  to  a  favorable  elevation,  he 
was  the  first  European  to  behold  the  great  ocean  to  the  south,  which 
he  called  the  South  Sea,  from  the  direction  in  which  he  viewed  it. 
The  march  was  continued  to  the  coast,  and  four  days  later  he  entered 
the  sea  and  with  great  ceremony  claimed  it  by  the  right  of  discovery 
for  his  royal  master,  the  King  of  Spain. 

Before  the  news  of  this  great  achievement  reached  the  King,  Balboa 

had  been  superseded  as  .governor,  through  the  efforts  of  his  enemies, 

by  Pedro  Arias  de  Avila,  better  known  as  Pedrarias.     This  was  a 

bitter  disappointment  to  him,  for  the  Indians  had 

Balboa  hears  from    In-      j.    i  i     u  •  i_  i-  ij.i-.li  ji  •    l. 

dians  of  gold  southward.  told  him  when  he  crossed  the  isthmus  of  a  rich 
country  to  the  south,  abounding  in  the  precious 
metals,  and  he  had  planned  the  construction  of  a  fleet  to  navigate  the 
new  sea,  confident  of  his  abilit}7  to  discover  this  country  and  make  him- 
self master  of  its  wealth.  The  accomplishment  of  these  results  twenty 
years  later  by  Pizarro,  who  was  with  Balboa  upon  his  famous  expedi- 
tion, shows  that  his  plans  and  expectations  were  not  unreasonable. 

When  Ferdinand  received  the  report  that  a  great 

Plans  expedition  south-  i  ii-  •  ■       ,i  iiii 

ward  for  gold.  sea>  beyond  his  possessions  in  the  new  world,  had 

been  added  to  his  empire  he  desired  to  recognize 
the  importance  of  the  event  by  bestowing  suitable  honors  upon  the  dis- 
coverer, but  was  not  willing  to  restore  him  to  the  governorship.  The 
reward  came  in  1515,  when  Balboa  was  appointed  adelantado  of  the 


24  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Southern  Sea  and  captain-general,  but  these  distinction  were  to  be 
enjoyed  under  the  supervision  of  Pedrarias  as  his  superior.  In  the 
following  year  the  adelantado  obtained  the  consent  of  the  governor 
to  enter  upon  the  long  desired  voyage  and  he  established  his  head- 
quarters on  the  north  side  of  Caledonia  Bay,  at  his  former  starting 
point,  where  he  laid  out  the  town  of  Acla.  The  expedition  required 
ships  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  isthmus  and  he  undertook  their  con- 
struction. 

Suitable  trees  were  abundant  only  on  the  Atlantic  side,  and  he  con- 
ceived the  project  of  preparing  all  his  materials  there  and  transport- 
ing them  over  the  mountain  range  on  the  backs 

-ESSSE?  ""  "*  !»>>»«.  '<>  b<=  P"t  together  at  some  navigable 
point  on  one  of  the  streams  flowing  into  the 
waters  of  the  South  Sea.  The  place  selected  was  on  a  river,  then 
called  Rio  de  las  Balsas,  or  River  of  the  Rafts,  probably  the  same  as 
the  Savana,  though  the  authorities  are  not  agreed.  Thousands  of 
Indians  were  brought  together  from  all  directions,  materials  for  four 
brigantines  were  prepared,  and  the  work  was  carried  forward  under 
merciless  taskmasters,  Spaniards  and  negroes.  When  the  builders 
began  to  put  the  timbers  together,  many  of  them  were  found  to  be 
worm-eaten,  and  a  new  lot  had  to  be  prepared;  then  a  tempest  arose, 
and  the  deluging  rains  swept  away  the  materials  and  buried  them  with 
mud  in  the  swamps  and  low  grounds.  Balboa  with  unshaken  resolu- 
tion sent  out  the  woodcutters  again,  and  dispatched  parties  for  fresh 
supplies  of  provisions,  and  others  to  forage  on  the  natives  to  satisfy 
the  immediate  wants  of  his  force. 

For  months  the  Indians  continued  their  unac- 
^toii  and  suffering  of  m-    customed  toilj  through  swamps,  across  streams, 

over  mountain  heights,  ill  fed,  under  a  tropical 
sun,  and  if  made  desperate  by  their  hardships  and  sufferings  any  tried 
to  escape  bloodhounds  were  put  on  their  tracks. 

Bishop  Quevado  testified  before  the  Spanish  court  that  500  poor 

wretches  perished  in  this  work,  while  Las  Casas 

Transit  of  Isthmus.  111  n,  Ann  •  i_  T">     i. 

says  the  deaths  were  nearer  2,000  in  number.  But 
the  undertaking  was  accomplished,  the  four  brigantines,  in  separate 
pieces,  were  carried  from  sea  to  sea,  put  together  on  the  Balsas,  and 
Balboa  selected  Isla  Rica,  the  largest  of  the  Pearl  Islands,  as  his  ren- 
dezvous, and  frequent  journeys  were  made  thither  from  Acla  in  con- 
nection with  the  arrangements  for  the  expedition.  A  short  trip  was 
made  to  the  eastward  and  the  little  fleet  returned  to  Isla  Rica  ready 
for  the  southern  voyage;  but  before  he  set  out  Balboa  was  summoned 

by  Pedrarias  to   Acla,  charged  with  treasonable 

Execution  of  Balboa.  ^  ,        .,  ,.         «  „         ,     .    , 

conduct,  and,  after  the  form  ot  a  trial,  was  con- 
demned and  beheaded  in  the  latter  part  of  1517.  Thus  closed  the. 
career  of  the  brave  and  unfortunate  man  who  first  marked  out  a  line 
of  transit  across  the  isthmus  and  demonstrated  its  practicability. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  25 

Meanwhile  the  search  for  a  westward   waterway  t<>  the  eastern  side 

of  the  old  continent  had  been  continued,  and  after    many  fruitless 

efforts  its  existence  was  finally  demonstrated  by 

Voyage  of  Magellan.  ,  ■  ^ 

b  erdinand  Magellan,  twenty  years  alter  the  famous 
voyage  of  Vasco  de  Gama  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  India, 
and  the  result  was  accomplished,  as  in  the  case  of  the  eastern  passage, 
by  sailing  around  the  southern  point  of  the  continent  and  not  by  a 
strait  connecting  the  two  oceans  farther  north. 

Magellan  was  a  Portuguese  navigator  in  the  service  of  Charles  V, 
the  successor  of  Ferdinand  upon  the  Spanish  throne.  He  set  sail  from 
San  Lucar  de  Barrameda  on  the  20th  of  September,  1519,  with  five 

ships,  reached  the  mouth  of  the  La  Plata,   sailed 

Discovers  strait.  i         i  i  .    -r.  -it 

southerly  along  the  coast  of  Patagonia,  and  dis- 
covered the  strait  which  still  bears  his  name,  which  separates  the 
island  of  Terra  del  Fuego  from  the  mainland.  He  supposed  this  island 
belonged  to  a  southern  continent,  and  this  view  prevailed  until  1616, 
when  two  Dutch  navigators,  Van  Schouten  and  Le  Maire,  found 
the  passage  around  Cape  Horn.  Magellan  successfully  worked  his  way 
through  the  strait  and  on  the  28th  of  November,  1520,  found  the  great 
sea  beyond,  which  he  named  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  account  of  the  fine 
weather  which  he  experienced  there.  His  crews  were  discouraged  and 
mutinous  and  his  provisions  ran  short,  but  with  undaunted  resolution 
he  continued  his  voyage  toward  the  Asiatic  coast,  making  additional 
discoveries  on  his  way,  until  he  reached  the  Philippine  Islands.  There, 
on  the  island  of  Matan,  near  Zebu,  he  lost  his  life  in  an  encounter  with 
the  natives  on  the  27th  of  April,  1521.  One  vessel  had  been  wrecked 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  Patagonia,  another  deserted  the  expedition  and 
sailed  homeward  after  the  western  opening  of  the  strait  had  been  dis- 
covered but  before  its  passage,  arid  a  third  became  unseaworthy  and  was 
burned  at  the  Moluccas.  The  two  remaining  separated  after  the  death  of 
Magellan.  The  Trinidad  sailed  for  Panama  and  the  Victory  returned 
homeward  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  reached  San  Lucar,  the 
port  from  which  the  expedition  had  started  three  years  before,  on  the  6th 
of  September,  1522,  under  the  command  of  John  Sebastian  del  Cano, 
having  on  board  only  18  of  the  265  persons  who  had  embarked  with 
Magellan.  Espinosa,  captain  of  the  Trinidad,  and  three  of  his  men 
returned  to  Spain  five  years  later  in  a  Portuguese  vessel.  The  voy- 
age to  Panama  had  been  abandoned  in  consequence  of  continued 
storms,  and  the  Trinidad  returned  to  the  Moluccas  and  was  seized  by 
the  Portuguese.  It  finally  reached  Ternate,  a  small  island  of  this 
group,  where  it  went  ashore  in  a  squall  and  went  to  pieces.     For  the 

first   time   a   continuous  voyage   had   been  made 

World  oircumnavierated.  -  ..  , 

around  toe  world,  and  a  new  maritime  route  had 
been  found  to  the  $x£  etisie'-ri  countries  a»id  islands  in  both  direc- 
tions, but  this  western  passage  did  not  reduce  the"  dhs'tsnce  nor  satisfy 


26  REPOKT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  wishes  of  those  who  sought  a  direct  way  thither  by  the  discovery 
of  a  connecting  strait  along  the  coast  line  of  the  new  continent. 

Though  all  previous  attempts  had  been  baffled,  the  belief  in  the  exist- 
ence of  such  a  strait  was  not  entirely  abandoned,  and  efforts  to  discover 
it  were  still  prosecuted,  but  they  were  mainly  confined  to  the  isthmian 
section,  from  Mexico  to  Darien,  where  it  had  been  developed  that  the 
two  oceans  were  least  widely  separated. 

After  Charles  V  came  to  the  throne  of  Spain  in 
thanes t  is  interested  in    151g  he  took  great  interest  in  the  exploration  of 

discovery  of    interoceanic        irijiniji-i-  <• 

communication.  the  South  Sea  and  the  discovery  ot  a  connecting 

strait.  He  charged  the  governors  of  his  American 
provinces  to  have  the  entire  coast  line  thoroughly  examined  and  every 
bay  and  river  mouth  that  offered  a  possible  solution  of  the  problem 
was  entered  and  explored.  In  1523  the  Emperor  wrote  from  Valladolid 
to  Cortes  to  make  careful  search  for  the  passage  which  would  connect 
the  eastern  and  western  shores  of  the  New  World  and  shorten  by  two- 
thirds  the  route  from  Cadiz  to  Cathay.  Cortes,  in  replying,  assured 
him  that  his  wishes  would  be  diligently  carried  out,  and  that  he  had 
great  hopes  of  success,  adding  that  such  a  discovery  "would  render  the 
King  of  Spain  master  of  so  many  kingdoms  that  he  might  call  himself 
lord  of  the  world." 

It  was  in  accordance  with  this  policy  that  Gil 

^Gll  Gonzales  sent  to  Fa-      Gonzales    de    Ayila    wag    sent    Qut   from    Spain    to 

succeed  Balboa,  with  instructions  to  search  along 
the  coast  of  the  South  Sea  for  the  western  opening  of  a  strait  con- 
necting with  the  Atlantic.  He  had  authority  to  use  the  vessels  that 
Balboa  had  constructed,  but  Pedrarias  refused  to  deliver  them  to  him, 
and  in  order  to  carry  out  the  royal  commands  he  took  to  pieces  the 

two  caravels  in  which  he  and  his  followers  crossed 
tZZSZSZT*    the  ocean,  transported  them  across  the  isthmus 

along  the  route  used  by  Balboa,  and  rebuilt  them 
at  the  Balsas  on  the  Pacific  side.  These  were  lost,  and  he  constructed 
others  with  which  he  sailed  northward  along  the  coast  from  the  Bay  of 
Panama  in  January,  1522,  until  they  were  found  to  be  unseaworthy. 
They  were  repaired  and  the  exploration  was  continued  to  the  Bay  of 
Fonseca,  but  Gil  Gonzales  proceeded  by  land  with  4  horses  and  100 

men  and   discovered  Lake   Nicaragua,  which   he 

^Discovers    Lake    Mcar-      ^  ^^  Nicara()j  &   cMef  whom   he    met   ftt   or 

near  the  present  site  of  Rivas  and  from  whom  he 
at  first  received  kind  treatment.  He  found  the  country  rich  in  gold, 
and  took  formal  possession  of  it  for  his  sovereign.  Afterwards, 
encountering  serious  opposition  from  the  Indians,  he  retreated  to  the 
coast  and  was  so  fortunate  as  to  meet  tjbe.  vessels  on  their  return  voy- 
age after  an  unsuccessful  search  for  the  strait,  When  they  reached 
Panama  the  news  soon  spread  that  a  great  inland  sea  had  been  dis- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  27 

covered  only  a  few  leagues  from  the  Pacific.     Pcdrarias  claimed  that 
it  was  within  the  limits  of  his  jurisdiction  and  at  once  undertook  its 
conquest.     He  established  a  city  at  Granada,  near 
Ufc^icuwra^11        '"    tne  shore  °f   the   lake,  and  reduced  the  Indians 
to    subjection.     It    was    at    first    reported    that 
there  was  an  opening  from  the  lake   to  the  South  Sea,  but  a  care- 
ful examination  of  the  surrounding-  country  failed  to   develop  such 
a  connecting  channel.      Among  the  early  settlers  was  Capt.   Diego 
Machaca-s     expedition    Machuca,    who,   in    1529,  undertook   a   thorough 
from  Lake  Mraniurua  down    exploration  of  Lake  Nicaragua  and  its  eastern  out- 
let.    A  felucca  and  brigantine  were  constructed  on 
its  shores  and  were  placed  under  his  command  with  200  men  and  some 
canoes.     His  land  force  kept  within  reach  of  his  flotilla  and  he  entered 
the  Desaguadero  River,  now  the   San  Juan,  and  attempted  its  pas- 
sage.    He  found  the  navigation  difficult  in  places 

Rapids  in  the  San  Juan.  &  fe  .  »     , 

because  of  the  rapids,  and  those  in  one  part  of  the 
river  still  bear  his  name.  Overcoming  all  difficulties,  he  reached  the 
Atlantic,  but  was  uncertain  as  to  the  locality,  and  kept  along  the  coast 
with  his  vessels  in  a  southeasterly  direction  till  he  reached  the  Spanish 
settlement  at  Nombre  de  Dios.  At  a  later  period  sea  vessels  passed 
regularly  up  and  down  the  river,  making  voyages  between  Granada 
and  Spain,  Cuba  and  South  America.  This  commerce  was  maintained 
as  late  as  1637,  according  to  Thomas  Gage,  an  English  monk,  who 
visited  Nicaragua  in  that  year,  but  there  were  delays  and  difficulties 
in  passing  the  rapids. 

While  efforts  were  being  made  to  find  a  maritime  channel  between 
the  two  oceans  which  washed  the  shores  of  the  Spanish  provinces  in 
the  new  world,  the  importance  of  a  permanent  communication  across 
the  isthmus  by  land  was  not  overlooked.     Soon 
isthmus.      P°Stb   a°r0SS    a^er  the  discovery  by  Balboa,  Ferdinand  ordered 
that  a  line  of  posts  be  established  from  sea  to  sea, 
and  the  plan  was  carried  out  by  his  successor.     Acla  was  first  selected 
as  the  Atlantic  terminus,  but  it  was  afterwards  determined  that  it 
was  too  far  to  the  east,  and  in  1519  Nombre  de  Dios  was  founded  and 
the  Atlantic  port  was  there  established.     After  an  examination  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  the   site  of   old  Panama  was  fixed  upon  as  a  suitable 
place  to  establish  a  city  upon  the  western  side  of  the  isthmus.     A  set- 
tlement was  commenced  there  in  August,  1517,  and 

Panama  founded.  ,  °         '  1 

in  September,  1521,  it  was  made  a  city  by  royal 
decree,  with  special  privileges  and  a  coat  of  arms.     It  became  the 
Pacific  terminus  of  the  line  of  posts,  and  a  road  was  at  once  con- 
structed   between    the    two  cities,   crossing  the 

Construction    of    road      r^-i  .     ^  rnl  .  -,  .     ,,  . 

across  isthmus.  Cnagres  at  Cruces.     This  road  was  cut  through 

the  forests,  the  trees  often  being  used  to  make  the 

swamps  passable;  bridges  were  laid  across  the  streams,  and  rocks  were 


28  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

removed  from  their  beds  to  make  the  passage  over  the  mountains  less 
difficult.  The  way  was  paved,  and  according  to  some  accounts  was 
onl}-  wide  enough  for  riders  and  beasts  of  burden,  but  Peter  Martyr 
says  that  two  carts  could  pass  one  another  upon  it.  In  1597  Porto 
Bello  was  made  the  eastern  port  of  entry  instead  of  Nombre  de  Dios. 
It  had  a  better  harbor,  was  easier  of  access,  was  well  supplied  with 
fresh  water  the  year  round,  was  nearer  to  Panama,  and  the  location 
was  more  healthy  than  Nombre  de  Dios,  which  had  frequently  been 
denounced  in  memorials  to  the  Spanish  court  as  "  the  sepulcher  of 
Spaniards.*1 

In  1534,  or  soon  after  that  date,  a  route  by  water  for  boats  and  light- 
draft  vessels  was  established  from  Nombre  de  Dios  along  the  coast  and 
up  the  Chagres  to  Cruces.  This  was  accomplished  by  removing 
obstructions  which  had  interfered  with  the  navigation  of  the  river, 
but  the  use  of  the  paved  way  was  not  discontinued. 

The  value  of  this  interoceanic  communication  increased  every  year. 
After  the  conquest  of  Pizarro  vast  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  were 

brought  from  the  mines  of  Peru  to  Panama,  car- 
musmil,erCe  lCr0SS    S   "    rie^  across  the  isthmus  on  the  king's  horses,  kept 

for  that  purpose,  and  transported  from  the  eastern 
terminus  of  the  paved  way  in  royal  galleons  to  Spain. 

As  the  Spanish  colonies  and  provinces  increased  in  population  the 

commerce  and  travel  across  the  isthmus  grew  in  importance.     At  cer- 

Fairs  at  Cartagena      tain  tmies  when  vessels  were  due  from  Spain  fairs 

Nombre  de  Dios,  and  Porto    were  held  at  Cartagena  and  Nombre  de  Dios,  and 

later  at  Porto  Bello,  which  were  attended  by  the 
merchants  of  the  Spanish  Main  and  the  countries  bordering  upon  the 
Pacific.  Caravans  from  Panama  crossed  to  the  Atlantic  terminus  with 
products  to  be  disposed  of  at  these  fairs.  With  the  proceeds  such 
manufactured  articles  as  were  needed  by  the  colonists  and  settlers  were 
purchased  from  the  Spanish  ships  and  distributed  at  Panama  after 
recrossing  the  isthmus,  many  of  them  going  to  Peru  and  Central 
America,  where  the  abundance  of  gold  assured  a  ready  and  profitable 
market. 

The  commerce  of  the  isthmus  increased  during 

Prosperity  of  Panama. 

the  century  and  Panama  became  a  place  of  great 
mercantile  importance,  with  a  profitable  trade  extending  to  the  Spice 
Islands  and  the  Asiatic  coast.  It  was  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity 
in  1585,  and  was  called  with  good  reason  the  tollgate  between  western 
Europe  and  eastern  Asia.  Meanwhile  the  commerce,  whose  tolls  only 
brought  such  benefits  to  Panama,  enriched  Spain,  and  her  people  were 
generously  rewarded  for  the  aid  given  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in 
the  effort  to  open  a  direct  route  westward  to  Cathay,  notwithstanding 
the  disadvantages  of  the  isthmian  transit. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  29 

Another  of  the  early  transits  across  the  isthmian  country  was  at 

Tehuantepcc.      When    Cortes  was   instructed   by 

Ti'huantepcc  *  ,  ^ 

Charles  V  to  search  tor  the  desired  strait  he  pro- 
ceeded with  his  usual  energy  to  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  Emperor. 
He  had  obtained  from  Montezuma  in  1520  a  description  of  the  country 
to  the  south,  with  a  drawing  of  the  gulf  coast  representing  the  bays  and 
rivers.  The  indications  at  the  mouth  of  the  Coatzacoalcos  appearing 
favorable,  he  had  it  examined  and,  though  no  strait  was  discovered, 
the  isthmus  presented  advantages  for  transit  which  he  found  service- 
able in  his  subsequent  operations.  When  he  had 
in  search  oT'tniir  °"S  completed  the  conquest  of  Mexico  he  sent  out  ves- 
sels to  explore  the  coast  in  all  directions,  along  the 
Pacific  as  well  as  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  in  1527  he  sent  an  expedi- 
tion to  the  Moluccas,  hoping  to  establish  a  direct  trade  with  those 
regions.  The  forests  of  Tarifa,  on  the  Atlantic  slope,  supplied  abun- 
dance of  timber  suitable  for  shipbuilding,  and  it  was  transported  to 
each  coast  to  be  used  in  both  seas.  With  timber  from  this  source  he 
constructed  vessels  on  the  coast  near  Tehuantepec  for  his  expeditions 
in  the  Pacific,  the  other  materials  being  carried  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  across  the  isthmus.  The  most  important  result  of  the  coast- 
wise explorations  was  the  discovery  of  the  Gulf  of  California  and  the 
adjacent  peninsula,  but  neither  along  the  shore  of  this  gulf  nor  else- 
where upon  the  Pacific  side  did  any  channel  open  a  passage  to  the 
Atlantic.  But  though  Cortes  failed  to  find  the  strait,  the  course  he 
marked,  up  the  Coatzacoalcos,  across  the  dividing  ridge,  and  down  the 
Pacific  slope  to  Tehuantepec,  became  an  important 
route  of  communication  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific.  A  port  and  extensive  works  were  established  at  the  western 
terminus,  and  a  profitable  trade  was  opened  and  maintained  with  the 
Spanish  provinces  on  the  Pacific  and  with  the  countries  and  islands  in 
and  near  the  eastern  part  of  Asia  on  the  one  side  and  with  the  Atlantic 
ports  and  Spain  on  the  other. 

The  importance  of  a  maritime  connection  and  the  discouraging 
results  of  the  efforts  to  discover  a  natural  channel  between  the  two 
oceans  suggested  to  many  minds_the  idea  of a  ship 
canal,  and  the  successful  transits  at  the  different 
points  mentioned  and  the  relatively  short  distance  across  the  isthmus 
at  each  caused  them  to  be  regarded  at  an  early  period  as  favorable 
locations  for  canal  routes.  Tehuantepec,  Nicaragua,  Panama,  and 
Darien  each  had  its  advocates. 

According  to  one  authority  Charles  V  directed  that  the  isthmus  of 
Panama  be  surveyed  with  this  purpose  in  view  as  early  as  1520.  In 
February,  1534,  a  royal  decree  was  confirmed  directing  that  the  space 
between  the  Chagres  and  the  Pacific  be  examined  by  experienced  men 


30  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION 

and  that  they  ascertain  the  best  and  most  convenient  means  of  effecting 
a  communication  between  the  navigable  waters  of 

Survey    of    Isthmus    of     ^      r[  d   th      ocean   Rnd  the  difficulties   to   be 

Panama. 

met  in  the  execution  of  such  a  project.  The  gov- 
ernor, Pascual  Andagoya,  reported  that  such  a  work  was  impracti- 
cable, and  that  no  king,  however  powerful  he  might  be,  was  capable 
of  forming  a  junction  of  the  two  seas  or  of  furnishing  the  means  of 
carrying  out  such  an  undertaking. 

Charles  abdicated  the  throne  of  Spain  in  1555  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Philip  II,  who  reigned  till  1598.    Under  the 

Policy  of  Philip  II.  i.i  v  £  al      i  •       j  u  A 

new  monarch  the  policy  ot  the  kingdom  changed, 
the  search  for  the  strait  was  abandoned,  the  number  of  ports  through 
which  the  gold  and  silver  from  the  mines  of  his  American  provinces 
flowed  to  Spain  was  limited,  and  the  project  of  a  ship  canal  between 
the  two  oceans,  across  the  American  peninsula,  was  no  longer  prose- 
cuted. While  these  new  possessions  opened  a  constantly  widening 
field  for  commerce  and  furnished  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  the 
precious  metals,  why  seek  for  or  construct  a  maritime  communica- 
tion through  the  continent  into  the  ocean  beyond  for  other  explora- 
tions in  the  hope  of  new  discoveries?  Here  was  actual  fruition.  Why 
waste  effort  and  time  and  money  ♦in  regions  still  more  remote, 
where  all  was  uncertainty?  Besides,  an  opening  through  the  isthmus 
would  afford  rival  nations  favorable  opportunities  to  visit  the  shores 
of  the  new  possessions,  gain  information  as  to  their  resources  and 
advantages,  and  invite  aggression  and  conquest  in  case  of  war.  It  was 
also  urged  that  the  opening  of  a  canal  through  the  isthmus  would  be 
in  opposition  to  the  will  of  the  Almighty,  who  had  placed  this  barrier 
in  the  way  of  navigation  between  the  two  oceans,  and  they  who  should 
attempt  to  remove  it  would  incur  the  Divine  dis- 
pleasure. The  Atrato  region  offered  favorable 
conditions  for  a  transit,  particularly  for  the  commerce  between  Peru 
and  the  Spanish  main.  Some  of  its  tributaries  take  their  rise  far  to 
the  south  and  near  the  Pacific  coast,  but  the  policy  of  Philip  prevented 
the  establishment  of  a  channel  of  communication  there,  and  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  river  was  forbidden  under  penalty  of  death. 

This  policy  adopted  by  Philip  II  continued  for  two  centuries  after 
his  death.  The  subject  of  a  maritime  connection  was  an  attractive 
one  and  was  often  discussed.  In  connection  with  it  explorations  were 
made  from  time  to  time  and  much  geographic  and  topographic  infor- 
mation relating  to  the  Spanish  provinces  in  the  isthmian  country  was 
collected,  but  it  was  not  published  to  the  world,  and  if  any  scientific 
data  valuable  for  canal  purposes  were  obtained  they  were  not  availa- 
ble when  the  subject  was  revived  in  the  nineteenth  century  and  the 
question  of  the  feasibility  of  the  different  projects  began  to  receive 
serious  consideration. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  31 

The  most  notable  event  relating  to  the  connec- 

Paterson's  colony  at  New     ■•  j>    ,i         >  u  •    u  1        1  -i      ii  • 

Caledonia.  tion  °*  ™ie  two  oceans  which  occurred  while  this 

policy  of  King  Philip  was  maintained  was  the 
attempt  of  William  Paterson  to  establish  a  Scotch  colony  in  Darien. 
In  1695  the  Scotch  Parliament  passed  an  act  authorizing  the  formation 
of  a  company  to  trade  from  Scotland  to  Africa  and  the  Indies.  It 
received  the  royal  sanction  June  26,  1695,  and  William  III  issued  let- 
ters patent  to  carry  out  the  terms  of  the  act.  The  company  organized 
under  this  authority  is  generally  known  as  the  Darien  Company,  and  in 
July,  1698,  it  sent  out  an  expedition  from  Edinburgh  with  three  ships 
and  two  tenders,  having  1,200  men  on  board,  with  the  intention  of  set- 
tling on  the  American  isthmus.  William  Paterson  was  the  originator 
of  this  scheme.  He  had  become  acquainted  with  the  advantages  of  the 
Darien  section  while  engaged  as  a  merchant  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
from  a  knowledge  of  the  movements  and  exploits  of  the  buccaneers. 
The  vessels  arrived  safely  at  Darien  and  anchored  in  a  bay  which  they 
called  Caledonia  Bay,  a  name  it  still  retains.  The  colonists  entered 
into  friendly  relations  with  the  Indians  and  bought  lands  from  them. 
They  named  the  country  Caledonia  and  established  a  settlement,  which 
they  called  New  Edinburgh,  on  a  small  peninsula,  which  formed  a 
harbor,  which  still  bears  the  name  of  Port  Escoces.  A  fort  was 
built  for  the  protection  of  the  settlement,  which  they  named  New  St. 
Andrews,  and  a  channel  was  cut  across  the  peninsula,  so  that  the  sea 
might  encompass  the  city  and  fort. 

While  no  attempt  was  made  to  construct  a  canal  or  to  open  a  commu- 
nication with  the  South  Sea,  the  patent  under  which  the  company  was 
organized  authorized  colonies  to  be  planted  in  Asia,  Africa,  or  America, 
and  Paterson's  plan  contemplated  the  ultimate  establishment  of  settle- 
ments and  ports  on  both  oceans,  so  as  to  open  commercial  connections 
with  all  parts  of  the  world.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment was  to  declare  freedom  of  trade  to  those 

Paterson's  plans  for  In-         <•     n         ,•  i  •    .  ,    i  i        .,,     ,, 

teroceanic communication.  ot  a11  nations  who  might  be  concerned  with  them, 
and  full  and  free  liberty  of  conscience  in  matters 
of  religion.  The  success  of  this  first  colony  would  have  been  fol- 
lowed by  efforts  to  establish  others  on  the  Pacific  side,  with  which  a 
transit  route  would  then  have  been  opened,  but  the  colonists  became 
discouraged,  the  supply  of  provisions  failed,  a  vessel  sent  out  with 
fresh  stores  foundered  off  Cartagena,  the  unhealthf ulness  of  the  cli- 
mate filled  their  hospitals  and  graveyard,  and  in  less  than  eight 
c  ...       .  .    .     .       months  the  survivors  abandoned  the  settlement, 

Settlement  abandoned.  ' 

and  only  a  small  remnant  lived  to  return  to  Scot- 
land. Other  vessels  were  sent  out  with  more  emigrants  before  these 
disasters  were  known,  others  followed  them  a  few  months  later,  and 
fresh  attempts  were  made  to  establish  a  permanent  colony,  but  with 
no  better  results.     In  addition  to  their  other  troubles  and  misfor- 


32  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

tunes,  Spain  protested  that  her  territory  was  being  invaded,  and  a 
military  force  was  sent  to  drive  them  from  the  country.  The  few 
survivors  at  length  capitulated,  and  after  the  loss  of  more  than  2,000 
lives  and  the  expenditure  of  vast  sums  of  money  the  company  aban- 
doned the  promising  scheme  which  Paterson  had  planned  and  inau- 
gurated. 

During  this  period  communication  between  the  two  seas  was  main- 
tained at  the  locations  already  mentioned.     As  Panama  declined  in 
importance  much  of  its  business  was  transferred  to  Nicaragua.     The 
shortest  distance  from  ocean  to  ocean  was  in  the 

Xrnusit  routes 

Darien  section.  The  general  course  marked  out 
by  Balboa  was  followed  by  the  buccaneers  in  some  of  their  incursions 
against  the  Spanish  settlements  and  posts  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
Captain  Sharp  crossed  here  when  he  made  his  successful  attack  in  1680 
upon  Villa  Maria  on  the  Tu}7ra  River,  but  no  continuous  transit  was 

ever  maintained,  probably  because  of  the  fierce 
jndia„s  hostile  to  Spa.,-    and  persistent  hostility  of  the  Indians  toward  the 

Spaniards.  They  aided  the  buccaneers  because 
they  were  warring  against  their  special  enemies  and  not  because  they 
wanted  white  men  to  enter  their  borders.  The  Indians  in  this  section 
were  never  subdued,  though  forts  and  strongholds  and  mission  sta- 
tions were  from  time  to  time  established  on  Caledonia  Bay  and  at  other 
points  on  the  Atlantic  side  and  on  the  rivers  emptying  into  the  Gulf 
of  San  Miguel.  They  had  secret  passes  through  the  mountains,  caves 
in  which  their  canoes  could  be  safely  concealed,  trails  from  their  vil- 
lages by  which  they  could  pass  f reel}7  from  point  to  point,  and  a  system 
of  signals  by  which  the}7  could  give  notice  of  the  movements  and 
approach  of  their  enemies;  with  these  advantages  they  often  made 
successful  raids  upon  the  Spanish  settlements,  slaughtered  the  gar- 
risons, and  destroyed  their  works. 

Under  the  administration  of  Andres  de  Ariza, 

Ariza's  road  In  Darien.  .  ,  __, 

who  became  governor  of  the  province  in  1774, 
a  determined  effort  was  made  to  bring  the  Indians  under  subjection 
to  the  Spanish.  Military  posts  were  again  established  on  both  sides 
of  the  isthmus;  Puerto  Principi,  on  the  Savana  River,  was  fortified 
and  garrisoned,  and  a  trail  was  cut  thence  to  the  Chucunaque,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  La  Paz,  which  was  afterwards  known  as  Ariza's  road. 
It  was  deemed  best  to  connect  these  posts  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
by  a  military  road,  and  with  this  purpose  in  view  a  reconnaissance  was 
made  from  Caledonia  Bay  across  the  divide  to  the  terminus  of  Ariza's 
road,  under  the  direction  of  Manuel  Milla  de  Santa  Ella,  who  found 
that  it  was  practicable.  But  the  Indians  objected  to  the  occupation  of 
their  country  for  this  purpose  and  threatened  resistance.  Their  oppo- 
sition was  so  serious  that  the  plan  was  abandoned,  and  no  regular  com- 
munication  between   the  two   coasts  was   ever  accomplished.     The 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  33 

Spaniards  became  satisfied  that  their  supremacy  yielded  them  no  advan- 
tages commensurate  with    its    cost,  and    in    1790 
Spaniards  .bandon  their  d    .    to        ^.      with  th       India         j       which 

nillllnry  posts.  •>  '       J 

they  agreed  to  abandon  their  military  posts  and 

withdraw  from  the  country. 

Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 

Examination  or  t,.„.:„,.     there  was  a  revival  of  interest  in  the  subject  of  a 
tepee  route.  J 

maritime  communication  between  the  two  oceans 
through  the  American  isthmus.  Some  pieces  of  ancient  bronze  can- 
non in  the  castle  of  San  Juan  d'Ulloa,  at  Vera  Cruz,  in  Mexico,  were 
accidentally  discovered  in  1771  to  have  been  cast  in  Manila,  in  the 
Philippine  Islands.  It  seemed  improbable  that  they  had  been  trans- 
ported thither  by  water  around  either  continent,  as  the  only  commer- 
cial intercourse  with  the  islands  had  been  through  the  Pacific  port  of 
Tehuantepec  The  subject  was  investigated  and  it  was  satisfactorily 
proved  by  old  records  and  traditions  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
isthmus  that  the  cannon  had  been  transported  from  Tehuantepec  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Coatzacoalcos  by  the  route  established  in  the  days  of 
Cortez.  This  transit  had  long  been  abandoned,  but  the  remembrance 
of  its  former  importance  had  been  preserved,  though  in  the  lapse 
of  time  the  difficulties  and  obstructions  attending  the  passage  had 
been  forgotton.  The  viceroy  of  Mexico,  in  the  hope  that  it  would 
afford  a  favorable  location  for  a  canal,  determined  to  have  the  country 
examined,  so  as  to  ascertain  its  topography  and  the  practicability  of 
opening  a  maritime  communication  between  the  two  oceans,  and  two 
engineers,  Augustin-Cramer  and  Miguel  del  Corral,  were  directed  to 
survey  the  isthmus  and  report  the  result  of  their  investigations.  They 
made  an  exploration  up  the  Coatzacoalcos  and  found  that  its  source 
was  not  near  Tehuantepec,  as  they  had  been  led  to  suppose;  nor  did 

any  river  have  a  channel  flowing  into  each  ocean. 

Instead  of  a  river  communication  they  found  a 
range  of  mountains  of  considerable  height  between  the  headwaters  of 
the  streams  emptying  into  opposite  seas.  In  one  place  they  reported 
that  the  mountains  formed  a  group  rather  than  a  continuous  chain, 
and  that  a  valley-  existed,  through  which  a  canal  of  small  dimensions 
was  practicable,  connecting  two  rivers  on  opposite  slopes,  which  would 
form  a  continuous  communication  across  the  isthmus. 

Charles  III  was  then  upon  the  throne  of  Spain  and  had  interested 
himself  in  the  work  that  had  been  undertaken  at  Tehuantepec.  Not 
satisfied  with  its  results,  he  authorized  an  investigation  to  be  made  in 
Nicaragua  to  determine  the  practicability  of  connecting  the  lakes  with 
the  Pacific.     The  work  was  undertaken  by  Manuel  Galisteo  in  1779, 

and  a  report  was  made  in  1781  full  of  discourage- 

Examination  of  Nlcara-  t        •,     i  .     ,     ■%    .i_     ■     t     i         xt- 

gua  route  i.y  (jaiisteo.  ment.     In  it  he  stated  that  Lake  Nicaragua  was 

134  feet  higher  than  the  Pacific,  and   that  high 

S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 3 


34  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

mountains  intervened  between  the  lakes  and  the  ocean  which,  in  his 
opinion,  made  their  connection  impracticable. 

Notwithstanding1  this  report,  a  company  was  afterwards  formed 
under  the  patronage  of  the  Crown  to  undertake  the  project,  and  the 
route  selected  was  from  Lake  Nicaragua  along  the  Sanoa  River  to  the 
Gulf  of  Nicoya.  The  royal  fleet  in  the  Pacific  was  directed  to  aid  this 
work  by  further  surveys,  but  the  project  was  never  commenced  and 
no  further  progress  was  made  in  the  construction  of  an  interoceanic 
communication. 

When  Galisteo's  party  set  out.  in  1779  they  were  accompanied  in  a 
private  capacity  b}^  the  British  agents  at  Belize,  and  the  territory 
claimed  in  the  name  of  the  Mosquito  Indians.  After  their  return  they 
made  favorable  representations  of  the  countiy  they  had  visited,  and 
declared  that  the  canal  project  was  entirely  feasible.  This  manifesta- 
tion of  interest  in  the  subject  was  followed  by  an  invasion  of  the 
country  early  in  1780,  after  Spain  had  declared  war 

Invasion    of    Mcaravuii  •       ,    f~\  ,     t>    *x    •  tm       •  J*  i'±.m 

by  British  forces.  against  Great  Britain.      1  he  invading  expedition, 

under  the  command  of  Captain  Poison,  set  out 
from  Jamaica.  Admiral  Horatio  Nelson,  then  a  post  captain,  was  in 
charge  of  the  naval  operations.  Nelson,  in  his  dispatches,  states  the 
general  purpose  of  the  expedition  as  follows:  "In  order  to  give 
facility  to  the  great  object  of  government  I  intend  to  possess  the  Lake 
of  Nicaragua,  which  for  the  present  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  inland 
Gibraltar  of  Spanish  America.  As  it  commands  the  only  water  pass 
between  the  oceans,  its  situation  must  ever  render  it  a  principal  post 
to  insure  passage  to  the  Southern  Ocean,  and  by*  our  possession  of  it 
Spanish  America  is  divided  in  two." 

The  plan  of  the  campaign  was  to  enter  the  mouth 

I'lini  nl'  rampaiirn.  ■*•  -     r 

of  the  San  Juan  River,  capture  hort  San  Juan,  at 
Castillo  Viejo,  take  possession  of  all  other  fortified  positions  on  the 
river  and  lakes,  occupy  the  cities  of  Granada  and  Leon,  then  push  on 
to  Realejo,  by  the  seizure  of  which  they  would  complete  their  control 
of  the  province  and  the  lines  of  communication  between  the  two 
oceans. 

The  attacking  party  went  up  the  San  Juan  in  boats  and  met  with  no 
resistance  till  a  small  island,  named  San  Bartolome,  an  outpost  of  the 
enemy,  was  reached.     This  was  soon  captured,  and  two  days  later  Fort 

San  Juan  at  Castillo  Viejo  was  besieged.     After  a 

Capture  of  Castillo  Ylelo.       .    -,  ■■  .    ,  ,    ..  ,  ,L 

stubborn  resistance,  protracted  lor  ten  days,  the 
fort  was  surrendered  and  the  garrison  was  allowed  to  march  out 
with  the  honors  of  war.  The  invading  force  had  little  protection  from 
the  constant  rains,  their  numbers  were  daily  reduced  by  deadly  fevers 
and  other  prostrating  diseases,  their  situation  became  distressing, 
longer  stay  was  useless  and  would  have  been  fatal  to  the  few  survivors, 
and  reluctantly  the  expedition  was  abandoned.     Of  the  crew  of  Nel- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  35 

son's  ship,  the  Sinchmbrook,  200  in  number,  87  fell  sick  in  one  night, 
only  10  were  living  soon  after  the  return  of  the  expedition  to  Jamaica, 

and  Nelson  himself  was  in  such  an  enfeebled  condition  that  his  life  was 
saved  only  by  careful  nursing. 

This  terminated  the  effort  to  weaken  the  Spanish 
K2::;Sr,W"  Power  in  Central  America,  and  in  the  treaty  of 
1783,  which  terminated  the  war,  Great  Britain 
relinquished  whatever  territorial  rights  she  may  have  claimed  there. 
While  the  privilege  of  cutting  wood  for  dyeing  was  granted  to  Eng- 
lish settlers,  it  was  only  to  be  exercised  in  a  part  of  Honduras  with 
certain  specified  boundaries,  within  which  the  woodcutters,  then  dis- 
persed through  the  country,  were  required  to  retire  within  eighteen 
months.  The  British  agreed  to  demolish  their  fortifications  within 
this  district  and  to  instruct  their  settlers  to  build  no  new  ones,  and 
they  recognized  and  declared  Spain's  rights  of  sovereignty. 

Owing  to  delays  in  the  retirement  of  the  woodcutters  within  the 

agreed  limits  by  the  time  specified,  new  complications  arose  between 

the  two  powers  and  the  negotiations  which  followed  resulted  in  another 

treaty  which  was  signed  at  London  in  July,  1786. 

Treaty  of  1786.  /  •  i         i-         •  n  n  i 

By  the  new  convention  the  district  allotted  to  the 
woodcutters  was  enlarged  and  their  privileges  were  increased,  but  they 
were  not  to  establish  any  plantation  of  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  or  other 
like  article,  or  any  manufacture  by  means  of  mills  or  other  machines 
except  sawmills  for  preparing  their  timber  for  use.  The  reason  given 
for  this  restriction  was  that  "all  the  lands  in  question  being  indispu- 
tably acknowledged  to  belong  of  right  to  the  Crown  of  Spain,  no  settle- 
ment of  that  kind  or  the  population  which  would  follow  could  be 
allowed."  In  another  article  all  the  restrictions  specified  in  the  treat}7^ 
of  1783  for  the  entire  preservation  of  the  right  of  the  Spanish  sover- 
eignty over  the  country  were  confirmed.  Another  article  related  to 
the  Mosquito  country,  in  which  England  had  exercised  a  protectorate 
over  the  Indians  and  had  assisted  them  in  resisting  the  authority  of 
Spain.  In  it  Spain  was  pledged,  by  motives  of  humanity,  not  to 
exercise  any  severity  against  the  Mosquitos  on  account  of  their  former 
connection  with  the  English,  and  his  Britannic  Majesty  agreed  to  pro- 
hibit his  subjects  from  furnishing  arms  or  military  supplies  to  the 
Indians. 

These  treaty  obligations  were  disregarded  by  Great  Britain  as  no 
longer  binding  after  the  Spanish  provinces  acquired  their  independ- 
ence. The  protectorate  over  the  Mosquito  Indians  was  revived  and 
new  territorial  rights  were  set  up  in  Central  America.  Nicaragua 
claimed  sovereignty  over  the  Mosquitos  and  resisted  what  she  regarded 
as  the  encroachment  of  the  British.  The  latter  claimed,  on  behalf  of 
the  Indians,  that  their  territory  extended  to  the  San  Juan,  and  in  1848 
took  possession  of  the  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  raised  the  Mos- 


36  REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

quito  flag  there,  and  changed  its  name  from  San  Juan  to  Greytown. 

Treaty    between    Great  In  1859  a  treaty  was  made  between  Great  Britain 

Britain  and  Guatemala  of  and  Guatemala  bv  which  the  title  of  the  former  to 

1859  as  to  Belize.  the  settlements  made  in  and  near  the  Bay  of  Hon- 
duras, known  as  Belize,  was  recognized   and   the   boundaries  were 

defined.     In  1860  a  treaty  was  made  between  Great 

Treaty     between     Great  .  .      .,  1  •    1       1 

Britain  and  Nicaragua  of  Britain  and  Micaragua  by  which  the  protectorate 

1860  as  to  Mosquito  in-  over  the  Mosquitos  was  to  cease  in  three  months, 

the  territory  occupied  by  them  was  to  be  under 
the  sovereignty  of  Nicaragua,  its  boundaries  were  defined,  extending 
no  farther  south  than  the  river  Rama,  and  Greytown  was  declared  a 
free  port.  But  the  Indians  were  to  have  the  right  of  self-government, 
and  Nicaragua  was  pledged  to  respect  their  customs  and  regulations 
and  not  to  interfere  with  them,  provided  they  were  not  inconsistent 
with  the  sovereign  rights  of  the  Republic.  It  was  also  provided  that 
Nicaragua  should,  for  ten  years,  pay  to  the  Mosquito  authorities 
$5,000  annually  to  promote  their  improvement  and  provide  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  government  they  were  to  establish  for  themselves 
within  their  district. 

In  another  article  it  was  declared  by  the  con- 
Mosquito  Indians  incor-    tracting  parties  that  the  treaty  was  not  to  be  con- 

porated  into    Republic  of  i  .1        t»t  t     j- 

Nicaragua  in  1894.  strued  so  as  to  prevent  the  Mosquito  Indians  at 

any  time  in  the  future  from  agreeing  to  absolute 
incorporation  into  the  Republic  of  Nicaragua,  on  the  same  footing 
and  subject  to  the  same  laws  as  other  citizens.  This  solution  of  a 
long-existing  cause  of  irritation  and  disturbance  was  reached  in 
November,  1894,  when  a  convention  of  the  tribes  assembled  under  the 
direction  of  their  chief  and  agreed  that  their  territory  should  become 
a  department  of  the  Republic. 

At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  Spain 
tht'Sttcentur1?.6010860'  continued  to  maintain  her  sovereignty  over  the 
entire  isthmian  country,  but  the  Cordilleras  still 
kept  the  two  oceans  apart;  the  old  transits  had  fallen  into  disuse  and 
her  intercourse  with  the  western  ports  of  her  American  provinces 
was  maintained  almost  entirely  by  way  of  Cape  Horn  and  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope;  the  chief  exception  being  at  Tehuantepcc,  where  a  com- 
munication across  the  isthmus  had  once  more  been  opened. 

No  actual  progress  in  the  way  of  establishing  a  maritime  communi- 
cation from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  had  been  made  during  the  three 
hundred  years  of  Spanish  occupation.     Baron  Von 
von  Humboldt's  state-     nuluboldt,  who  visited  New  Spain  about  this  time 

III  (Til.  r 

and  took  a  great  interest  in  this  subject,  deplored 
the  lack  of  accurate  knowledge  of  the  physical  features  of  the  isthmian 
country.     After  making  his  investigations  he  said  that  there  was  not 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  37 

a  single  mountain,  plain,  or  city  from  Granada  to  Mexico  of  which 
the  elevation  above  the  sea  was  known.  It  was  even  a  matter  of  doubt 
whether  an  uninterrupted  chain  of  mountains  existed  in  the  provinces 
of  Veragua  and  Nicaragua. 

The  publications  of  Humboldt  were  extensively  read  and  revived 
the  interest  of  the  commercial  nations  of  the  world  in  this  subject. 
The  Spanish  Cortes  was  aroused  to  action  and  in  April,  1*14,  passed  a 
formal  decree  for  the  construction  of  a  canal  through  the  peninsula 
for  vessels  of  the  largest  size  and  provided  for  the  formation  of  a  com- 
pany to  undertake  the  enterprise,  but  it  led  to  no  results  and  Spain's 
opportunities  to  obtain  the  glory  of  opening  this  great  highwa}7  for 
the  commerce  of  the  world  terminated  in  1823,  when  the  last  of  her 
Central  and  South  American  provinces  succeeded  in  establishing  their 
n  dependence. 

The   States   of    New  Granada,   Venezuela,   and 

f"ZTie  °f  t"l0n"'la    Ecuador  united  in  1811)  in  forming  the  Republic 

of   Colombia,   wTith  Simon  Bolivar  as    President. 

This  continued  till  1831,  when  they  separated  into  three  independent 

republics. 

In    1823   Gautemala,  San  Salvador,  Honduras, 

Formation    of     Federal  ,      _.  . 

Republic  of  the  united  Nicaragua,  and  Costo  Rica,  having  successfully 
provinces  <,<  central    resjsted  the  efforts  of  Iturbide  to  extend  the  power 

America.  ,  ,  ..   .       n       .         _ ~-  _         . 

of    Mexico   over   them,    established   the    federal 
Republic  of  the  United  Provinces  of  Central  America. 

The  governmental  changes  wrought  by  these  successful  revolutions 
and  the  formation  of  these  new  confederations  were  followed  by  a 
revival  of  interest  in  the  interoceanic  communication.  Aaron  H. 
Palmer,  of  New  York,  and  his  associates  made  proposals  to  the  new 
Republic  of  Central  America  with  a  view  to  the  construction  of  such 
a  work,  which  were  favorably  regarded.  But  before  any  action  was 
taken  Don  Antonio  Jose  Canaz,  the  envoy  extraordinary  representing 
the  Republic  at  Washington,  was  instructed  to  call  the  attention  of 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  to  the  subject.  He  accordingly 
addressed  a  letter  to  Mr.  Clay,  then  Secretary  of  State,  on  the  8th 
day  of  February,  1825,  assuring  him  that  nothing  would  be  more 

grateful  to  "the  Republic  of  the  Centre  of  Amer- 
Repubiic  of  central    jca"  than  the  cooperation  of  the  American  people 

America    makes    proposi-       .  .  »  i        c  •         • 

tions  to  United  states.  in  the  construction  of  a  canal  of  communication 
through  Nicaragua,  so  that  they  might  share,  not 
only  in  the  merit  of  the  enterprise,  but  also  in  the  great  advantages 
which  it  would  produce.  He  stated  that  a  company  of  respectable 
American  merchants  was  read}^  to  undertake  the  work  as  soon  as  it 
could  be  arranged  by  a  treaty  between  the  two  governments,  and  that 
if  a  diplomatic  agent  were  appointed  and  instructed  upon  the  matter, 


38  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

he  was  prepared  to  do  what  he  could  on  the  part  of  the  Republic  he 

represented  in  the  arrangement  of  the  business.     Mr.  Clay  made  a 

favorable  response  to  this  communication,  assuring 

Response    of    Secretary        ...  ,  .  .   .  . 

ciay.  the  minister  that  the  importance  of  uniting  the  two 

seas  by  canal  navigation  was  fully  realized  and 
that  the  President  had  determined  to  instruct  the  charge  d'affaires  of 
the  United  States  to  investigate  with  the  greatest  care  the  facilities 
which  Nicaragua  offered.  He  added  that,  if  this  investigation  con- 
tinued the  preference  which  it  was  believed  this  route  possessed,  it 
would  be  necessary  to  consult  Congress  as  to  the  nature  and  extent  of 
the  cooperation  which  should  be  given  toward  the  completion  of  the 
work. 

The  proposed  instructions  were  not,  however, 

Instructions  to  minister.         , 

given  until  February,  1826,  when  a  letter  was 
addressed  to  Mr.  Williams,  the  charge  d'affaires,  in  which  he  was 
informed  that  the  President  desired  to  be  put  in  possession  of  such 
full  information  upon  the  subject  as  would  serve  to  guide  the  judg- 
ment of  the  constituted  authorities  of  the  United  States  in  determining 
their  interests  and  duties  in  regard  to  it.  The  matter  was  afterwards 
referred  to  in  the  official  correspondence  with  the  Department,  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  the  desired  information  was  ever  furnished. 

When  it  was  proposed  to  hold  a  congress  of  dif- 

Couirress  of  Panama.  •  -rt  •  i 

ferent  nations  at  Panama  in  182b,  and  President 
Adams  had  appointed  commissioners  to  represent  the  United  States, 
they  were  advised  in  their  letter  of  instructions  that  a  cut  or  canal  for 
purposes  of  navigation  somewhere  through  the  isthmus  that  connects 
the  two  Americas,  to  unite  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans,  would  form 
a  proper  subject  of  consideration  at  the  congress  when  it  should  assem- 
ble. The  opinion  was  also  expressed  that,  if  the  work  should  ever  be 
executed,  the  benefits  of  it  ought  not  to  be  exclusively  appropriated 
to  any  one  nation,  but  should  be  extended  to  all  parts  of  the  globe 
upon  the  payment  of  just  compensation  or  reasonable  tolls. 

But  without  waiting  for  governmental  action  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States,  the  Republic  of  Central  America,  on  the  16th  of  June, 
1826,  decreed  that  proposals  should  be  received  for  the  right  to  con- 
struct an  interoceanic  canal,  accepted  the  terms  offered  by  Aaron  H. 
Palmer  and  his  associates  and  entered  into  a  contract  with  them.     The 

canal  was  to  be  for  the  navigation  of  vessels  of  the 
central  America  makes    largest  burden  and  was  to  be  commenced  twelve 

contract  for  construction  " 

of  canai.  months  after  the  signing  of  the  contract,  or  sooner 

if  possible,  but  in  case  of  insurmountable  difficulty, 
the  time  for  beginning  was  to  be  extended  for  not  more  than  six 
months.  The  contract  was  to  remain  in  force  as  long  as  might  be 
necessary  foi  the  reimbursement  of  the  capital  invested  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal  and  the  fortifications  for  its  defense,  together 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  39 

with  interest  at  tho  rate  of  10  per  cont  per  annum,  and  for  seven  years 
after  such  reimbursement  the  company  of  construction  was  to  receive 
half  of  the  net  proceeds  of  the  canal,  the  expense  of  collection  and 
repairs  being  deducted.  The  navigation  and  passage  through  the 
canal  was  to  be  common  to  all  friendly  and  neutral  nations,  without  any 
exclusive  privilege.  The  contract  can  be  seen  in  full  by  reference 
to  Report  No.  145,  House  of  Representatives,  Thirtieth  Congress, 
second  session,  pages  362-367. 

Mr.  Palmer  next  attempted  to  organize  a  company  to  undertake 

the  construction  of  a  canal  under  this  contract,  to  be  called  the  Central 

American  and  United  States  Atlantic  and  Pacific 

central  American  and  Canal  Company,  with  a  capital  stock  of  $5,000,000. 

United  States  Atlantic  and    TTT.    ...  .  .  ~    ,     ,  \  „    '      , 

Pacific canai company.  With  this  purpose  in  view,  in  October,  182b,  he 
assigned  the  contract  in  trust  to  De  Witt  Clinton 
and  four  others,  to  be  held  by  them  until  an  act  of  incorporation  could 
be  obtained  for  the  proposed  company.  In  December  he  went  to 
London,  furnished  with  letters  of  introduction  to  the  American  min- 
ister and  other  influential  persons,  issued  a  prospectus,  and  for  ten 
months  endeavored  to  secure  the  aid  of  capitalists  there  in  disposing  of 
tho  stock,  but  was  unsuccessful  and  the  contract  was  never  executed. 
The  Central  American  Republic  afterwards  entered  into  negotia- 
tions with  a  company  in  the  Netherlands  for  the 
iand"coamPrnyh  "  ***"*'  construction  of  a  canal  across  Nicaragua,  and  a 
basis  for  an  agreement  was  adopted  by  the  two 
Houses  of  Congress  in  September  and  December,  1830.  When  the 
Administration  at  Washington  heard  that  such  a  contract  had  been 
made  or  was  about  to  be  made,  Mr.  Edward  Livingston,  then  Secre- 
tary of  State,  directed  the  United  States  minister  at  Guatemala  to 
ascertain  the  facts  and  to  signify  to  the  Government  that  the  United 
States  would  consider  themselves  as  entitled  to  the  same  advantages, 
in  passing  through  the  canal  or  using  the  terminals,  as  were  accorded 
to  other  nations.  The  effort,  however,  ended  in  failure  and  the  proj- 
ect was  abandoned. 

After  this  failure  the  Congress  of  the  Republic  of  Central  America 
again  turned  to  the  United  States  and  offered  to  grant  to  the  Govern- 
ment the  right  to  construct  a  canal.     In  response 
Further  negotiations  of    to  ^g  acti0n  the  Senate,  on  March  3, 1835,  passed 

Central  American  Kepub-  .  ,  '  •  .  '  x 

lies  with  united  states.        a  resolution  requesting  the  President  to  consider 
the  expediency  of  opening  negotiations  with  other 
nations,  particularly  with  the  republics  of  Central  America  and  New 
Granada,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  by  suitable  treaty  stipulations 
such  individuals  or  companies  as  might  undertake  to  unite  the  At1' 
and  Pacific  oceans  by  the  construction  of  a  ship  canal  across  ' ' 
ican  isthmus  and  of  securing  forever  to  all  nations  th 
right  of  navigating  it  on  the  payment  of  reasoD"' 


40  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

President  Jackson   acted    upon    this   resolution   by  sending    Mr. 

Charles  Biddle  to  visit  Nicaragua  and  Panama,  with  instructions  to 

examine  the  different   routes   of   communication 

Mr.  Biddie  sent  to  Cen-    that  had  been  contemplated,  whether  by  canal  or 

tral  America  and  Colom-  ..  ,,  .  ,.  .. 

bla.  railroad,  making  such  observations  and  inquiries 

on  his  route  as  would  enable  him  to  procure 
copious  and  accurate  information  in  regard  to  the  practicability  of  the 
different  projects,  and  to  procure  such  public  documents  as  were 
obtainable  relating  to  the  different  plans,  and  copies  of  all  laws  and 
contracts  made  and  entered  into  by  the  two  Governments  with  refer- 
ence to  the  construction  of  such  a  communication,  and  an}r  surveys 
and  estimates  of  cost  of  any  of  the  projects  that  could  be  procured. 
But  the  mission  led  to  no  satisfactory  results,  and  on  January  9,  1837, 
a  message  was  sent  to  the  Senate  to  the  effect  that  it  was  not  expe- 
dient at  that  time  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  foreign  governments 
with  reference  to  a  transisthmian  connection. 

In  January,  1838,  Aaron  Clark,  mayor  of  New 

Memorial  of  Aaron  ciark    York,  and   a  few   other   influential   citizens  pre- 

with  reference  to  canai.       sented  the  subject  to  the  House  of  Representatives 

in  a  memorial,  urging  the  great  national  impor- 
tance of  a  navigable  waterway  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  and 
recommending  that  negotiations  be  opened  with  New  Granada  and  Cen- 
tral America  and  the  great  powers  of  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  enter- 
ing into  a  general  agreement  for  the  promotion  of  this  object,  and, 
as  a  preliminaiy  step,  that  competent  engineers  be  sent  to  the  sth- 
mian  country  to  make  explorations  and  surveys,  so  as  to  determine 
the  most  eligible  route  and  the  cost  of  constructing  such  a  work. 

This  memorial  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Roads  and  Canals 
and  led  to  an  interesting  and  valuable  report,  which  was  presented 
by  Mr.  C.    F.  Mercer  March  2,  1839,  in  the  Twenty -fifth  Congress, 

third  session,  and  is  designated  as  H.  R.  Report 
,.ri°™£;.°"    322.     The  value  of  a  canal  was  fully  recognized, 

but  no  action  was  recommended,  except  to  request 
the  President  to  open  or  continue  negotiations  with  foreign  nations 
according  to  the  terms  of  the  former  Senate  resolution  and  in  harmony 
with  the  wishes  of  the  memorialists.  The  resolution  favoring  this 
action  was  at  once  adopted. 

President  Van  Buren  sent  another  agent,  Mr.  John  L.  Stephens,  to 

the    isthmus.     He    recommended   the   Nicaragua 
Mr.  Stephens  sent    as    route  as  the  most  desirable,  and  estimated  the  cost 

agent   to  Isthmian    conn-      of   &  ^^  ^^  ^  ^^^  ]mt  did    not  think 

the  time  was  favorable  for  undertaking  such  a 
-^e   of  the   unsettled  and  revolutionary  condition   of  the 

4  these  memorials  and  resolutions  were  being 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  41 

considered  by  Congress,  and  efforts  were  being  made  to  obtain  con- 
cessions from  the   States  through  whose  territory 

Examination  of  routes.  V  ^ 

the  canal  routes  extended,  examinations  were  made 
from  time  to  time  to  determine  the  feasibility  and  cost  of  the  differ- 
ent projects. 

In  1824  the  Mexican  Government  and  the  State 
TehuantepeebyOrbesoKo    Gf  Vera  Cruz  each  appointed  a  commission  to  make 

a  reconnaissance  of  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec, 
the  former  under  the  supervision  of  Juan  de  Orbegoso,  the  latter 
under  Tadeo  Ortiz.  Their  reports  contain  much  valuable  information 
relating  to  the  geography,  topography,  productions,  and  resources  of 
the  country.  But  their  examinations  demonstrated  that  great  difficul- 
ties opposed  the  construction  of  a  navigable  canal  through  the  isthmus, 
and  they  reported  that  the  only  available  expedient  to  be  adopted  was 
a  carriage  road  from  the  navigable  waters  of  the  Coatzacoalcos  River 
to  the  lagoons  on  the  south  coast.  This  they  considered  both  easy  and 
advantageous.  The  report  of  Orbegoso  is  found  in  House  Report  322, 
Twenty-fifth  Congress,  third  session. 

A  survey  of  the  Nicaragua  route  was  made  by 

Nicaragua,  by  John  Bally.  Ml.      Jonn    Bajly?    who    ha(J    been    sent    Qut    by    afl 

English  company  in  1826  to  explore  the  country  and  negotiate  for  a 
concession.  Failing  in  his  main  purpose,  he  had  remained  in  Central 
America,  and  in  1837  was  employed  by  President  Morazin  to  deter- 
mine the  best  location  for  a  canal.  The  route  that  he  favored  was 
from  San  Juan,  now  Greytown,  to  Lake  Nicaragua,  across  the  lake  to 
the  Lajas,  and  thence  to  San  Juan  del  Sur  on  the  Pacific. 

The  harbor  of  Greytown  presented  "as  many  conveniences  as  would 
be  required;"  it  could  "be  entered  at  all  seasons  and  in  all  weathers 
without  risk;"  it  furnished  good  anchorage  in  4  or  5  fathoms  of 
water,  and  there  was  no  danger  within  it.  San  Juan  del  Sur  offered 
similar  advantages  as  a  Pacific  terminus,  with  a  depth  of  10  fathoms. 
He  proposed  to  use  the  San  Juan  through  its  entire  length.  This 
would  require  the  removal  of  the  rocks  at  the  rapids,  the  closing  of 
the  Colorado  so  as  to  divert  its  waters  through  the  channel  of  the  San 
Juan  to  Greytown  Harbor,  and  the  deepening  of  this  part  of  the  San 
Juan. 

He  stated  that  the  four  principal  rapids  were  within  a  space  of  12 
miles,  and  were  formed  by  a  transverse  elevation  of  rocks,  rising  in 
sharp  and  broken  masses  above  the  water  when  low,  but  leaving  a 
channel  on  either  side  sufficient  for  the  passage  of  boats,  with  a  depth 
of  from  3  to  6  fathoms.  The  river  was  then  navigated  by  piraguas, 
or  large  flat-bottom  boats  of  5  to  8  tons  burden,  with  crews  of  ten 
or  twelve  men,  whose  chief  labor  was  at  the  rapids,  which,  however, 
were  passed  without  serious  hazard.  From  a  series  of  levels  along 
his  line,  taken  in  1838,  he  reported  that  the  lake  was  128  feet  3  inches 


42  REPORT   OF'  THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

above  the  level  of  the  Pacific  at  low  water  at  San  Juan  del  Sur,  and 
he  accepted  the  conclusions  reached  by  others  that  the  Pacific  at  low 
water  was  6  feet  6  inches  lower  than  the  Atlantic.  His  line  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Lajas  was  28,408  yards  in  length,  the  summit  level 
was4s7  feet  above  the  lake,  and  the  canal  was  to  be  navigable  for  ships 
of  1,200  tons  burden,  with  a  depth  of  18  feet  of  water.  By  straighten- 
ing the  line  in  a  few  places  it  could  be  shortened  2,000  yards  and  the 
Lajas  could  be  made  available  for  5,400  yards.  He  proposed  an  alter- 
native plan  which  would  reduce  the  summit  level  to  122  feet  above  the 
lake,  and  the  connection  of  two  of  his  stations  by  a  tunnel  3,833  yards 
long.  He  pointed  out  the  difficulties  of  the  work,  and  in  case  it  should 
not  be  regarded  as  an  advisable  project  suggested  the  consideration  of 
a  route  through  the  Tipitapa  and  Lake  Managua  to  the  port  of  Realejo, 
but  could  not  speak  of  the  feasibility  of  this  route  with  confidence,  as 
it  had  not  been  surveyed.  He  had,  however,  traveled  over  the  coun- 
try between  Lake  Managua  and  the  ocean,  and  regarded  it  as  worthy 
of  examination. 

In  November,  1827,  Mr.  J.  A.  Llovd  received  a 

Panama,  bj  J.  A.  Lloyd.  .      .  J 

commission  from  President  Bolivar  to  survey  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  most  eligible  line  of  com- 
munication across  it,  whether  by  road  or  canal.  At  this  time  neither 
the  relative  height  of  the  two  oceans  nor  the  height  of  the  mountain 
range  between  them  had  been  accurately  determined,  and  the  geographic 
features  of  the  isthmus  were  imperfectly  understood.  He  spent  two 
seasons  in  exploring  the  country  and  carried  his  line  of  levels  from 
Panama  to  La  Bruja,  a  place  on  the  Chagres  River  about  12  miles 
above  its  mouth.  He  reported  that  the  mean  height  of  the  Pacific  at 
Panama  was  3.52  feet  higher  than  that  of  the  Atlantic  at  Chagres.  He 
recommended  a  new  line  across  the  isthmus,  instead  of  those  in  use 
from  Porto  Bello  and  Chagres  by  Cruces  to  Panama,  beginning  at  the 
Bay  of  Limon,  thence  to  the  Chagres  by  a  canal  and  up  the  river  to  a 
favorable  situation  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Trinidad  River,  and  thence 
by  a  railroad  to  Panama  or  Chorrera,  the  latter  being  tin1  nearer  ter- 
minus, but  the  former  being  preferable  as  a  better  port,  and  the  capital 
of  the  State,  where  its  trade  was  already  centered,  lie  made  no  rec- 
ommendation in  favor  of  a  canal,  but  said  that  if  a  time  should  arrive 
when  a  project  of  a  water  communication  across  the  isthmus  might  be 
entertained,  the  River  Trinidad  would  probably  offer  the  most  favor- 
able route.  For  some  distance1  he  found  it  both  broad  and  deep,  and 
its  banks  well  suited  for  wharves,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  place  designated  as  suitable  for  railroad  communication. 

After  the  Republic  of  Colombia  was  divided,  in 
BdaraLbiiBtaedinissi/"    November,  1831,  the  control  of  the  Panama  route 

belonged  to  New    Granada,  within   whose   terri- 


REPORT   OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  43 

torial  boundaries  it  was  located.     Th,is  Republic,  in  L838,  granted  to  a 

French  company  a  concession,  authorizing-  the 
(onr,mny!frantt0aFn',','h    construction  of  macadamized  roads,  railroads,  or 

canals  across  the  isthmus  with  the  Pacific  terminus 
at  Panama.  The  company  spent  several  years  in  making-  explorations 
and  communicated  the  results  to  the  French  Government  through  M. 
M.  Salomon,  the  leading  spirit  in  the  enterprise,  in  the  hope  of  secur- 
ing its  aid  in  constructing  the  proposed  work.     These  results  presented 

the  project  in  an  attractive  way,  and  it  was  stated 
o«Bp«^.°™ate!0ratl0,,S    thtlt  Jl  depression  in  the  mountain  range  ottered  a 

passage  only  11.28  meters,  about  37  feet,  above 
the  average  level  of  the  sea  at  Panama.  The  representations  were  of 
a  character  so  surprising  that  it  was  decided  to  send  an  officer  to  the 
spot  to  study  the  subject,  and  in  September,  1813,  M.  Guizot,  minister 
of  foreign  affairs,  instructed  Napoleon  Garella  to  proceed  to  Panama 
to  investigate  the  question  of  the  junction  of  both  seas  by  cutting 
through  the  isthmus,  and  to  report  the  means  of  effecting  it,  the 
obstacles  to  be  overcome,  and  the  cost  of  such  an  enterprise. 

He  favored  a  canal  as  the  only  means  of  com- 

Examlned  by  Garella.  .  t        c 

munication  adequate  to  the  demands  or  commerce, 
and,  as  the  representative  of  a  great  commercial  nation,  directed  all 
his  labors  to  this  object.  He  preferred  to  establish  the  Atlantic  ter- 
minus at  the  Bay  of  Limon  rather  than  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chagres, 
following  the  recommendation  made  by  Lloyd;  a  connection  with  the 
river  was  to  be  made  somewhat  below  the  mouth  of  the  Gatun.  The 
low  depression,  making  a  sea  level  canal  practicable  within  a  reason- 
able limit  of  cost,  could  not  be  found,  and  he  proposed  to  cross  the 
divide  through  a  tunnel  5,350  meters,  a  little  more  than  3^  miles,  long, 
but  he  also  estimated  for  a  cut  through  the  ridge  instead  of  a  tunnel. 
The  bottom  of  the  tunnel  was  to  be  41  meters,  about  134^  feet,  above 
the  ocean;  99  meters,  nearly  325  feet,  below  the  summit,  and  the  level 
of  the  water  48  meters,  nearly  158  feet,  above  the  ocean  at  extreme 
high  tide  on  the  Pacific  at  Panama.  The  summit  level  was  to  be  reached 
by  18  locks  on  the  Atlantic  slope  and  16  on  the  Pacific,  with  a  guard 
lock  at  each  extremity  to  protect  the  entrance.  The  supply  of  water 
was  to  be  furnished  by  two  lateral  canals  from  the  Chagres.  The 
Pacific  terminus  was  to  be  in  the  small  bay  of  Vaca  de  Monte,  about 
12  miles  southwest  of  Panama.  The  estimate  of  cost  was  130,000,000 
francs,  about  $25,000,000,  if  the  summit  level  was  established  by  means 
of  a  tunnel.  By  establishing  the  summit  level  by  means  of  a  trench 
of  a  maximum  depth  of  84  meters,  about  275  feet,  the  bottom  of  which 
would  be  15  meters,  nearly  50  feet  above  that  of  the  tunnel,  the  cost 
would  be  increased  to  149,000,000  francs,  or  about  $28,000,000. 
These  estimates  were  made  for  a  canal  that  would  accommodate  ves- 


44  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

sels  of  1,200  tons  burden,  198|-  feet  long,  with  extreme  breadth  of  beam 
of  45i  feet  and  a  maximum  draft  when  loaded  of  21i  feet,  giving  a 
depth  of  23  feet. 

Garella's  report  is  found  in  House  Report  322,  Twenty-fifth  Con- 
gress, third  session.  It  disappointed  the  expectations  that  had  been 
raised  by  the  projectors;  no  further  steps  were  taken  in  the  matter 
and  the  concession  was  forfeited. 

About  the  middle  of  the  century  a  succession  of 

Increased  importance  of  .  ,  ±1       •  1    ±u       •_  a  £ 

maritime  communication.  £reat  events  vastly  increased  the  importance  of  a 
maritime  connection  between  the  two  oceans  to 
the  United  States.  The  dispute  with  Great  Britain,  as  to  the  boundary 
line  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  was  settled  by  the  Buchanan- 
Packenham  treaty  in  1846,  and  in  August,  1848,  an  act  of  Congress 
was  passed  under  which  Oregon  became  an  organized  Territory.  The 
war  with  Mexico  was  commenced  early  in  1846,  and  by  the  terms  of 
the  Guadalupe-Hidalgo  treaty,  which  closed  it  in  1848,  California  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States.  Before  the  treaty  had  been  ratified  gold 
was  discovered  there,  and  in  a  few  months  many  thousands  from  the 
eastern  part  of  the  country  were  seeking  awa}T  to  the  mining  regions. 
To  avoid  the  hardships  and  delays  of  the  journey  across  the  plains  or 
the  voyage  around  the  continent,  lines  of  steamers  and  packets  were 
established  from  New  York  to  Chagres  and  San  Juan  del  Norte  and 
from  Panama  to  San  Francisco,  some  of  the  latter  touching  at  the 
Pacific  ports  in  Nicaragua.  For  a  while  those  traveling  by  these 
routes  had  to  make  arrangements  for  crossing  the  isthmus  after  their 
arrival  there,  and  were  often  subjected  to  serious  personal  incon- 
veniences and  suffering  as  well  as  to  exorbitant  charges. 

The  requirements  of  travel  and  commerce  demanded  better  methods 
of  transportation  between  the  Eastern  States  and  the  Pacific  coast,  but 
there  were  other  reasons  of  a  more  public  character  for  bringing 
these  sections  into  closer  communication.  The  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  army  posts  and  naval  stations  in  the  newly  acquired 
and  settled  regions  in  the  Far  West,  the  extension  of  mail  facilities  to 
the  inhabitants,  and  the  discharge  of  other  governmental  functions,  all 
required  a  connection  in  the  shortest  time  and  at  the  least  distance 
that  was  possible  and  practicable.  The  importance  of  this  connection 
was  so  manifest  that  the  Government  was  aroused  to  action  before  all 
the  enumerated  causes  had  come  into  operation,  and  negotiations  were 
entered  into  with  the  Republic  of  New  Granada  to  secure  a  right  of 
transit  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  This  was 
Ne?«alr;nair«W,th  ^ted  by  a  treaty  concluded  in  December,  1846, 
though  the  ratifications  were  not  exchanged  until 
June,  1848.  A  copy  of  it  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  "'Appen- 
dix BB." 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  45 

The   increased   importance  of   an   interoceanic 

Resolutions  relating  to  .  * 

nteroceanic  conununicii-  communication  brought  the  subject  also  before 
tions  come  before  con-  Congress.  A  joint  resolution  was  introduced  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  during  the  Thirtieth 
Congress,  authorizing  the  survey  of  certain  routes  for  a  canal  or  rail- 
Referred  to  select  com-  l*oad  between  the  two  oceans,  which  with  other 
mittee.  papers  of  a  like  character  was  referred  to  a  select 

committee  of  which  Mr.  John  A.  Rockwell  was  made  chairman. 

The  committee  did  not  feel  prepared  to  say  to 

JieportofRoclnvelleon,.      what   ^^   [f   ^    ^   ^    q{   ^    Government 

should  be  rendered  to  these  projects,  but  recog- 
nized the  importance  of  a  communication  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and 
presented  such  information  as  was  available  in  relation  to  the  princi- 
pal routes  to  which  public  attention  had  been  directed.  The  superior 
importance  of  a  ship  canal  was  recognized,  but  it  was  suggested  that 
until  one  could  be  constructed  a  railroad  would  be  valuable  for  earlier 
use  and  as  an  auxiliary  to  a  canal. 

The  passage  of  the  joint  resolution  was  recommended  with  an  amend- 
ment, authorizing  surveys  from  some  point  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  addition  to  the  surveys  provided  for  in  the  joint 
resolution. 

The  report  of  this  committee  was  made  to  the  House  February  20, 
1849,  in  the  second  session  of  this  Congress,  and  is  numbered  145. 

At  the   same   session,  William  H.   Aspinwall, 
Pa^l^rliiroT60*0'80'    John  L-  Stephens,  and  Henry  Chauncey,  who,  as 

will  appear  a  little  farther  on,  had  undertaken  the 
construction  of  the  Panama  railroad,  presented  a  memorial,  asking  that 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  be  empowered  to  enter  into  a  contract  with 
them  for  the  transportation  over  their  road,  when  completed,  for  a 
period  of  twenty  years,  of  naval  and  army  supplies,  troops,  munitions 
of  war,  the  United  States  mails,  and  public  agents  or  officials,  at  a  rate 
not  exceeding  the  amount  then  specified  by  law  to  be  paid  for  the  trans- 
portation of  the  mails  alone  from  New  York  to  Liverpool,  on  condi- 
tion that  they  commence  within  one  year,  and  complete  within  three 
years  their  proposed  road  across  the  isthmus.  The  memorial  was 
referred  in  the  House  of  Representatives  to  the  Committee  on  Naval 
Affairs,  and  a  report  was  made  recommending  that  they  be  granted 
$250,000  a  year  to  aid  in  building  the  road.  No  action  was  taken  upon 
this  report,  but  annual  appropriations  were  made  for  carrying  the  mails 
across  the  isthmus  after  the  road  was  completed. 

Soon  after  the  convention  with  New  Granada 
with^icaraTua.^     **  y    had  been  ratified  and  proclaimed,  efforts  were  made 

to  negotiate  a  treaty  with  Nicaragua,  so  as  to 
obtain  favorable  transit  rights  through  that  country  for  the  Govern- 
ment and  citizens  of  the  United  States. 


46  REPOKT    OB    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Advantages  of  Nicaragua 


The  advantages  which  this  country  offered  for 
an  interoceanic  canal  had  been  known  for  centu- 
ries, and   the  desire  to  secure    them   led   to  the 
negotiation  of  a  treaty  with  Nicaragua  by  Mr.  Elijah   Hise,  charge 
d'affaires  of  the  United  States,  in  June,  1849.     By 

Hise  treaty. 

its  terms  the  Republic  undertook  to  confer  upon 
the  United  States,  or  a  company  of  its  citizens,  the  exclusive  right  to 
construct  through  its  territory  canals,  turnpikes,  railways,  or  any 
other  kind  of  roads,  so  as  to  open  a  passage  and  communication  by 
land  or  water,  or  both,  for  the  transit  and  passage  of  ships  or  vehicles, 
or  both,  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The 
terms  of  the  treaty  were  most  liberal,  and  in  return  the  United  States 
was  to  aid  and  protect  Nicaragua  in  all  defensive  wars,  the  Army  and 
Navy  and  all  available  means  and  resources  of  both  countries  to  be 
used,  if  necessary,  to  defend  the  territories  of  the  latter  or  to  recover 
such  as  might  have  been  seized  or  occupied  lyy  force.  Nicaragua  con- 
sented to  these  terms  because  it  was  desired  to  secure  the  aid  of  the 
United  States,  in  resisting  the  policy  which  Great  Britain  was  then 
pursuing  in  Central  America,  with  the  apparent  intention  of  securing 
the  permanent  control  of  the  lower  waters  of  the  San  Juan,  under  a 
claim  already  mentioned,  that  the  boundaries  of  the  Mosquito  district 
extended  to  and  included  the  mouth  of  that  river,  where  at  this  time 
the  Mosquito  flag  was  maintained  under  British  protection. 

Mr.  Hise  had  exceeded  his  authority  in  making 

Hise  succeeded  by  Squier.  ,  .    . 

this  treaty  and  it  was  not  approved  by  the  Adminis- 
tration at  Washington.  He  was  afterwards  recalled  and  was  succeeded 
by  Mr.  E.  G.  Squier,  who  negotiated  another  treaty  upon  the  subject 

and  a  contract  for    facilitating  the   transit   from 

Contract    of    American,  .  .  ,n  ,  .  . 

Atlantic  and  Pacific  ship    the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  by  means  ot  a  ship 
Canal  Company  with  Nic    canai  or  railroad,  in  the  interest  of  the  American, 

Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal  Company,  com- 
posed of  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  Joseph  L.  White,  Nathaniel  H.  Wolfe, 
and  their  associates. 

These  two  treaties  were  never  ratified,   but  they  were  subjects  of 

conference  and  discussion  during  the  negotiations 

Clayton- Bulwer  treaty.  .  .  ,  '   ,    T     . 

which  led  to  the  Clayton- bulwer  treaty  ot  Jul}'  5, 
1S50.  By  this  it  was  agreed,  among  other  things,  that  the  two  con- 
tracting parties  would  support  and  encourage  such  persons  or  company 
as  might  first  commence  a  ship  canal  through  Nicaragua  with  the 
necessary  capital  and  with  the  consent  of  the  local  authorities  and  on 
principles  in  accord  with  tin1  spirit  and  intention  of  the  convention. 
And  if  any  such  person  or  company  had  already  entered  into  a  contract 
for  the  construction  of  such  a  canal,  with  the  State  through  which  the 
same  was  to  pass,  it  was  agreed  that  such  person  or  company  should 
have  a  priority  of  claim,  if  the  parties  to  the  treaty  had  no  just  cause 
of  objection  to  such  contract. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  47 

This  provision  was  understood  to  be  in  the  interest  of  the  company 

for  which  Mr.  Squier  had  obtained  a  contract  in 

Terms  of  control  mtt     A         t   lg49      By  its  terms  thc  State  had  granted 

( 11  ii  »l  Company.  &        '  J  " 

to  it,  for  a  period  of  eighty-five  years,  to  be 
counted  from  the  completion  and  opening  of  the  work  to  public  use, 
the  exclusive  right  and  privilege  of  excavating  a  ship  canal  for 
vessels  of  all  sizes,  from  Grey  Town,  or  any  other  feasible  point  on 
the  Atlantic,  to  the  port  of  Realejo,  Gulf  of  Amapala  or  Fonseca, 
Tamorinda,  San  Juan  del  Sur,  or  any  other  point  on  the  Pacific, 
b}r  means  of  the  San  Juan  River,  Lake  Nicaragua,  the  Tipitapa 
River,  and  Lake  Managua,  or  any  other  waters  within  its  jurisdic- 
tion. The  contract  also  gave  to  the  company  the  exclusive  right  to 
construct  rail  or  carriage  roads  and  bridges-  and  to  establish  steam- 
boats and  other  vessels  on  the  rivers  and  lakes  as  accessories  to  and  in 
furtherance  of  the  execution  of  the  canal  project.  And  if  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal  or  any  part  of  it  should  be  found  to  be  imprac- 
ticable, then  the  company  was  authorized  to  establish  a  railroad  or 
some  other  communication  between  the  two  oceans  within  the  time 
limited  and  subject  to  the  same  terms  and  conditions. 

Subsequently  in  March,  1850,  the  compan}^  was 
r;.^h,^!r^,r',,r"0'     incorporated   by   the   Republic   of   Nicaragua   to 
prevent  any  embarrassments  in  the  development 
and  prosecution  of  its  enterprise. 

A  new  arrangement  was  made  in  August,  1851,  by  which  the  part 
of  the  contract  relating  to  steam  navigation  upon  the  waters  of  the 
State  was  separated  from  that  relating  to  the  canal.  This  was  desired 
by  the  company  so  as  to  establish  a  transit  route  across  the  isthmus 
connecting  with  steamship  lines  at  the  terminal  ports.  It  was  accom- 
plished by  a  new  charter,  authorizing  the  organization  of  another 
company  with  the  same  membership,  but  distinct 
So^rTMnRftconi0pai.Ay!CeS  and  separate,  to  be  known  as  the  Accessory  Tran- 
sit Company,  with  the  understanding,  however, 
that  neither  party  was  to  be  relieved  from  the  performance  of  the 
obligations  imposed  ))y  the  former  contract  and  charter. 

The  accessory  company,  during   the  following 

Transit  route  established  -i     i    •.      -ip       »    <i  i  <•    ,  i 

by  accessory  company.  year,  availed  itself  of  the  privileges  of  the  new 
contract  and  established  a  transportation  line  from 
Grey  Town  up  the  San  Juan  River  and  across  Lake  Nicaragua  by  steam- 
boats to  Virgin  Bay  on  the  western  side  of  the  lake,  and  thence  by 
stage  coaches  13  miles  over  a  good  road  to  San  Juan  del  Sur.  In  con- 
nection with  steamship  lines  in  the  two  oceans,  at  the  ends  of  the 
transit,  running  to  and  from  New  York  and  San  Francisco,  a  regular 
communication  was  thus  maintained  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
ports.  This  line  was  kept  up  for  many  years  and  was  traveled  by 
thousands  on  their  way  to  and  from  the  gold  regions  in  California;  it 


48  REPOKT    OE'    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

was  finally  terminated  by  the  disturbed  conditions  which  resulted  from 
the  expeditions  of  Walker  into  Central  America.     At  a  later  date  the 

transit  route  was  reopened  for  a  short  time  under 
company      er*can  raus     a  new  charter  in  the  name  of  the  Central  American 

Transit  Company. 
The  American  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal  Company  also  took. 
preliminary  steps  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  larger  matters  involved 
in  its  contract.  Though  there  had  been  before  this  time  man}^  explora- 
tions, reconnoissances,  and  examinations  of  this  country  with  a  view 
to  the  location  and  excavation  of  a  ship  canal,  it  does  not  appear  that 
any  thorough  and  complete  survey  had  ever  been  attempted,  and  if 
any  had  ever  been  made  there  was  no  record  of  its  existence,  or  of 
any  basis  for  even  the  roughest  estimate  of  the  cost  of  such  a  work 
upon  any  of  the  proposed  lines  through  Nicaragua.  It  was  now  deter- 
mined that  there  should  be  a  careful  instrumental  surve}T  from  ocean 
to  ocean  and  that  a  line  of  location  should  be  determined  upon.     Col. 

Orville  W.  Childs,  of  Philadelphia,  was  appointed 

Colonel  Chillis  appointed  ,  .    j.  .  .     ,  ■  »    ,-,  .  . 

to  survey  ,-anai  route.  :ls  cmef  engineer  to  take  charge  of  this  work  in 

August,  1850,  and  he  completed  it  in  March,  1852. 
The  results  of  this  survey  are  given  in  another  chapter  of  this  report, 
in  connection  with  the  engineering  features  of  the  Nicaragua  route. 

At  the  request  of  the  company  the  report  of  the 
Report    submitted    to     iSlirvey  ami  location  was  submitted  by  President 

Colonel  Abert    and    Lieu-       —,.„  /iitt»i  it-  /-ii 

tenant-Colonel  Turnbull.         1  llllUOre    to    Col.   J.   J.   Abeit    and    LlCUt.    Col.    V\  . 

Turnbull,  United  States  topographical  engineers, 
for  their  inspection  and  opinion,  and  on  the  20th  of  March,  1852,  they 
reported  that  the  plan  proposed  by  Colonel  Childs  was  practicable,  but 
recommended  some  changes  and  modifications. 

In  view  of  the  joint  agreement  to  protect  such  a  canal  entered  into 
by  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  it  was  deemed  advisable  to 
invite  the  British  Government  to  submit  the  Childs  report  to  engineers 

of  well-known  skill    and  experience,  and   at  the 

submitted    to   itritisi.     request  of  Abbott  Lawrence,  the  American  minis- 
engineers  by  request   of  *  .  , 
American  minister.            ter,  .Lord    Malmesbury    designated    Lieut.    Col. 

Edward  Aldrich,  of  the  royal  engineers,  and  Mr. 
James  Walker,  an  eminent  civil  engineer,  to  make  the  desired 
examination. 

They  submitted  their  report  on  the  L6th  day  of  July,  1852,  in  which 

they  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  Childs  project 
(1(..^""',u  was  practicable  and   would  not  be  attended  with 

engineering  difficulties  beyond  what  might  be  natu- 
rally expected  in  a  work  of  such  magnitude;  that  the  survey  had  every 
appearance  of  accuracy;  that  the  details  had  been  worked  out  with 
great  care,  and  that  Colonel  Childs  had  impressed  them  with  a  convic- 
tion of  perfect   fairness   and   candor.     They,   however,    favored   an 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  49 

increase  of  the  depth  to  20  feet,  the  breadth  to  50  feet,  and  the  length 
of  the  locks  to  300  feet.  These  dimensions  they  said  would  render  the 
navigation  more  efficient  for  the  general  purposes  of  trade,  and  the 
increased  expense  would  be  unimportant  when  compared  with  the 
advantages. 

Nothing  further  was  done  by  the  American 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal  Company  toward 
the  construction  of  a  maritime  canal,  but  the  value  of  the  Childs  sur- 
vey and  report  has  ever  since  been  recognized,  and  the  results  and 
conclusions  reached  by  him  have  served  as  a  basis  for  the  operations 
of  his  successors. 

No  progress  having  been  made  in  the  eonstruc- 
contracts  of  companies    ^l0n  0f  tne  canal,  it  was  claimed  by  the  President 
am."  of  Nicaragua  that  the  undertaking  had  been  aban- 

doned and  that  the  company  had  failed  to  make 
the  annual  payments  due  under  its  contract,  and  the  decree  was  made 
on  the  18th  day  of  February,  1856,  revoking  and  annulling  the  con- 
tracts made  with  the  ship  canal  company  and  the  accessory  transit 
company  and  all  the  privileges  contained  therein,  and  also  the  act  of 
incorporation,  and  dissolving  and  abolishing  the  companies.  It  was 
further  decreed  that  all  the  company  property  be  seized  to  secure  the 
payment  of  such  amount  as  might  be  due  the  State,  to  be  ascertained 
by  a  board  appointed  to  make  a  thorough  examination  of  its  affairs. 
The  company  denied  the  right  of  the  Government  to  annul  the  con- 
tract and  withdraw  the  charter,  and  various  attempts  were  made  from 
time  to  time  to  settle  their  differences,  but  the  decrees  were  renewed 
and  reaffirmed  and  no  work  was  ever  done  by  the  company  upon  the 
project  which  Colonel  Childs  had  prepared. 

After  the  Nicaraguan  Government  had  declared  the  concession  to 
the  American  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal  Company  terminated, 
because  of  noncompliance  with  its  terms,  and  while  the  company 
claimed  that  it  was  still  entitled  to  the  privileges  it  contained,  Nica- 
ragua and  Costa  Rica  united,  in  May,  1858,  in  granting  a  like  conces- 
sion to  Felix  Belly,  a  citizen  of  France,  to  construct  a  canal  from  the 
mouth  of  the  San  Juan,  by  way  of  the  river  and  Lake  Nicaragua,  to 
the  Pacific.  This  concession  was  to  be  executed  by  a  company  which  he 
was  to  organize.  The  neutrality  of  the  canal  was  to  be  maintained  by 
the  great  powers,  in  harmony  with  the  policy  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer 
treaty,  and  the  privilege  was  to  continue  for  ninety-nine  years. 
Another  article  of  the  contract  provided  that  the  French  Government 
should  have  the  right  to  keep  two  ships  of  war  stationed  in  Lake  Nica- 
ragua for  the  entire  duration  of  the  works.  Mr.  Cass,  then  Secretary 
of  State,  declared  this  arrangement  obnoxious,  and  added  that  the 
equality  and  security  of  these  interoceanic  routes  constitute  a  great  por- 
tion of  their  value  to  the  world,  and  that  an  exclusive  right  in  one  of 

6  D— 57-1— Vol  7 4 


50  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

these  powers  to  exercise  a  permanent  armed  intervention  would  give 
serious  cause  of  dissatisfaction  to  all  the  others.  But  no  effort  was 
made  to  carry  the  obnoxious  clause  into  effect,  for  the  company  failed 
to  execute  its  project  and  the  concession  was  annulled.  In  October, 
1868,  the  two  Republics  entered  into  a  contract  with  Michel  Chevalier, 
another  citizen  of  France,  with  the  same  purpose  in  view.  They  also 
entered  into  a  treaty  with  one  another  in' the  following  year,  in  support 
of  the  contract,  which  is  presented  more  fully  in  the  chapter  on  "Rights, 
privileges,  and  franchises,"  and  some  articles  from  the  treaty  are  con- 
tained in  Appendix  X.  This  effort  to  secure  the  construction  of  a 
canal  also  failed,  and  the  contract  was  forfeited. 

Before  the   treaty   with   New  Granada  already 
New  Granada  makes  con-    referred  to  had  been  ratified,  that  Republic,  in 

tract  with  French  Company  7  L 

for  railroad  at  Panama.  May,  181*,  had  granted  to  the  Panama  Company, 
an  association  of  Frenchmen  represented  by  one 
Mateo  Kline,  the  exclusive  privilege  of  building  a  railroad  between  the 
two  oceans  across  the  isthmus  for  ninety-nine  years,  to  be  counted 
from  the  day  of  the  completion  and  opening  of  the  road  to  public  use. 
The  company  failed  to  cany  out  this  contract  and  it  was  declared  for- 
feited. 

Subsequently,  in  December,  1848,  the  Govern- 
New  contract  with  Amer-  j_>  i  i.u  •    -i  £  ii.       17-1  ■ 

ican  company.  ment  transferred  the  privileges  of  the  Kline  con- 

tract, with  some  modifications  which  will  appear 
in  another  chapter  of  this  report,  to  Aspinwall,  Stephens,  and  Chaun- 
cey,  who,  with  their  associates,  organized  the  Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany,   by   which  the  road    was   constructed   and 

Panama   Kallroad    com-  -i,  ii-  »      •      -icr*-  js  a         •  11 

pieted  in  1855.  opened  to  public  use  early  in  185o  from  Aspinwall, 

or  Colon,  to  Panama,  a  distance  of  17f  miles. 

But  this  railroad,  valuable  and  useful  as  it  promised  to  be,  was  only 

a  forward  movement.     The  barrier  was  more  easily  passed,  but  it  still 

remained.     The  desire  for  a  maritime  canal  was  increased  rather  than 

abated,  and  further  examinations  and  surveys  were 

ferelVcrr' ro'ut"r°f,nf'    diligently  prosecuted  at  different  locations  in  the 

isthmian    country  to    ascertain   and   develop   the 

advantages  and  possibilities  of  the  different  routes  and  schemes  that 

had  been  from  time  to  time  proposed. 

The  Government  and  people  of  the  United  States.  Great  Britain,  and 
France  were  the  most  active  in  these  explorations.  They  were  confined 
for  a  time  mainly  to  the  Darien  country,  between 
Panama  and  the  Atrato  River.  It  was  known 
that  there  were  good  harbors  in  this  section  in  both  oceans,  and  in  sev- 
eral places  the  distance  across  the  isthmus  was  comparatively  short, 
but  only  the  native  Indians  were  acquainted  with  the  interior.  The 
early  Spanish  settlers  had  often  crossed  the  country,  and  the  bucca- 
neers had  frequently  penetrated  it  successfully  in  their  incursions. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  51 

There  were  traditions  and  reports  of  the  existence  of  low  depressions 
in  the  mountain  range  and  of  passages  for  canoes  used  by  the  Indians 
when  they  wished  to  cross  from  sea  to  sea.  So  when  the  difficulties 
of  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  canal  routes  were  made  known  by  the 
Childs  survey  and  the  survey  for  the  railroad,  public  attention  was 
directed  to  this  region  in  the  hope  of  finding  a  shorter  and  easier 
transit,  where  a  sea-level  canal  might  be  excavated. 

Three  general  lines  were  examined — the  San  Bias,  Caledonia  Ba}% 
and  the  Atrato.  The}'  derived  their  names  in  each  case  from  the 
Atlantic  terminus,  but  there  were  variations  of  each,  following  the 
courses  of  different  rivers,  and,  in  case  of  the  Atrato,  reaching  the 
Pacific  at  different  points  from  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel  to  the  mouth 
of  the  San  Juan  at  Chirambira  Bay,  more  than  300  miles  farther  south. 
These  examinations  were  made  in  some  cases  at 
unit«<i  states  Govern-     tne  eXpense  0f  private  individuals  and  companies, 

ment  aids  in  the  examlna-  l  ,  L 

tions.  but  the  aid  of   the  Government  was  sometimes 

extended  through  the  Navy  Department,  and  par- 
ties of  officers  and  men  from  the  United  States  vessels  on  the  coasts 
of  the  isthmus  explored  the  country  to  determine  whether  any  practi- 
cable and  desirable  canal  routes  existed  there.  The  country  was  also 
visited  by  other  exploring  parties  from  Great  Britain  and  France. 

Some  of  the  results  of  these  examinations  are 

General  results.  ,  ,  .  ,  ,     .  ,  .  .      ,  . 

stated  and  considered  in  another  chapter  of  this 
report.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  here  that  they  added  greatly  to  the  topo- 
graphic and  geographic  knowledge  of  these  regions  and  that  the 
expectations  of  those  who  had  anticipated  that  an  easy  route  would 
be  found  where  a  canal  could  be  constructed  at  comparatively  little 
cost  were  not  realized,  though  some  of  the  reports  were  so  favorable 
as  to  encourage  further  investigation.  Accounts  of  some  of  these 
expeditions  are  to  be  found  in  the  report  on  the  isthmus  of  Darien, 
made  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  by  Lieut.  I.  G.  Strain  in  1854, 
published  during  the  Thirty-third  Congress,  second  session,  as  Senate 
Ex.  Doc.  No.  1,  and  in  the  report  of  Lieut.  John  T.  Sullivan,  United 
States  Navy,  published  during  the  Forty-seventh  Congress,  second 
session,  as  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  107. 

senate  requests  report  of  ^  In  March,  1866,  a  resolution  was  adopted  by  the 
results  of  examinations  in  Senate,  requesting  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  to 
furnish,  through  a  report  of  the  Superintendent 
of  the  Naval  Observatory,  such  information  as  had  been  collected  with 
reference  to  the  various  proposed  lines  for  interoceanic  canals  and  rail 
roads  between  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  and  to 
state  whether  the  isthmus  of  Darien  had  been  sufficiently  explored 
the  report  to  be  accompanied  with  charts,  plans,  lines  of  level,  and  a 
statement  of  the  authority  upon  which  they  were  based.     The  purpose 


52  KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  the  resolution  was  understood  to  be  to  obtain  a  basis  for  a  continu- 
ance of  the  examination  of  the  routes  not  already  sufficiently  known, 
without  any  useless  expenditure  of  money  upon  schemes  already  found 
to  be  infeasible  and  unpromising. 

In  response  to  the  resolution,  Secretary  Welles, 

Report  of  Admiral  Davis.     .  ,  .7    ,,         .  T    ,  ...     i  » 

in  the  following  July,  transmitted  a  report  of 
Rear- Admiral  Charles  H.  Davis,  which  was  printed  as  Senate  Execu- 
tive Document  No.  62,  during  the  first  session  of  the  Thirty-ninth 
Congress.  It  was  accompanied  with  a  general  map  of  the  American 
isthmus  and  maps  and  profiles  of  the  different  routes  included  in  the 
investigations  made  under  the  resolution. 

The  report  enumerates  19  canal  and  7  road  projects  in  the  isthmian 
country,  extending  from  Tehuantepec  to  the  Atrato.  It  excludes  from 
further  consideration  the  projects  in  Tehuantepec  and  Honduras  as 
possessing  little  merit  as  practicable  canal  lines.  With  reference  to 
the  eight  routes  in  Nicaragua,  Admiral  Davis  says: 

"It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  no  enterprise,  presenting  such  for- 
midable difficulties,  will  ever  be  undertaken  with  even  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  American  isthmuses.  Still  less  is  it  likely  to  be 
entered  upon  while  such  strong  and  well-founded  hopes  are  entertained 
by  the  promoters  of  the  union  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  of 
finding  elsewhere  a  very  much  easier,  cheaper,  and  more  practicable 
route  for  a  canal  in  every  way  suited  to  the  present  demands  of  com- 
merce and  navigation." 

In  speaking  of  the  project  of  connecting  the  Upper  Atrato  with  the 
San  Juan,  he  says: 

"  The  examination  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Atrato,  of  the  interven- 
ing watershed,  and  of  the  headwaters  of  the  San  Juan  satisfactorily 
proved  that  nature  forbids  us  altogether  to  entertain  an  idea  of  a  union 
of  the  two  oceans  in  this  direction." 

He  gives  a  general  description  of  the  other  lines  in  Panama,  Darien, 
and  the  Atrato  valley,  and  favors  further  examinations  for  the  reason 
that,  according  to  his  statement,  "there  does  not  exist  in  the  libraries 
of  the  world  the  means  of  determining,  even  approximately,  the  most 
practicable  route  for  a  ship  canal  across  the  isthmus."  He  further 
says,  "The  Isthmus  of  Darien  has  not  been  satisfactorily  explored," 
and  afterwards  adds,  "It  is  to  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  that  we  are  first 
to  look  for  the  solution  of  the  great  problem  of  an  interoceanic  canal." 
In  1869  General  Grant  became  President  and  in 

President     (irant     calls 

attention  to  subject  of  in-  his  first  message  to  Congress  commended  an  Amer- 
teroceanie  .anai   m  his    j(.;in  (.anai    on  American  soil,   to   the   American 

first  message.  ,     , 

people.  Congress  promptly  responded  to  this 
sentiment  by  adopting  a  joint  resolution  providing  for  further  explo- 
rations of  the  isthmus  by  officers  of  the  Navy,  and  Admiral  Ammen, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  53 

as  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Navigation,  was  authorized  to  organize  and 

send  out  expeditions  for  this  purpose.     In  March. 

congress  authorizes  fur-    1872    Jt  further   resolution   was  adopted  for  the 

her  explorations.  '  ,  ■ *■ 

appointment  of  a  commission  to  study  the  results 
of  the  explorations  and  to  obtain  from  other  reliable  sources  all  avail- 
able information  regarding  the  practicability  of  the  construction  of  a 
canal  across  the  American  continent.     The  President  appointed  on  this 

Interoceanic  Canal  Commission  Gen.  A.  A.  Hum- 
App.ointn.ent  of  21     phreys,  Chief  of  Engineers,  United  States  Army; 

oceaulcl'anaKomnilssioii.       f       ^J     '   ^  o  J  ' 

C.  P.  Patterson,  Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Sur- 
vey, and  Commodore  Daniel  Ammen,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Naviga- 
tion of  the  Navy. 

The  commissioners  considered  the  results  of  investigations  which 
had  been  made  before  their  appointment  and  those  still  in  progress, 
and  under  their  directions  further  explorations  and  examinations  were 
made  in  the  isthmian  country  wherever  they  regarded  additional 
information  as  necessaiy  to  enable  them  to  carry  out  the  purposes  of 
the  law. 

Capt.  R.  W.  Shufeldt,  United  States  Navy,  had 
been  placed  in  charge  of  an  expedition  to  Tehuan- 
tepec  in  the  fall  of  1870;  he  reached  the  Atlantic  terminus  of  the  route 
early  in  November  and  completed  his  examination  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  following  April.  A  level  and  transit  line  was  run  from  Salina 
Cruz,  on  the  Pacific,  to  the  dividing  ridge  at  Tarifa,  and  was  continued 
from  there  to  the  junction  of  the  Upper  Coatzacoalcos,  or  Corte  River, 
with  the  Blanco. 

The  want  of  sufficient  force  and  the  season  of  the  year  prevented 
the  running  of  the  line  from  Tarifa  to  the  Atlantic,  but  the  party  had 
the  results  of  former  surveys  for  railroad  purposes  and  careful  obser- 
vations made  by  those  employed  in  the  expedition,  during  their 
frequent  journeys  along  the  route,  to  aid  them  in  reaching  their 
conclusions. 

The  canal  line,  which  was  recommended  in  the  report  of  the  expe- 
dition, commenced  at  the  head  of  navigation  in  the  Coatzacoalcos,  at 
the  island  of  Tacamichipa,  thence  through  the  valley  of  the  river, 
utilizing  it  whenever  desirable,  to  the  dividing  ridge  at  Tarifa,  thence 
descending  through  Tarifa  Pass,  probably  by  the  valle}7  of  the  Chicapa, 
to  the  harbors  of  Salina  Cruz,  the  Pacific  terminus.  The  proposed 
canal  was  to  be  144  miles  long,  and  would  require  the  improvement  of 
the  navigable  part  of  the  Coatzacoalcos  for  about  35  miles.  The  sum- 
mit level  was  754.4  feet  high;  this  could  be  reduced  to  732  feet;  to 
cross  it  would  require  about  140  locks.  The  harbors  at  each  terminus 
would  have  to  be  improved.  The  water  supply  could  only  be  fur- 
nished from  the  Upper  Coatzacoalcos,  or  Corte,  near  its  junction  with 
the  Blanco,  through  a  feeder,  about  27  miles  long,  to  the  canal  at 
Tarifa. 


54  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Captain  Shufeldt  entered  upon  his  work,  maintaining  that  "with 
the  advantages  of  modern  science  a  canal  can  be  built  anywhere,  in- 
volving only  the  question  of  expense,  provided  water  can  be  found  to 
fill  it."  But  when  he  reported  the  result  of  his  survey,  and  con- 
sidered the  difficulties  and  expense  of  executing  the  plan,  he  expressed 
the  opinion  that  it  "  can  only  be  deemed  practicable  to  the  extent  of 
its  political  and  commercial  necessity,  measured  by  the  progress  of  the 
age."  The  report  was  printed  as  Senate  Executive  Document  No.  6, 
in  the  second  session  of  the  Forty-second  Congress. 

Commander  A.  F.  Crosman,  United  States 
Navy,  was  placed  in  charge  of  an  expedition  to 
examine  the  Nicaragua  route  in  1872,  but  was  drowned  on  the  12th 
of  April  in  attempting  to  effect  a  landing  at  Greytown.  The  com- 
mand was  then  assumed  by  Commander  Chester  Hatfield,  United 
States  Navy,  the  officer  next  in  rank,  who  began  a  survey  on  the  west 
side  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  continued  the  work  until  the  rainy 
season.  In  October,  1872,  he  was  relieved  by  Commander  Edward 
P.  Lull,  United  States  Navy;  the  expedition  was 
reorganized  in  November,  and  a  survey  of  the 
entire  route  from  Gre}7town  to  Brito  was  completed  during  the  follow- 
ing year.  Mr.  A.  G.  Menocal  served  in  this  expedition  as  chief  civil 
engineer.  An  account  of  this  survey  will  appear  in  another  chapter 
of  this  report.  It  follows  the  Childs  route,  except  that  on  the  west 
side  of  the  lake  it  crosses  the  divide  farther  to  the  north  and  follows 
the  valley  of  the  Medio  to  the  lake,  making  a  shorter  line,  but  requir- 
ing deeper  cutting  at  the  divide. 

The  Hatfield  and  Lull  report  was  printed  as  Senate  Executive  Docu- 
ment No.  57,  in  the  first  session  of  the  Forty-third  Congress. 

The   Interoceanic  Canal  Commission   had  also 

McFarland  report. 

before  them  a  report  on  the  Nicaragua  route  made 
by  Maj.  Walter  McFarland,  Corps  of  Engineers,  United  States  Army, 
who  was  detailed  by  the  War  Department  to  aid  in  making  these 
examinations.  He  went  over  the  country  through  which  the  canal 
passes  in  March,  1874,  and  made  a  favorable  report  upon  the  route, 
including  a  rough  estimate  of  the  cost  of  canal  26  feet  deep  at  $140,- 
000,000.  The  report  was  printed  as  Senate  Executive  Document 
No.  46,  in  the  second  session  of  the  Fifty-second  Congress. 

In  the  absence  of  any  accurate  information  of 

the  Panama  route  along  the  line  of  the  railroad, 
obtained  with  reference  to  the  construction  of  a  canal,  the  Commission 
deemed  it  best  to  have  it  examined,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 

assigned  Capt.  Edward  P.  Lull  to  this  work,  with 
MenoVaZ ma  C  *  Mr.    A.   G.   Menocal   as   his   principal    assistant. 

They  made  a  careful  instrumental  examination  of 
the  isthmus  in  1875  and  reported  in  favor  of  a  line  41.7  miles  long 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  55 

from  the  Bay  of  Limon  to  the  Chagres,  ascending  its  valley  and  that 
of  the  Obispo  to  the  divide  and  descending  the  Pacific  slope  by  the 
valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Hay  of  Panama.  It  follows  the  gen- 
eral line  of  the  Panama  Railroad,  and  the  plan  of  construction,  with 
some  variations,  has  been  adopted  in  most  of  the  subsequent  surveys. 
The  report  was  printed  as  Senate  Executive  Document  No.  75,  in  the 
third  session  of  the  Forty-fifth  Congress,  and  the  project  is  more  fully 
described  in  another  chapter  of  this  report. 

The   Interoceanic   Canal   Commission    had    before   it   the   surveys 
which  had  been  made  of  the  various   routes  in 

Diiricn. 

Darien  and  the  Atrato  Valley  and  further  exami- 
nations were  made  of  parts  of  these  regions   b}^  Captain  Lull  and 

Major  McFarland,  the  results  of  which  are  printed 

in  the  volumes  already  referred  to,  in  connection 
with  their  reports  upon  the  Panama  and  Nicaragua  routes. 

Prior    tb    this,    Commander   T.    O.    Self  ridge, 

United  States  Navy,  was  engaged  for  many  months 
in  1870-1873  in  exploring  this  part  of  the  isthmian  country.  He  was 
first  placed  in  command  of  an  expedition  by  Secretary  Robeson  in 
1870,  with  a  corps  of  junior  officers  of  the  Navy  and  others  from  the 
Coast  Survey  and  a  number  of  skilled  assistants,  besides  a  large  guard 
of  marines,  and  was  directed  to  make  a  survey  of  the  isthmus  of 
Darien  to  ascertain  the  point  at  which  to  cut  a  canal  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Two  vessels  were  placed  under  his  immediate 
command  and  a  third  was  detailed  to  cooperate  with  him  on  the 
Pacific  side.  A  similar  expedition  under  the  same  principal  officers 
was  sent  out  to  continue  the  work  in  the  following  year,  and  under  a 
later  order  from  the  Navy  Department  the  work  was  completed  in 
April,  1873.  Commander  Lull  assisted  in  the  work  of  the  expeditions 
of  1870  and  1871,  and  was  in  command  of  one  of  the  vessels  on  the 
Atlantic  side. 

The  parties  working  under  these  orders  made  tentative  surveys 
from  San  Bias  Bay  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Chepo,  from  Caledonia 
Bay  to  the  Morti,  and  from  the  same  vicinity  on  the  eastern  coast  to 
the  Sucubti  across  the  divide;  also  the  Depuydt  route  and  that  of  the 
Cocarica  and  Tuyra  rivers. 

The  report  of  these  surveys  was  printed  as  House  Mis.  Doc.  No.  113 
in  the  third  session  of  the  Fort}^-second  Congress. 

'"After  a  long,  careful,  and  minute  study  of  the  several  surveys  of 
the  various  routes  across  the  continent,"  the  Interoceanic  Canal  Com- 
mission, in  February,  1876,  unanimously  reported  as  follows: 

"  That  the  route  known  as  the  '  Nicaragua  route,' 
jniEr-*    beginning  on  the  Atlantic  side  at  or  near  Grey 

Town;  running  by  canal  to  the  San  Juan  River; 
thence     *     *     *     to    *     *     *     Lake  Nicaragua;  from  thence  across 


56  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  lake  and  through  the  valleys  of  the  Rio  del  Medio  and  the  Rio 
Grande  to  *  *  *  Brito,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  possesses,  both  for 
the  construction  and  maintenance  of  a  canal,  greater  advantages  and 
offers  fewer  difficulties  from  engineering,  commercial,  and  economic 
points  of  view  than  an}T  one  of  the  other  routes  shown  to  be  practi- 
cable by  surveys  sufficient  in  detail  to  enable  a  judgment  to  be  formed 
of  their  respective  merits." 

This  report  was  not  transmitted  to  Congress  till  April,  1879,  when 
it  was  called  for  by  a  resolution  of  the  Senate.  It  was  printed  as  Sen- 
ate Ex.  Doc.  No.  15  in  the  first  session  of  the  Forty-sixth  Congress. 

While  the  Interoceanic  Canal  Commission  was  examining  into  the 
merits  of  the  different  canal  routes  a  provisional  company  was  organ- 
ized in  France  for  the  purpose  of  inaugurating  a  scheme  for  the  con- 
nection of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  by  a  navigable  waterway 
across   the  American  isthmus.     Lieut.  L.  N.  B. 

Colombia  grants  eonces-    tit  ,i  ,    ,•  £  ,1  •  ,. 

sion  to  l.  x.  b.  wyse.  Wyse,  as  the  representative  of  this  organization, 

visited  the  Republic  of  Colombia  to  examine  the 
isthmian  section  there  and,  if  practicable,  to  negotiate  a  favorable  con- 
cession as  a  basis  for  their  plans.  In  May,  1876,  he  entered  into  a 
contract  with  the  Colombian  Government,  which  was  afterwards,  in 
May,  1878,  modified  and  extended  so  as  to  give  to  the  promoters  the 
exclusive  privilege,  for  ninety-nine  y ears,  of  constructing  and  operat- 
ing a  canal  across  the  territory  of  the  Republic,  between  the  two 
oceans,  without  any  restrictive  stipulations  of  any  kind,  provided  that 
if  the  company  of  execution  selected  a  route  in  that  part  of  the  isth- 
mus in  which  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  already  had  exclusive 
privileges  an  amicable  arrangement  must  be  made  with  it  under 
which  the  new  canal  company  could  occupy  the  territory  in  which 
these  privileges  existed. 

Under  this  latter  contract  the  general  route  of  the  proposed  canal 

was  to  be  determined  by  an  international  congress  of  engineers  and 

others,  to  be  assembled  not  later  than  1881.     In 

International      Scientific  j  •,]      ,  1   •  •    •  iL  r     .  ,•  i 

Confess  at  Parish.  is79.  accordance  with  this  provision  an  International 
Scientific  Congress "  was  assembled  at  Paris  in 
May,  1879,  and  a  decision  was  reached  that  the  best  line  for  a  mari- 
time canal  across  the  American  isthmus  was  from  the  Gulf  of  Limon 
to  the  Bay  of  Panama.  An  account  of  this  congress  will  appear  in 
another  chapter  of  this  report. 

This  concession  was  transferred  to  La  Compagnic 

Transfer     of     concession     it-  ui/t  i     t     i.  !  J      T>~ 

t„  Panama  cana.  co„,Pany.  Universelle  dn  (  unul  Lnteroceamque  de  Panama, 
better  known  in  the  United  States  as  the  Panama 
Canal  Company,  which  was  organized  early  in  1881  to  construct  a  sea- 
level  canal  by  the  proposed  route.  The  history  of  this  company  and 
of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  which  undertook  the  work  after 
it  failed  and  went  into  liquidation,  and  a  description  of  the  engineer- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  57 

ing  features  of  the  different  plans  upon  which  they  have  operated,  will 
appear  in  another  chapter  of  this  report. 

The  report  of  the  Interoceanic  Canal  Commission  was  generally 
accepted  with  reference  to  the  feasibility  of  the  proposed  canal  routes 
in  the  Tehuantepec,  Darien,  and  Atrato  regions,  and  no  further  sur- 
veys were  made  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
JSESSST  States.  But  when  Mr.  James  B.Eads,  in  1881, 
endeavored  to  carry  out  his  project  for  a  ship 
railway,  he  recognized  the  advantages  of  the  Tehuantepec  transit  for 
his  purposes  and  obtained  a  charter  from  the  Government  of  Mexico 
authorizing  him  to  use  this  route.  His  plan  for  transporting  vessels 
from  ocean  to  ocean  had  many  advocates,  who  believed  that  such  a 
communication  was  entirely  practicable,  and  could  be  constructed  at 
less  cost  than  a  maritime  canal  by  any  of  the  routes  that  have  been 
considered.  The  plan  was  brought  before  Congress  in  an  effort  to 
secure  governmental  aid,  but  without  success,  and  since  the  death  of 
Mr.  Eads,  in  1887,  no  further  efforts  have  been  made  to  carry  the 
project  into  execution. 

The  Nicaragua  route  was  again  surveyed  in  1885, 

^Nicaragua   Menocal  sur-    ^^  ^  ^^^  Qf    ^    gecretary  of   ^    Nayy?  by 

Mr.  A.  G.  Menocal.  In  his  report  he  recom- 
mended a  plan  which  is  stated  in  the  chapter  of  this  report  on  the  Nica- 
ragua route.  +  + 

The  report  of  this  survey  was  printed  as  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  99  in 
the  first  session  of  the  Forty-ninth  Congress. 

In  December,  1884,  a  treaty  had  been  negotiated 
Treaty  negotiated  «iti,  between  the  United  States  and  Nicaragua,  author- 

Mcarasua  in  1884.  .  ~ 

izing  the  construction  of  a  canal  by  the  former  over 

the  territory  of  the  latter,  to  be  owned  by  the  two  contracting  parties. 

It  is  more  particularly  referred  to  in  another  part  of  this  report  and 

appears  as  Appendix  L.     In  December,  1885,  while  the  treaty  was 

still  pending  in  the  Senate,  it  was  withdrawn  from 

further  consideration  by  the  Chief  Executive,  who 

stated  as  a  reason  for  his  action  that  it  proposed  a 

perpetual  alliance  with  Nicaragua  and  the  protection  of  the  integrity 

of  the  territoiy  of  that  State,  contrary  to  the  declared  policy  of  the 

United  States. 

In  April,  1887,  Nicaragua  granted  a  concession 
sion'TMenocarlnnsso"  to  Mr.  A.  G.  Menocal  and  others,  authorizing  the 
elates.  construction  "hi   a  ship  canal  from  Gre}r  Town  to 

Brito,  and  as  the  proposed  canal  would  affect  the 
territory  of  Costa  Rica    also  the  promoters  found  it    necessary  to 
secure  a  like  concession  from  that  Republic,  which 
costaeBieTCeSSl°n  fr°n'   was  accomplished   in  August,  1888.     These  con- 
tracts appear  as  appendices,  marked  "R"  and  ""  Z." 


58  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

A  company  of  execution  was  organized,  under  the  name  of  The  Mari- 
time Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua,  to  construct 

Maritime  Canal  Company.     ^    operate  a    can!ll  under    these  Contracts,  and    it 

was  incorporated  by  Congress  in  February,  1889. 

The  features  of  the  project  adopted  by  this  company,  the  work  it 
accomplished,  the  subsequent  failure  of  the  construction  company 
organized  in  connection  with  it,  and  the  action  of  the  Government  of 
Nicaragua  in  declaring  its  contract  forfeited  and  terminated  because 
of  the  lack  of  fulfillment  of  its  most  essential  clauses  are  stated  in 
another  chapter  of  this  report.  Propositions  to  aid  the  company  were 
before  Congress  for  several  years,  through  an  arrangement  by  which 
the  Government  was  to  become  a  stockholder  and  an  indorser  of  the 
company's  bonds,  and  a  bill  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose 
was  passed  by  the  Senate  in  January,  1895,  but  failed  in  the  House 
of  Representatives.  Another  bill,  retaining  the  company  organiza- 
tion, but  eliminating  the  private  or  individual  stockholders,  was  passed 
by  the  Senate  in  January,  1899,  but  no  final  action  was  taken  upon  it 
by  the  House  before  the  close  of  the  Congress. 

While  the  former  bill  was  pending  in  the  House  an  amendment  to 

the  sundry  civil  appropriation  bill  was  adopted  in  the  Senate  for  the 

purpose  of  ascertaining  the  feasibilit}T,  permanence,  and  cost  of  the 

construction    and    completion    of    the   canal    through    Nicaragua    by 

the  contemplated  route.     A  board  of  three  engi- 

Mcaraifiia  Canal  Board.  *■  .      ,  .  .  . 

neers  was  provided  tor,  to  be  appointed  by  the 
President — one  from  the  Corps  of  Engineeers  of  the  Army,  one  from 
the  engineers  of  the  Navy,  and  one  from  civil  life.  Under  regula- 
tions to  be  made  by  the  Secretary  of  State,*  with  the  approval  of  the 
President,  this  board  was  to  visit  and  personally  inspect  the  route, 
examine  and  consider  the  plans,  profiles,  sections,  prisms,  and  specifi- 
cations for  its  various  parts,  and  report  to  the  President.  In  case  it 
should  be  ascertained  that  any  deviation  from  the  general  line  of  the 
proposed  route  was  desirable,  the  board  was  directed  so  to  state  in  its 
findings  and  conclusions. 

The  bill  was  passed  with  this  amendment  and  was  approved  March 
2, 1895.  The  President  appointed  Lieut.  Col.  William  Ludlow,  Corps 
of  Engineers,  United  States  Army;  Civil  Engineer  M.  T.  Endicott, 
United  States  Navy,  and  Alfred  Noble,  civil  engineer,  to  constitute 
this  board,  which  was  designated  as  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Board.  The 
appointments  were  made  April  25,  and  the  members  of  the  board  pro- 
ceeded early  in  the  following  month  to  Nicaragua  and,  after  their 
examinations  there,  completed  their  work  in  time  to  make  their  report 
by  the  1st  of  November,  as  required  by  law.  This  report  was  printed 
during  the  first  session  of  the  Fifty-fourth  Congress  as  House  Doc. 
No.  279. 

The  Nicaragua  Canal  Board  found  it  impracticable  within  the  time 


REPORT    OK    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  59 

fixed  in  the  law,  and  with  the  limited  means  appropriated  for  the 
accomplishment  of  its  work,  to  make  a  full  and  thorough  examination 
of  the  route  and  obtain  the  necessary  data  for  the  formation  of  a  final 
project  of  a  canal,  and  in  the  report  a  recommendation  was  included 
that  there  be  further  explorations  and  observations,  so  as  to  collect 
the  information  and  data  regarded  as  essential  to  the  comprehension 
of  the  fundamental  features  of  the  canal  problem,  which  should 
decide  the  final  location  and  cost  of  the  work. 

In  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  board,  there  was  included  in 
the  sundry  civil  appropriation  act,  which  was  approved  June  4,  1897, 
an  appropriation  to  continue  the  surveys  and  examinations  in  Nicara- 
gua, authorized  by  the  former  act,  under  which  the  Ludlow  Board  had 
been  appointed.  By  this  latter  act  the  President  was  empowered  to 
appoint,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 

Nicaragua  Canal  Comnils-    o  x.  •  •    ±        n 

glon  Senate,  a  commission  to  consist  of  one  engineer 

from  the  Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  United  States 
Army,  one  officer  of  the  Navy,  from  the  active  or  retired  list,  and  one 
engineer  from  civil  life.  This  Commission  was  to  have  all  the  powers 
and  duties  conferred  upon  the  former  board  and  was  to  report  upon 
the  proper  route  for  a  canal  in  Nicaragua  and  the  feasibility  and  cost 
of  the  work,  with  the  view  of  making  complete  plans  for  the  con- 
struction of  such  a  canal  as  was  contemplated. 

Pursuant  to  this  authority,  the  President  appointed  Rear- Admiral 
John  G.  Walker,  United  States  Navy,  Col.  Peter  C.  Hains,  Corps  of 
Engineers,  United  States  Army,  and  Prof.  Lewis  M.  Haupt,  civil 
engineer,  to  constitute  the  Commission,  which  was  designated  as  the 
Nicaragua  Canal  Commission,  Admiral  Walker  being  named  as  presi- 
dent. The  Commission  performed  the  duties  assigned  to  it  and  made 
its  report  to  the  President  May  9,  1899;  it  includes  the  results  of  the 
latest  investigations  made  of  this  route  prior  to  the  appointment  of 
the  present  Commission.  A  limited  number  of  copies  of  this  report, 
including  an  atlas  which  was  prepared  to  accompany  it,  was  printed 
under  the  direction  of  the  present  Commission  for  its  information, 
but  it  has  not  yet  been  published  as  a  Congressional  document. 

This  brings  the  history  of  the  transits  of  the  American  isthmus  and 
of  the  efforts  to  discover  or  construct  a  navigable  waterway  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  to  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Four 
hundred  years  have  passed  since  Columbus  sailed  westward,  hopeful 
and  confident  that  his  voyage  would  be  continued  without  interruption 
to  the  Asiatic  coast.  He  reached  the  shores  of  Panama  and  Darien, 
where  the  waters  of  the  two  oceans  are  less  than  half  a  degree  of  lati- 
tude apart,  and  no  progress  has  been  made  since  his  day  in  accom- 
plishing his  original  purpose.  The  search  for  the  strait  was  soon 
given  up  and  the  narrow  neck  of  land  which  hindered  his  progress, 
fortified  by  the  Cordilleras,  has  ever  since  obstructed  the  advance  of 
navigation  in  that  direction. 


60  REPOET    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Nor  has  any  line  of  transportation  by  land  or  sea  been  developed  in 
either  hemisphere  that  has  furnished  the  advantages  expected  from  the 
desired  waterway. 

The  passages  to  the  Orient  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  through 
the  Strait  of  Magellan  and  around  Cape  Horn  have  not  satisfied  the 
desire  for  a  direct  line  of  communication  eastward  or  westward.  The 
passage  north  of  the  American  continent,  discovered  in  1851,  and  that 
north  of  Asia,  first  made  in  1879,  were  valuable  onl}7  as  contributions 
to  geographic  knowledge,  for  they  are  through  arctic  regions  where 
the  ice  seldom  permits  a  continuous  voyage.  Lines  of  transconti- 
nental railroad  connecting  Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports  have  facilitated 
travel  and  commercial  intercourse,  but  the}7  have  not  filled  the  place 
of  a  ship  canal.  The  reopening  of  the  ancient  communication,  mainly 
upon  a  new  line,  between  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean 
by  the  completion  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869  has  made  the  inter- 
oceanic  connection  westward  of  less  importance  to  the  people  of 
Europe,  but  it  has  had  little  effect  on  the  American  continent.  The 
demand  that  the  American  isthmus  be  opened  to  navigation  from 
sea  to  sea  is  each  }rear  becoming  more  imperative.  The  extension  of 
our  territory  to  include  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  afterwards  the 
Philippines  has  made  this  connection  most  desirable  for  the  proper 
exercise  of  governmental  functions  wherever  they  are  to  be  discharged. 

The  preparatory  work  has  been  practically  completed.  The  exam- 
inations and  surveys,  made  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States, 
have  furnished  accurate  knowledge  of  the  geography,  topography, 
and  other  physical  features  of  the  isthmian  country,  nnd  dispelled  the 
exaggerations  and  fictions  which  were  brought  back  many  years  ago 
from  some  sections  by  credulous  travelers  and  unreliable  explorers. 
The  comparative  merits  of  the  different  routes  are  better  understood 
than  ever  before,  and  those  involving  engineering  difficulties  and  cost 
disproportionate  to  their  value  have  been  eliminated. 

The  two  remaining  routes — the  Nicaragua  and  Panama — have  been 
carefully  studied  by  the  present  Commission,  and  this  report  will  con- 
tain a  statement  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  and  an 
approximate  estimate  of  their  costs,  and  also  the  judgment  of  the  Com- 
mission as  to  which,  in  view  of  all  the  facts,  is  the  more  practicable 
and  feasible  route. 

Time  has  also  developed  that  the  only  well-grounded  hope  of  accom- 
plishing the  desired  result  is  through  the  power  and  resources  of  a  great 
nation.  The  republics,  through  whose  territory  they  extend,  seem  to 
be  now  impressed  with  this  belief.  They  have  made  many  contracts 
with  individuals  and  companies  for  the  construction  and  operation  of 
canals,  and  the  general  result  has  been  failure,  followed  by  forfeiture 
and  annulment.  These  contracts  usually  contain  provisions  forbidding 
their  transfer  to  foreign  Governments,  indicating  an  unwillingness  to 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  61 

permit  the  occupation  of  their  territory  by  another  power  for  the.se 
purposes;  but  their  great  desire  to  see  the  two  oceans  thus  connected 
and  their  willingness  to  promote  such  an  enterprise  has,  it  is  believed, 
modified  their  views  and  policy  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  ready 
to  enter  into  negotiations  with  the  treaty-making  power  for  the  occu- 
pation of  their  territoiy  by  the  United  States  for  canal  purposes, 
provided  they  receive  satisfactory  assurance  that  their  rights  of 
sovereignty  will  be  respected. 

When  these  international  questions  are  definitely  settled  and  Con- 
gress has  enacted  the  necessary  legislation,  the  removal  of  the  barrier 
between  the  two  oceans  and  the  opening  of  the  long-desired  maritime 
passage  to  the  ships  and  navies  of  the  world  can  be  accomplished. 


Chapter  III. 

DIMENSIONS  AND  UNIT  PRICES. 

In  fixing  the  dimensions  of  the  canal,  it  is  neeessaiy  to  consider  care- 
fully the  dimensions  of  the  ships  which  will  use  it;  the  prevailing  as 
well  as  the  exceptional  types  of  the  present  day,  and  the  probable 
developments  of  the  near  future.  If  the  dimensions  adopted  are  too 
large,  the  cost  of  the  work  will  be  augmented  Unnecessarily;  if  too 
small,  the  canal  will  not  fulfill  its  intended  purpose. 

The  greater  part  of  the  world's  commerce  by  sea  is  carried  on  by 

ships  of  moderate  size.     Lloyd's  Register  for  1900-1901  contains  the 

names  and  dimensions  of  16,264  steam  vessels  of 

Dimension  of  ships  noW  alj  kinds,  of  which  about  8,900  are  more  than  200 

In  use. 

feet  long  on  the  keel.  This  number  may  be  taken 
as  approximately  the  number  of  cargo  vessels.  Only  421  seagoing 
ships  have  as  great  a  beam  as  50  feet,  and  only  about  800  would  require 
a  lock  more  than  400  feet  long.  Until  recently  the  larger  ships  were 
employed  mainty  on  the  North  Atlantic  route,  and  the  largest  were 
fast  passenger  ships  not  adapted  to  any  other  trade.  The  building 
of  large  freight  ships  with  more  or  less  passenger  accommodations  has 

now  become  a  marked  feature  of  the  development 
dimenrfU'!6™86  '"  ^  of  shiP  building.     In  the  years  1897  to  1900  there 

were  put  in  service  on  the  North  Atlantic  route 
several  ships  of  this  type,  about  600  feet  long  over  all,  63  to  65  feet 
beam,  and  drawing,  when  fully  loaded,  30  to  32  feet.  These  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  White  Star  ship  Celtic,  recently  built,  said  to  be  698  feet 
8  inches  long  over  all,  and  75  feet  4£  inches  beam.  On  other  routes 
ships  of  similar  dimensions  arc  being  introduced,  the  largest  now  in 
use  being  the  White  Star  ships  of  the  Afric  class,  built  for  the  British 
colonial  service  via  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  are  about  550  feet 
long  between  perpendiculars,  64  feet  beam,  and  have  a  load  draft  of 
32£  feet,  and  the  Cape  mail  steamship  Saxon,  built  for  the  Union  Com- 
pany, which  is  585  feet  6  inches  long  over  all,  and  64  feet  beam.  The 
ships  now  building  at  New  London  for  the  Great  Northern  Railway 
Company  are  particularly  noteworthy,  being  designed  for  the  trans- 
pacific trade;  they  arc  to  be  630  feet  long  and  73  feet  beam.  They 
will  be  in  the  same  class  as  the  Celtic. 

The  steady  growth  in  ships'  dimensions,  the  introduction  of  large 
ships  on  so  many  different  routes,  and  the  undoubted  fact  that  for  long 
62 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  63 

routes  and  for  freight  which  can  be  quickly  handled  at  the  ports,  the 
large  ship  is  the  more  economical  carrier,  gives 

Depth  (if  ninal.  ,  i   •  •  •  .     .  , 

these  ships  an  importance  in  determining-  canal 
dimensions  much  greater  than  their  relative  number  or  aggregate  ton- 
nage would  indicate.  A  ship  drawing  32£  feet  in  salt  water,  which  is 
no  longer  exceptional,  will  draw  nearly  1  foot  more  in  fresh  water, 
and  requires  for  safe  navigation  not  less  than  35  feet  of  water  in  the 
canal.  This  depth  is  therefore  fixed  as  the  minimum  in  all  the  chan- 
nels. 

In  fixing  the  width  of  locks  and  prism  it  is  not  necessary  to  take 

into  account  the  fast  passenger  ships  of  the  North  Atlantic  routes. 

Such  a  trade  is  not  likely  to  develop  through  the  Isthmus.     Limiting 

the  inquiry  to  freight  or  combined  freight  and  passenger  ships  like 

those  mentioned,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  maximum 

Beam  of  commercial  ships.  ■ '  ..  ... 

beam  of  73  to  Co  feet  is  found  in  veiy  tew  ships; 
excepting  these,  the  greatest  is  63  to  65  feet,  which  is  found  in  quite 
a  numerous  class.  If  the  canal  were  intended  for  commercial  uses 
only,  it  might  be  questioned  whether  dimensions  should  be  fixed  for 
the  extreme  beam  of  75  feet  or  more,  with  the  added  cost  of  construc- 
tion and  minor  disadvantages,  but  the  imperative  requirement  that  the 
canal  shall  afford  a  passage  for  the  largest  war  ships  makes  it  necessary 

to  provide  for  a  beam  considerably  greater.     The 

Beam  of  war  ships.  L  , "   ~  -T 

broadest  ships  building  for  the  United  States  .Navy 
are  those  of  the  Virginia  class  which  have  a  beam  of  76  feet  and  2£ 
inches.  The  broadest  battle  ship  afloat  is  the  Italian  ship  Regina  Mar- 
gherita,  recently  launched,  which  has  a  beam  of  78.2  feet.  While  the 
increase  in  beam  of  war  ships  has  for  some  years  been  less  rapid  than 

that  of  commercial  ships,  it  is  unmistakable.     For 

Width  of  locks.  .  .  .ill         i  -Tii         ii 

convenience  in  operating  the  locks  the  width  should 
be  2  or  3  feet  greater  than  the  beam  of  the  ship.  The  width  is  there- 
fore fixed  at  84  feet  with  a  view  to  provide  for  some  further  increase 
in  beam  of  ships. 

The  largest  ships  of  war  are  shorter  than  commercial  ships  of  like 
beam,  and  a  clear  length  of  lock  chamber  of  600  feet  would  be  suf- 
ficient for  any  war  ship  now  afloat  or  building.  In  order  to  make  the 
canal  practicable  for  the  largest  existing  commercial  ships,  and  also  to 
provide  for  a  considerable  increase  in  size,  the  only  additional  expense 
to  be  incurred  in  the  building  of  the  canal,  after  providing  for  war- 
ship requirements,  is  to  increase  the  length  of  the 

Length  of  lock  chambers.  *  ^        ,  '  ,  n   •  • 

locks.  This  added  cost  is  so  small  in  comparison 
with  the  advantage  gained  that  it  is  unquestionably  judicious  to  incur 
it,  and  the  length  is  therefore  fixed  at  740  feet  in  the  clear. 

The  width  of  the  canal  has  been  fixed  after  care- 
cana™6180118  °   Pr  Sm       ^  consideration  Qf  the  dimensions  adopted  and 

experience   gained   elsewhere.      The  Suez   Canal 


64  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

had  originally  a  bottom  width  of  22  meters  (72  feet  2  inches).  It  had 
been  intended,  when  the  work  was  projected,  to 

Prism  dimensions  of  for-  i  ,  i   •  •jji       ■  <  a.  m  i  \     £  i      •       i_       \ 

t'Un  cauais.  make  this  width  44  meters   (144  feet  4   inches) 

between  the  Bitter  Lakes  and  the  Mediterranean, 
and  64  meters  (209  feet  11  inches)  between  the  Bitter  Lakes  and  the 
Red  Sea,  but  the  resources  of  the  company  proved  insufficient  to  carry 
out  the  work  on  this  plan.  The  width  finally  adopted  proved  incon- 
veniently small,  and  it  has  since  been  increased  to  about  115  feet.  At 
the  same  time  the  depth  has  been  increased  from  26  feet  3  inches  to  27 
feet  10  inches.  The  ratio  of  present  width  to  depth  is  about  4:1.  In 
the  Manchester  Canal  the  depth  is  26  feet,  but  is  to  be  increased  to  28 
feet.  When  this  is  done  the  bottom  width  will  be  about  114  feet,  and 
the  ratio  of  width  to  depth  will  also  be  about  4:1.  The  Amsterdam 
Canal  is  at  present  36  meters  (118  feet  1  inch)  wide  at  the  bottom  and 
8.5  meters  (27  feet  10  inches)  deep,  giving-  a  ratio  of  width  to  depth 
of  4:2.     These  dimensions  are  to  be  increased  to  50  meters  (164  feet) 

width  and  9.8  meters  (32  feet  2  inches)  depth,  with 
adopted?  °    **  *"  tl  nx^°  or'  5:1.     The  bottom  width   of  150   feet, 

which  has  been  adopted  by  the  Commission  for  the 
canal  sections  of  the  Isthmian  routes,  gives  a  ratio  of  width  to  depth 
of  4:3,  which  is  slightly  greater  than  at  the  Suez,  Manchester,  and 
Amsterdam  canals,  and  considerably  less  than  the  enlarged  Amsterdam 
Canal  will  give. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  the  Kiel  Canal,  which 
Canai!m  *    nas  the  °°tt°m  width  first  given  to  the  Suez  Canal, 

viz,  72  feet,  and  has  a  depth  of  29.5  feet,  giving  a 
ratio  of  width  to  depth  of  2.5.  This  has  not  been  taken  into  account 
in  the  preceding  comparison,  for  the  reason  that  the  width  is  clearly 
shown  to  be  insufficient  for  commercial  purposes  by  experience  at 
Suez.  The  Kiel  Canal  was  built  primarily  for  an  outlet  to  the  North 
Sea  for  the  German  navy,  and  is  adapted  for  the  possible  transfer  of 
warships  rather  than  for  the  convenience  of  commercial  ones.  Few 
commercial  ships  of  large  size  traverse  it.  The  average  tonnage  of 
the  vessels  passing  in  1899  was  about  100  tons,  which  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  average  of  nearly  4,000  tons  for  the  ships  passing 
through  the  Suez  Canal  during  the  same  }^ear. 

The  side  slopes  of   the  isthmian   canal  sections 

Prism  In  soft  earth  and  •,]      ,\  ±       •    1  t  £l  l\  j 

Han(1  vary  with  the  materials.     In  sort  earth  or  sand 

they  arc  taken  1  on  3  below  water  and  1  on  2  above 

water;  in  firm  earth,  2  on  3  below  a  berme  10  feet  wide  6  feet  under 
water  and  1  on  1  above  such  berme.     The  1  on  1 

Prism  In  firm  earth.  . 

slopes  are  to  be  protected  by  paving  from  the 

berme  to  6  feet  above  water.     In  rock  the  sides  are  vertical  from  the 

bottom  to  a  berme  5  feet  above  water,  with  slopes 

Prism  In  rock.  ,  l 

ol  4  on  1  in  hard  rock  and  2  on  1  in  sort  rock  above 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  65 

such  berme,  the  berme  being  of  such  width  that  the  extended  slopes 
would  intersect  the  bottom  of  the  canal  at  the  foot  of  the  vertical 
sides.  In  several  places  a  slope  of  1  on  1  is  used,  as  in  the  Culebra 
Cut,  on  account  of  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  material,  and  in  places 
on  the  Nicaragua  route  where  rock  is  underlaid  by  clay.  Where  the 
material  is  liable  to  disintegrate  in  water,  as  in  the  Culebra  Cut,  or 
where  the  rock  is  shattered  or  deficient  in  hardness,  as  in  many  places 
on  the  Nicaragua  route,  retaining  walls  are  provided,  taking  the  place 
of  the  vertical  sides  of  rock  cuts. 

Where  channels  are  excavated  in  open  water 

Channels  In  open  water.  .  ,   ,    . 

and  the  sides  will  be  submerged,  the  width  is  made 
greater.  In  Panama  Bay  the  bottom  width  is  to  be  200  feet,  with  side 
slopes  of  1  on  3,  but  at  mean  tide  the  width  35  feet  below  water  will 
be  260  feet  and  at  high  tide  320  feet.  In  the  San  Juan  River  the  exca- 
vated channel  will  be  250  feet  wide  at  bottom  with  side  slopes  of  1  on 
1,  and  in  Lake  Nicaragua  300  feet  with  side  slopes  of  1  on  2. in  firm 
clay  and  1  on  6  in  overlying  mud.  In  the  artificial  harbors  at  Colon 
and  Greytown  it  will  be  500  feet  with  turning  places  800  feet  wide. 
The  entrance  to  Brito  Harbor  will  also  be  500  feet  wide,  but  the  har- 
bor itself,  on  account  of  its  restricted  length,  will  be  800  feet  wide. 

The  channel  widths  above  given  are  for  straight  sections.     On  curves 
of  less  than  12,000  feet  radius,  in  channels  less  than  500  feet  wide,  the 

width  is  increased  at  the  rate  of  1  foot  for  each  200 

Widening  on  curves.  . 

feet  reduction  ot  radius,  the  widening  on  a  curve 
of  6,000  feet  radius  being  30  feet.  This  is  an  arbitrary  allowance. 
It  is  the  same  as  the  allowance  in  Kiel  Canal  for  a  radius  of  5,000  feet; 
less  than  in  the  Kiel  Canal  for  radii  under  5,000  feet  and  more  for 
radii  over  5, 000  feet. 

As  already  stated,  the  locks  are  to  have  a  clear 

Description  of  locks.  " 

length  ot  740  feet  and  a  width  or  84  feet  between 
the  side  walls.  The  depth  over  the  head  wall  and  over  the  miter  sills 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  locks,  which  fix  the  available  depth  for  ships, 
is  to  be  35  feet,  the  same  as  in  the  prism  of  the  canal.  The  miter  sills 
at  the  head  of  the  locks  are  placed  1  foot  lower,  the  slightly  greater 
safety  thus  afforded  for  these  sills  being  secured  by  merely  exchanging 
1  foot  in  height  of  gate  for  1  foot  in  height  of  miter  sill  wall  and 
without  appreciable  cost.  In  order  to  give  the  required  clear  length, 
all  single  locks  and  the  upper  locks  of  combined  systems  are  to  be 
made  788  feet  long  from  quoin  to  quoin.  The  lower  locks  of  combined 
systems  will  be  793  feet  from  quoin  to  quoin,  the  greater  length  being 
due  to  the  greater  thickness  of  the  cross  wall  at  the  middle  gates. 

Twin  locks  are  provided   in  every  case.     This 

Twin  locks  provided.  .  .  *  ,  .  . - 

will  insure  uninterrupted  navigation  if  one  lock 
at  any  locality  is  closed  for  repairs.     To  facilitate  making  these  repairs 
S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 5 


66  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

with  the  least  possible  delay,  guard  crates  of  the 

Guard  gates.  *  l         J       +   if  *k         A         * 

ordinary  miter  form  are  placed  at  both  ends  of 
every  lock  or  flight  of  locks,  those  at  the  foot  opening  downstream. 
"When  repairs  to  the  lock  are  needed,  these  gates  can  be  closed  and  the 
lock  pumped  out  immediately,  thus  avoiding  the  dela}T  of  building 
cofferdams  or  the  uncertainties  attending  the  use  of  caisson  gates. 
This  provision  is  not  usual,  but  has  been  adopted  for  all  the  locks  of 
the  St.  Marys  Falls  canals,  and  its  utility  has  been  frequently  demon- 
strated there.  These  gates  are  supported  by  extensions  of  the  lock 
walls.  The  extreme  length  of  the  masonry  is  1,031.5  feet  for  a  single 
lock  and  1,829.5  for  a  flight  of  two  locks. 

While  these  locks  provide  for  the  passage  of  the  largest  ships  antici- 
pated in  the  near  future,  it  is  realized  that  the  larger  part  of  the  sea 
traffic  of  the  present  day  is  carried  on  by  much  smaller  ships. 

Smaller  locks  than  those  adopted  could  be  operated  more  quickly 
and  would  effect  a  material  aggregate  saving  of  time  to  the  greater 
part  of  the  traffic  and  reduce  the  amount  of  water  consumed.  The 
width  of  the  locks  can  not  be  reduced  without  excluding  the  large 
ships.  It  is  practicable,  however,  to  provide  a  shorter  lock  by  the 
introduction  of  intermediate  gates,  whereby  two  smaller  chambers 
can  be  obtained  and  some  of  the  advantages  secured  of  having  a  small 
lock  for  small  ships.  By  the  arrangement  shown  in  the  plans  the 
whole  chamber  can  be  used,  the  intermediate  gates  remaining  open; 
by  using  these  gates  in  connection  with  the  upper  lock  gates,  a  cham- 
ber is  provided  having  a  clear  length  of  292  feet,  and  by  using  them 
in  connection  with  the  lower  lock  gates,  a  chamber  is  provided  having 
a  clear  length  of  400  feet,  sufficient  for  most  of  the  freight  ships  now 
in  use.  With  two  locks  combined  in  a  flight,  only  one  of  the  smaller 
chambers  in  each  lock  is  available,  the  intermediate  gates  being  so 
placed  that  either  the  full  length  of  the  100-foot  chamber  can  be  used. 
It  ma}7  be  found  expedient  in  construction  to  make  the  length  of  the 
reduced  chamber  150  feet. 

All  the  locks  on  both  routes  will  have  rock  foun- 

Foundatlons  of  locks  on     i    .  •  m  i  •  ji_    »  1         i    a 

rocfe  dations.      I  he  rock  varies  greatly  from   hard  to 

soft  and  partially  disintegrated.  The  poorest  will 
carry  safely  the  imposed  load,  but  will  permit  slow  seepage  for  con- 
siderable distances,  and  will  offer  little  resistance  to  abrasion.  The 
floors  of  the  locks  are  protected  by  inverts  of  concrete,  the  thickness 
being  greater  in  soft  rock.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  lock  gates  the  floor 
is  of  sufficient  thickness  to  sustain  the  full  hydrostatic  head. 

The  walls  are  also  to  be  of  concrete  throughout, 

walls  to  be  of  concrete.  .  .  .    .  ,  ...         ,. 

except  the  quoins,  the  tops  of  the  miter-sill  walls, 

and  exposed  angles  at  the  inlets  and  outlets  of  the  culverts.     The  use 

of  concrete  for  the  construction  of  locks  is  of  comparatively  recent 

ntroduction.     The  locks  of  the  Manchester  Canal  are  perhaps  the  most 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  67 

notable  example,  the  great  mass  of  masonry  being  concrete,  granite 
being  used  only  for  quoins,  copings,  and  exposed  angles,  and  brick 
burned  to  the  point  of  incipient  vitrification  for  facing  the  walls  above 
low  water  and  for  culvert  linings.  The  moist,  warm  climate  of  the 
Isthmus  is  particularly  favorable  for  concrete. 

In   the  locks   of  greatest   lift  the  velocity   of 

Culvert  llnlnsrs.  •        i  ,  .,1  - 

water  in  the  culverts  will  reach  50  to  60  feet  per 
second,  which  would  severely  test  any  masonry,  even  of  the  best  brick 
or  cut  stone.  Even  in  locks  of  the  smaller  lifts  some  kind  of  protec- 
tion for  the  surfaces  of  the  culverts  will  probably  be  necessary.  As 
a  basis  for  estimates  a  lining  of  cast  iron  of  a  minimum  thickness  of  1 
inch  is  provided  where  the  extreme  head  of  water  in  the  culverts 
exceeds  30  feet  and  a  lining  of  vitrified  brick  for  smaller  heads. 

The  gates  are  designed  of  steel  of  the  ordinary 
miter  form.     They  are  based  on  actual  designs  of 
gates  of  nearly  equal  dimensions  prepared  under   the  direction  of 
the  United  States  Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep  Waterways. 

In  designing  the  locks  the  varying  height  of  rock  at  each  of  the 
lock  sites  has  been  taken  into  account.  The  details  of  the  studies  con- 
cerning the  stability  of  the  walls,  as  well  as  of  the  loss  of  water  by 
leakage,  etc.,  are  given  in  Appendix  A. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  movement  of  ships  into  the  locks,  as  well  as 

Approach  walls.  ^o  aff01'd  a  safe  place  for  ships  to  tie  up  while 

awaiting  lockage,  a  vertical  approach  wall  1,200 

feet  long  is  provided  on  one  side  of  the  canal  at  each  end  of  every 

lock  or  flight. 

Unit  prices  have  been  fixed  by  agreement  of  all  the  members  of  the 
Unit  prices.  Commission,  on  the  principle  that,  whatever  dif- 

ferences of  opinion  or  circumstances  may  exist, 
they  are  not  enough  to  interfere  with  a  fair  and  close  comparison  of 
the  different  routes.     These  prices  are  as  follows: 

Removal  of  hard  rock,  per  cubic  yard $1.15 

Removal  of  soft  rock,  per  cubic  yard .80 

Remov*al  of  earth,  not  handled  by  dredge,  per  cubic  yard  .  45 

Removal  of  dredgable  material,  per  cubic  yard .20 

Removal  of  rock,  under  water,  per  cubic  yard 4.  75 

Embankments  and  back  filling,  per  cubic  yard .60 

Rock  in  jetty  construction,  per  cubic  yard 2.  50 

Stone  pitching,  including  necessary  backing,  per  square 

yard 2.  00 

Clearing  and  grubbing,  in  swamp  sections  of  Nicaragua, 

per  acre 200.  00 

Other  clearing  and  grubbing,  on  both  routes,  per  acre  . .  100.  00 

Concrete,  in  place,  per  cubic  }Tard 8.  00 

Finished  granite,  per  cubic  yard 60.  00 


68  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Brick  in  culvert  lining,  per  cubic  }Tard $15.  00 

All  metal  in  locks,  exclusive  of  machinery  and  culvert 

linings,  per  pound .  075 

All  metal  in  sluices,  per  pound .  075 

Cast  iron  in  culvert  lining,  per  pound .04 

Allowance  for  each  lock  chamber  for  operating  machin- 
ery    50,  000.  00 

Additional  allowance  for  each  group  of  locks  for  power 

plant 100,  000.  00 

Price  of  timber  in  locks,  per  M.  B.  M 100.  00 

Sheet  piling  in  spillways,  per  M.  B.  M 75.  00 

Bearing  piles  in  spillways,  per  linear  foot .50 

Average  price  of  pneumatic  work  for  the  Bohio  Dam, 

below  elevation  —30,  per  cubic  yard 29.  50 

Caisson  work  for  the  Conchuda  Dam,  in  place,  per  cubic 

yard 20.  00 

Single-track  railroad,  complete,  with  switches,  stations, 

and  rolling  stock,  per  mile  of  main  line 75, 000.  00 

It  has  been  determined  to  add  20  per  cent  to  the  estimates  of  the  cost 

of  construction  to  cover  expenses  that  will  be  incurred  for  engineering, 

police,  sanitation,  and  general  contingencies.     The 

Contingencies,  et«.  r    .  I  rr>    •  .       . .  , 

prices  are  based  on  emcient  organization  and 
thorough  equipment,  with  the  understanding  that  while  the  work 
would  be  vigorously  handled  it  would  not  be  so  driven  as  to  call  for 
unnecessary  duplication  of  machinery.  The  cost  of  the  equipment 
and  plant  will  be  large,  but  it  will  be  distributed  over  a  very  large 
work. 


Chapter  IV. 

OTHER  POSSIBLE  ROUTES. 

The  American   isthmus,  in    the  most  extensive 
General  description   meaning,  i.s  about  1,400  miles  long,  extending-  from 

American  Isthmus.  fe'  '  .  /•»  i  -  t- 

the  seventy-seventh  to  the  ninety -fifth  meridian 
of  longitude  and  from  the  eighth  to  eighteenth  parallel  of  latitude. 
It  embraces  that  portion  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia  which  lies  west 
of  the  Atrato  River  in  South  America,  the  whole  of  the  five  republics 
which  are  grouped  together  as  Central  America,  and  so  much  of  Mex- 
ico as  lies  east  of  Tehuantepec.  The  general  direction  of  the  isthmus 
is  from  southeast  to  northwest.  For  the  eastern  600  miles  the  width 
of  this  isthmus  is  comparatively  small,  varying  from  a  minimum  of 
barely  30  miles  to  a  maximum  of  120  miles.  It  then  widens  to  300 
miles  near  the  boundary  between  Nicaragua  and  Honduras,  narrows 
to  about  120  miles  opposite  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  widens  again  into 
the  great  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  and  finally  narrows  to  120  miles  at 
Tehutntepec.  A  glance  at  a  map  indicates  that  the  only  possible 
routes  for  an  interoceanic  canal  must  be  at  Tehuantepec,  at  the  Bay  of 
Honduras,  or  within  the  eastern  600  miles. 

So  far  as  convenience  of  approach  and  acces- 

Tehuantepec  route.  .  . 

sibihty  from  United  States  ports  on  both  sides  of 
the  continent  are  concerned,  Tehuantepec  is  by  far  the  best  location. 
Practically  the  whole  length  of  the  isthmus  is  eliminated  on  the  dis- 
tance to  Pacific  ports,  and  while  the  distance  from  New  York  is 
practically  the  same  to  all  ports  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  isthmus, 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River  is  only  about  half  as  far  from 
Tehuantepec  as  from  the  Atrato.  For  these  reasons  Tehuantepec 
was  selected  by  Capt.  James  B.  Eads  as  the  location  for  a  ship  rail- 
way across  the  isthmus.  If  a  ship  railway  is  to  be  built  it  is  probably 
the  best  location.  The  duties  of  this  Commission,  however,  are  con- 
fined to  finding  a  route  for  a  canal  between  the  two  oceans.  The 
Tehuantepec  summit  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  700  feet  above  tide 
water.  It  is,  moreover,  a  broad  summit  which  can  not  be  materially 
lowered  b}r  an}'  excavation  of  practicable  dimensions.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  a  water  supply  can  be  found  for  a  summit  level.  It  would 
require  20  locks  of  an  average  lift  of  nearly  35  feet  on  each  side  of  the 
summit.  The  cost  of  these  locks  alone,  on  the  basis  of  the  estimates 
considered    in    another   chapter    of    this    report,     would    be    about 

69 


70  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

$200,000,000,  while  the  canal  would  probably  at  least  double  this 
estimate.  Attractive  as  the  Tehuantepec  route  is  from  its  geographical 
location,  it  must  be  discarded  as  impracticable  for  a  canal. 

The  next  point  is  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Hon- 

Bay  of  Honduras.  «./,         ,.  llu  ,  J  .,  , 

auras.  1  his  location  would  be  nearly  as  accessible 
as  Tehuantepec  on  the  Atlantic  side,  but  the  Pacific  terminus  would 
be  400  miles  farther  from  north  Pacific  ports.  The  passage  of  the 
isthmus  here  b}T  a  canal,  or  even  by  a  railroad  of  moderate  grades,  is 
out  of  the  question;  it  is  a  mountain  region  which  must  be  dismissed 
from  consideration. 

There  remains  the  600-mile  stretch  at  the  cast- 

isuuuu<s7easter,,p0rtl0,,0f  ern  end  of  the  isthmus,  within  the  limits  of  which 
several  routes  have  been  proposed.  At  the  west- 
ern limit  of  this  stretch  lies  Lake  Nicaragua.  The  features  of  the 
Nicaragua  route  are  thoroughly  considered  in  another  chapter  of  this 
report,  and  nothing  more  need  be  said  of  it  here.  From  Lake  Nicar- 
agua to  the  promontory  Avhich  terminates  in  Mariato  Point  and  Cape 
Mala,  and  which  forms  the  western  boundary  of  the  Gulf  of  Panama, 
the  isthmus,  though  narrow,  is  traversed  by  a  high  range  of  moun- 
tains, which  prohibits  its  consideration  as  a  location  for  a  canal.  The 
Gulf  of  Panama  measures  about  120  miles  from  east  to  west  between 
the  headlands  known  as  Cape  Mala  and  Pinas  Point,  which  practi- 
cally form  its  southern  limit,  and  about  100  miles  from  a  line  con- 
necting these  two  points  to  its  northern  extremity.  The  southern 
limit  corresponds  closely  with  the  100-fathom  curve.  The  isthmus 
sweeps  around  this  gulf  on  a  curve  which  forms  a  rough  approxima- 
tion to  a  half  circle;  the  narrowest  part  of  the  whole  isthmus  lies 
north  of  the  center  of  the  Gulf  of  Panama. 

The  Atrato  River,  rising  near  the  fifth  degree  of 

Atrato  River.  '  f  & 

north  latitude,  flows  northward  about  300  miles  at 
a  comparatively  short  distance  from  the  Pacific  and  parallel  to  it,  thus 
forming  what  resembles  an  extension  of  the  Isthmus  southward;  but 
the  eastern  boundary  of  this  extension  is  not  the  ocean.  The  Atrato 
is  a  silt-bearing  river  having  a  considerable  fall,  and  not  in  itself 
adapted  to  the  use  of  ocean-going  craft,  without  large  expenditures 
for  improvement  and  maintenance.  "With  the  exception  of  Nicaragua 
and  Tehuantepec,  all  the  routes  which  have  been  proposed  for  an  isth- 
mian canal  terminate  in  the  Gulf  of  Panama  or  on  the  South  American 
coast  south  of  that  gulf,  the  latter  using  the  Atrato  for  their  Atlantic 
approach. 

Three  routes  which  terminate  on  the  Gulf  of 

Routes    termlnatinu:  on      t->  i  i  ±.   n      j        «•     » 

uuir  <»f  Panama.  Panama    have    been   talked   of    for   many   years. 

They  are  commonly  known  as  the   Panama  route, 

the  San  Bias  route,  and  the  Caledonia  route.     The   Panama  route  is 

the  most  westerly  of  the  three,  and  the  one  of  earliest  use  and  occupa- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  71 

tion.  The  old  citj7  of  Panama  was  founded  in  1517.  The  Spanish 
crossing  was  by  a  paved  road  from  Nombrc  dc  Dios,  and  later  from 
Porto  Bello,  on  the  Atlantic  side,  to  Panama,  on  the  Pacific.  Porto 
Bello  Harbor  was  discovered  and  named  by  Columbus  in  1502,  and  the 
town  of  Porto  Bello  was  founded  in  1584/  The  Panama  Railroad  was 
built  fifty  years  ago  near  this  ancient  crossing,  and  its  location  is  prac- 
tically identical  with  that  selected  for  a  canal.  As  the  Panama  route 
is  treated  in  full  detail  in  another  chapter  of  this  report,  nothing  further 
need  be  said  of  it  here. 

The  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato  River 

Atrato  routes.  .       _^      .  _  . 

to  tide  water  on  the  Pacific  at  the  nearest  point  is 
about  70  miles.  Anything  like  a  direct  passage  is  entirely  out  of  the 
question,  and  it  is  manifestly  impossible  to  find  a  canal  line  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Atrato  to  the  Pacific  which  will  be  less  than  100  miles 
long,  if  the  improvements  on  the  Atrato  are  considered  a  part  of  the 
canal;  the  lines  which  have  been  suggested  for  this  purpose  are  gen- 
erally much  longer.  While  it  is  not  impossible  that  a  practicable  line 
on  which  to  construct  a  canal  can  be  found  with  its  terminus  in  the 
Atrato  Valley,  the  necessary  length  of  the  line,  together  with  the  diffi- 
culties which  would  attend  a  terminus  at  the  mouth  of  a  large  silt- 
bearing  river,  are  enough  to  show  that  in  use  it  would  be  inferior  to 
either  the  Panama  or  the  Nicaragua  location. 

In  the  search  for  other  possible  routes  the  field 

Limits  of  field  work.  .  .      .  ,         ,  n 

work  of  this  Commission  has  been  confined  to  the 
region  lying  between  the  Panama  route  and  the  Atrato  River,  not 
including  the  routes  which  would  utilize  this  river.  Throughout  the 
portion  of  the  Isthmus  thus  explored  the  continental  divide,  which  else- 
where lies  near  the  Pacific,  lies  close  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  there  are 
intermediate  valleys  separated  from  the  Pacific  coast  by  ranges  of  less 
importance.  The  Chepo  River  enters  the  Gulf  of  Panama  30  miles 
east  of  the  city  of  Panama,  coming  from  the  east  and  draining  a  valley 
nearly  70  miles  long.  On  the  easterly  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Panama  lies 
the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  which  is  an  excellent  harbor,  carrying  tide 
water  halfway  across  the  Isthmus.  The  Savana  River  enters  this 
gulf  from  the  north  and  the  Tuyra  River  from  the  southeast,  while  the 
Chucunaque,  heading  near  the  Chepo  and  flowing  southeaster^,  is  a 
tributary  of  the  Tuyra.  The  continental  divide  on  this  section  of  the 
Isthmus  is  therefore  the  divide  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the  north- 
east and  the  Chepo,  the  Chucunaque,  and  the  Tuyra  rivers  successively 
on  the  southwest.  The  divide  at  the  head  of  the  Chepo  and  the 
Chucunaque  rivers  connects  the  continental  divide  with  the  chains  of 
hills  which  separate  those  rivers  from  the  Pacific.  The  general  situation 
is  fully  shown  in  pi.  2,  accompanying  this  report.  Within  these  limits 
two  routes,  each  of  them  presenting  possibilities  of  several  varieties  of 
location,  have  long  been  suggested.  One  of  these  is  known  as  the  San 
Bias  route  and  the  other  as  the  Caledonia  route. 


72  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  San  Bias  route  was  explored  under  the  direc- 

San  Bias  route.  .  ,  .  *„ 

tion  ot  Mr.  Frederick  M.  Keller  in  1857,  and  was 

subsequently  examined  by  the  United  States  Darien  expedition,  under 

the  command  of  Commander  Thomas  Oliver  Self  ridge,   jr..  United 

States  Navy,   in    1870.     The  Kelley  examination,   starting  from  the 

Pacific,   was   carried  with  level  and  transit  up  the  Chepo  and  the 

Mamoni  rivers  across  the  summit  to  a  point  on  the  Carti,  following 

the  valleys  of  these  streams.     The  Selfridge  surveys,  starting  from 

the  Atlantic  side  were  carried  with  level  and  transit  up  the  Mandinga 

Kiver,  across  the  divide,  and  up  the  Nercalagua  River  nearl}T  to  the 

divide,  while  barometrical  reconnaissances  were  made  up  the   Carti 

River  overlapping  the  Kelley  surve}7.     This  is  the  narrowest  place  on 

the  isthmus,  it  being  less  than  31  miles  from  shore  line  to  shore  line 

and  only  about  two-thirds  of  this  distance  from  the  Atlantic  to  tide 

water  in  the  Chepo  River.     Furthermore,  the  Pacific  harbor  is  quite 

as  good  as  that  at  Panama,  while  Mandinga  Harbor,  in  the  Gulf  of 

San  Bias,  at  the  northern  end  of  the  route,  is  all  that  could  be  desired. 

The  difficulty  of  the  line  lies  in  the  height  of  the  summit,  to  cross 

which  tunnels  from  8  to  10  miles  in  length  were  proposed. 

The  Caledonia  route  has  the  distinction  of  being 
Caledonia  route.  .  . 

the  location  where  the  isthmus  was  first  crossed 
by  white  men.  In  1513  Balboa  started  with  his  band  of  followers 
from  Caledonia  Bay  and  crossed  by  a  tiresome  march  to  San  Miguel 
Bay.  Nearly  two  hundred  years  later,  in  1698,  William  Paterson 
chose  this  location  for  his  Scotch  colony  of  New  Edinburgh,  which  by 
occupying  the  line  of  transit  across  the  isthmus  was  to  control  the 
trade  of  the  Pacific  and  the  East.  The  bay,  which  would  be  the 
northern  terminus  of  the  canal,  is  still  known  as  Caledonia  Bay,  while 
the  promontory  at  the  southern  end  of  the  bay,  near  where  he  founded 
his  town,  is  called  Point  Escoces.  All  vestiges  of  Paterson's  work 
have  long  since  disappeared  and  it  would  be  hard  to  find  any  spot  in 
America  where  there  are  fewer  signs  of  the  work  of  the  white  man. 
Caledonia  Bay  is  a  beautiful  body  of  water  separated  from  the  Car- 
ibbean Sea  by  a  series  of  coral  keys  and  furnishing  fairly  good  anchor- 
ages at  both  ends,  though  the  intermediate  portion  is  shallow.  The 
route  for  a  canal  in  this  location  would  be  from  Caledonia  Bay  to  San 
Miguel  Bay.  As  seen  from  the  sea,  the  Caledonia  gap  is  a  very 
marked  depression  in  the  mountains  and  the  summit  is  less  than  1 
miles  from  the  bay.  It  looks  much  lower  than  it  really  is  and  (he 
first  impression  made  is  that  it  is  an  ideal  location  for  a  transisthniian 
line.  This  route  was  advocated  as  early  as  1850  by  Dr.  Edward  Cul- 
len,  of  Dublin.  It  was  explored  in  1852  by  an  English  engineer.  Mr. 
Lionel  Gisborne,  and  it  was  subsequently  examined  by  Lieut.  Isaac  Gr. 
Strain.  U.  S.  N..  in  L854.  Reconnaissances  were  subsequently  made 
by  others,  the  most   important    being   by  the    United   States  Darien 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  73 

expedition  in  1870.  It  was  claimed  by  Dr.  Cullen  that  the  height  of 
the  summit  on  this  line  was  not  more  than  150  feet  and  that  from  a 
ridge  onty  2  miles  wide  a  level  plain  extended  to  the  Savana  River, 
the  northern  tributary  of  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel.  Mr.  Gisborne, 
whose  examination  was  not  continued  completely  across  the  isthmus, 
reaffirmed  this  claim.  Strain's  examination  and  all  subsequent  ones 
failed  to  rind  any  such  condition. 

All  the  examinations  of  which  there  is  sufficient 
information  to  give  them  any  authentic  value 
were  made  on  the  principle  of  following  up  streams.  While  this 
method  of  examination  is  permissible  when  time  and  means  do  not 
allow  the  use  of  better  ones,  conclusive  results  can  not  be  obtained 
in  this  way.  The  claims  made  for  some  of  these  routes,  especially 
in  the  neighborhood  Caledonia  Bay,  were  such  that  if  substantiated 
they  would  be  better  than  any  others.  It  became  necessary  either  to 
find  these  locations  or  to  disprove  their  existence.  The  proof  derived 
from  the  examinations  of  the  several  valleys  must  always  be  of 
negative  character;  it  can  not  be  conclusive  until  it  is  shown  that 
every  stream  has  been  explored.  If,  however,  the  divide  could  be 
traced  continuously,  positive  proof  would  be  substituted  for  nega- 
tive proof.  The  Commission  therefore  organized  a  force  for  the  pur- 
pose of  tracing  the  divide  and  determining  its  continuity.  It  was 
at  first  proposed  to  trace  this  divide  continuously  from  the  Chagres 
to  the  Atrato.  This  has  not  been  done,  but  the  divide  has  been 
traced  from  the  Chagres  to  San  Bias  and  far  enough  beyond  to 
cover  all  routes  that  have  been  suggested  for  this  location.  It  has 
been  traced  in  both  directions  from  Caledonia  Bay  far  enough  to  cover 
all  the  locations  which  have  been  suggested  there.  The  mountain 
range  has  been  examined  from  the  coast  continuously  from  San  Bias 
to  the  Atrato.  The  results  of  these  surveys  and  this  examination  are 
embodied  in  the  maps  and  sketches  which  accompany  this  report. 
While  they  have  not  been  absolutel}r  complete,  they  have  proved  con- 
clusively that  no  low  summit  exists  within  the  limits  by  which  a  canal 
line  would  approach  either  San  Bias  Bay  or  Caledonia  Bay.  Any 
canal  terminating  at  either  of  these  harbors  will  involve  the  construc- 
tion of  a  tunnel.  There  is  a  bare  possibility  that  some  low  summit 
may  exist  in  the  portion  of  the  range  which  was  only  examined  from 
the  sea,  but  the  general  topography  of  the  country  indicates  that  this  is 
extremely  improbable,  while  the  appearance  of  the  range  shows  that 
if  any  such  low  summit  can  by  any  possibility  exist,  it  must  be 
approached  by  valleys  of  such  crooked  and  restricted  character  that  it 
would  almost  certainly  be  impracticable  for  a  canal. 

The  divide  has  been  traced  continuously  from  latitude  9°  19'  N., 
longitude  78°  59'  W.,  westward  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Chagres 
River.     The  lowest  summit  found  within  these  limits  was  956  feet: 


74  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

this  elevation  was  determined  by  actual  leveling.  The  Chagres  River 
was  then  followed  down  to  the  Panama  Railroad,  thus  connecting  this 
survey  with  the  Panama  route. 

The  ridge  has  been  continuously  traced  from  the  Carreto  summit, 
latitude  8°  15'  N.,  longitude  77°  38'  W.,  to  the  Sassardi  summit,  lati- 
tude 8°  58'  N.,  longitude  77°  52'  W.,  covering  the  entire  divide  in  the 
vicinity  of  Caledonia  Bay.  The  lowest  summit  within  this  limit  is  the 
Caledonia  gap,  with  an  elevation  of  681  feet.  Five  other  gaps,  with 
elevations  respectively  of  815,  710,  827,  991,  and  1,098  feet,  were 
observed  within  these  limits.  All  of  these  elevations  were  determined 
by  actual  leveling. 

Between  -the  limit  of  these  two  actual  surveys 

Observations  from  the  sea  .  ,  ,  ^ 

there  is  a  distance  of  81  miles  in  an  air  line  where 
the  divide  has  not  been  traced.  There  is  also  a  distance  of  about  60 
miles  from  the  Carreto  summit  southeast  to  the  Atrato  where  no  actual 
surveys  have  been  made.  Through  these  distances  the  divide  has 
been  carefully  reconnoitered  from  the  sea,  the  elevations  of  the  higher 
peaks  being  ascertained  as  well  as  those  of  the  visible  gaps,  and  the 
distances  being  determined  by  observation  made  with  two  sextants. 
While  this  method  of  examination  is  not  absolutely  conclusive,  the 
results  are  such  as  to  show  that  there  is  no  probability  of  any  low 
summit  existing  within  these  limits;  this  improbability  is  further 
increased  by  the  general  character  of  the  watershed  of  the  country. 

Examination  from  Pacific       All  this  summit  examination  was  made  from  the 
8lde"  Atlantic  side.     In  addition  to  this,  a  survey  was 

made  up  the  Chucunaque  and  the  Chucurti  rivers  which  was  not  quite 
connected  with  the  work  done  from  the  Atlantic  side,  owing  to  the 
threatening  attitude  of  the  Indians.  The  gap  of  2  or  3  miles  has 
been  supplied  from  the  Selfridge  survey  of  1870.  These  surveys 
were  extended  up  the  Tuyra  and  Aputi  rivers  and  up  the  Savana  and 
Lara  rivers,  besides  running  a  surve}T  from  the  mouth  of  the  Lara  in 
an  easterly  course  to  the  Chucunaque. 

The  explorations  of  other  possible  routes,  while  not  entirely  com- 
plete, have  shown  that  it  is  practicable  to  follow  the  divide  in  this 
section  of  the  isthmus  and  that  this  is  the  method  of  exploring  which 
is  applicable  to  the  isthmus.  The  good  health  of  the  field  parties  has 
shown  that  this  country  is  not  one  which  is  exceptionally  unhealthy 
to  explore. 

The  result  of   these  examinations  and  surveys 

No  canal  uitliout  a  tunnel.  .  ,  ....... 

shows  that  there  is  no  probability  ot  the  existence 
of  any  practicable  canal  location  between  Panama  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Atrato  River  except  by  the  adoption  of  a  tunnel  line. 

The  objections  to  a  tunnel  on  a  canal  arc  so  great  that  a  tunnel  loca- 
tion should  not  be  adopted  unless  there  are  manifest  advantages  of 
sufficient  weight  to  overcome  these  objections.     No  such  advantages 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  7-r> 

appear  to  exist.  The  .surveys,  however,  have  shown  that  there  is  a 
possible  tunnel  location  on  the  San  Bias  route  and  at  least  three  on  the 
Caledonia  route.  Each  of  these  four  locations,  though  involving  a 
tunnel,  provides  for  a  sea-level  canal. 

With  a  view  to  determine  the  approximate  cost 
of  a  canal  tunnel  a  section  of  tunnel  was  worked 
out,  and  this  section  is  shown  in  tig.  1.  This  section  provides  for  a 
depth  of  35  feet,  for  a  width  of  100  feet  at  the  bottom,  of  117  feet  on 
the  water  line,  and  for  a  height  of  115  feet  from  the  water  surface  to 
the  intrados  of  the  lining.  The  estimate  is  made  on  the  basis  of  the 
entire  tunnel  being  lined  with  concrete  5  feet  thick.  The  quantities 
and  estimated  cost  of  a  single  foot  of  this  tunnel  are  as  follows: 

670.2  cubic  yards  excavation,  at  $5 _  _    $3,381 

88.7  cubic  yards  concrete,  at  $10 887 

Total 1,208 

This  corresponds  to  $22,535,040  per  mile.     In  the  estimates  the  tun- 
nel has  been  assumed  to  cost  $22,500,000  per  mile. 

Tunnel  tide  level,  San  Bias     The  location  which  seems  to  promise  best  for 
Canal-  such  a  canal  is  shown  in  pi.  3  aecompairying  this 

report.  The  line  starting  from  Mandinga  Harbor  follows  up  the  Rio 
Carti,  passes  through  a  tunnel  1.5  miles  long,  and  descends  by  the 
valle}r  of  the  Chorrah  to  the  Chepo.  Open  excavations  are  maintained 
on  both  sides  of  the  tunnel  to  a  maximum  depth  of  100  feet.  The 
total  length  of  the  line  of  canal  is  37  miles,  and  the  length  from  tide- 
water to  tidewater  21  miles.  There  has  been  no  actual  examination  of 
the  .valley  of  the  Chorrah  because  of  the  revolution  existing  at  the 
time  the  attempt  was  made.  A  profile  of  this  location  is  shown  in 
pi.  1,  and  the  following  is  a  rough  estimate  of  the  possible  cost  of 
such  a  canal.  In  the  absence  of  an}^  means  of  classification  the  soft- 
rock  price  has  been  adopted  as  a  fair  average  for  all  dry  excavation 
outside  of  the  tunnel. 

160,000,000  cubic  yards  excavation,  at  80  cents $132,  800,  000 

39,000,000  cubic  yards  dredging,  at  20  cents 7,  800, 000 

Clearing . 500,  000 

4.2  miles  tunnel,  at  $22,500,000 94,  500,  000 

Tide  lock 4,  000,  000 

25  miles  railroad,  at  $75,000 _ .         1,  875,  000 

Total , 241,475,000 

20  per  cent  engineering,  contingencies,  etc. . 48,  295,  000 

Total 289,770,000 

.,  ,  ,    ,     ,       ....         The  distance  from  Caledonia  Bav  to  tide  water 

1'aleaonla     tunnel     tide- 
level  canals,  on  the  Savana  River  is  about  30  miles  in  a  straight 

line.     Studies  have  been  made  of  three  lines  across 


76  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  divide,  all  of  them  striking  the  same  point  on  the  Savana  River 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Lara,  the  approaches  on  the  Atlantic  side  being 
through  the  three  valleys  of  the  Caledonia,  the  Aglaseniqua,  and  the 
Sassardi.  The  distance  from  Caledonia  Bay  to  the  mouth  of  the  Lara 
varies  from  32  miles  b}r  the  Sassardi  route  to  36  miles  by  the  Caledonia 
route.  The  Sassardi  route  has  not,  however,  been  explored  through 
its  whole  length,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  an  actual  survey  would 
make  it  as  long  as  the  Caledonia  route.  Each  line  would  require  a 
tunnel.  If  the  Sassardi  route  is  taken,  the  length  of  this  tunnel, 
assuming  open  cuts  to  be  used  to  a  depth  of  400  feet  at  each  end, would 
betibout  1.6  miles.  On  either  of  the  other  two  the  tunnel  would  be 
about  2  miles  longer,  while  the  approaches  on  the  south  side  would 
be  much  heavier. 

Caledonia  Bay  is  virtually  tideless.  San  Miguel  Bay  has  a  tidal 
range  of  20  feet  or  more.  This  heavy  tide  causes  currents  in  the 
Savana  River  strong  enough  to  be  a  serious  menace  to  navigation,  and 
it  would  be  necessary  to  build  a  tide  lock  and  dam  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Savana.  The  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  Lara  to  the  tide  lock 
is  about  11  miles,  the  upper  portion  of  which  is  in  a  narrow  river 
which  would  require  enlargement  for  a  canal.  This  makes  the  total 
length  of  canal  navigation  from  Caledonia  Bay  to  the  tide  lock  about 
50  miles. 

The  locations  of  these  three  canal  routes  are  given  in  plate  5  accom- 
panying this  report.  Approximate  profiles  of  each  location  are  given 
in  plate  6,  and  from  these  the  following  estimates  of  the  possible  cost 
of  such  canals  have  been  made. 

The  more  extended  examination  of  the  country  gives  an  indication 
of  the  character  of  material  which  has  been  used  in  making  a  rough 
classification  into  hard  rock  and  earth. 

Sassardi  location. 

80,000,000  cubic  yards  hard  rock,  at  $1.15 $92,  000,  000 

137,000,000  cubic  yards  earth,  at  15  cents 61,  650, 000 

9,000,000  cubic  yards  dredging,  at  20  cents 1,  800,  000 

4,000,000  cubic  yards  submerged  rock,  at  $1.75 19,  000,  000 

Clearing 1,000,000 

1.6  miles  tunnel,  at  $22,500,000 . 36,  000, 000 

Tide  lock  and  dam 5, 000,  000 

10  miles  railroad,  at  $75,000 3, 000, 000 

Total 219,150,000 

20  per  cent  engineering,  contingencies,  etc 43, 890, 000 

Total 263,  310,  000 


EEPOBT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  77 

Aglaseniqua  location. 

66,000,000  cubic  yards  hard  rock,  at  $1.15  _ $75, 900,  000 

1  K».000,000  cubic  yards  earth,  at  45  cents 49,  500,  000 

9,000,000  cubic  yards  dredging,  at  20  cents  .  _ 1,  800,  000 

4,000,000  cubic  yards  submerged  rock,  at  $4.75 19, 000, 000 

Clearing 1,000,000 

3.6  miles  tunnel,  at  $22,500,000 81,  000, 000 

Tide  lock  and  dam 5,000,000 

40  miles  railroad,  at  $75,000 3,  000, 000 

Total 236,200,000 

20  per  cent  engineering,  contingencies,  etc 47, 240, 000 

Total 283,440,000 

Caledonia  location. 

77,000,000  cubic  yards  hard  rock,  at  $1. 15 $88,  550,  000 

129,000,000  cubic  yards  earth,  at  45  cents 58, 050, 000 

9,000,000  cubic  yards  dredging,  at  20  cents 1,  800, 000 

4,000,000  cubic  yards  submerged  rock,  at  $4.75  ■ 19,  000, 000 

Clearing 1,000,000 

4  miles  tunnel,  at  $22,500,000 90,000,000 

Tide  lock  and  dam 5,000,000 

44  miles  railroad,  at  $75,000 3, 300,  000 

Total 266,700,000 

20  per  cent  engineering,  contingencies,  etc 53,  340, 000 

Total 320,040,000 

These  estimates  are  made  without  the  careful  examination  which  is 
necessary  for  accurate  figures.  They  may  be 
eSumirimate8minimUm  regarded  as  minimum  estimates;  favorable  mate- 
rial has  been  assumed  for  tunnels  and  favorable 
material  for  excavation  in  the  body  of  the  canal;  in  fact,  these  esti- 
mates represent  the  best  possible  results  which  can  be  looked  for  on 
either  of  the  four  locations.  If  borings  either  on  the  divide  or  in  the 
low  country  south  of  the  divide  should  show  unfavorable  material, 
these  estimates  must  be  increased.  It  is  even  possible  that  material 
might  be  found  in  the  tunnel  sections  which  would  render  tunnel  con- 
struction virtually  impracticable  and  compel  the  adoption  of  open  cuts 
of  enormous  depth. 

All  these  estimates  are  made  on  the  basis  of  a  tide-level  canal.  The 
only  restriction  on  the  length  of  a  ship  passing  through  such  a  canal 


78  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

would  be  the  curves.     The  tunnels  would  be  as  absolute  restrictions  on 
depth  and  width  as  the  locks  of  Nicaragua  or  Panama. 

A  tide-level  canal  at  Panama  would  be  without  a 

Harbors  the  only  advan-     ,  i        mi  1  j  ±.  u*    u  £   j.i_ 

tage  oyer  Panama.  tunnel.     The  only  advantage  which  an}'  of  these 

canals  would  have  over  the  tide-level  canal  at 
Panama  would  be  in  the  superiority  of  their  Atlantic  harbors,  Mandinga 
Harbor  in  San  Bias  Bay  and  Caledonia  Bay,  both  being  very  much 
superior  to  the  harbor  at  Colon.  The  advantage  of  the  harbors  would 
not  be  enough  to  overcome  the  disadvantage  of  the  tunnel. 

The  only  reason  for  constructing  a  canal  on 
itsDofril™rco^?s?ionm"  either  of  these  locations  in  preference  to  Panama 
would  be  that  the  territory  is  entirety  wild  and 
the  work  would  be  untrammeled  by  vested  rights  of  occupation. 
This  advantage  is  more  apparent  than  real.  Many  of  the  legal  com- 
plications involved  in  obtaining  the  right  to  complete  the  Panama 
Canal  would  interfere  equally  with  the  construction  of  a  canal  at  San 
Bias  or  Caledonia.  The  Wyse  concession,  under  wThich  all  the  French 
operations  at  Panama  have  been  conducted,  confers  the  exclusive 
privilege  for  excavation  and  construction  of  a  maritime  canal  across 
the  territory  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans;  all  possible  routes  east  of  Panama,  including  the  vari- 
ous Atrato  lines,  come  within  the  limits  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia. 
The  contract  of  1867,  under  which  the  Panama  Railroad  now  holds  its 
concession,  gives  to  that  company  the  exclusive  right  of  isthmian  tran- 
sit west  of  a  line  connecting  Cape  Tiburon  on  the  Atlantic  with  Point 
Garachine  on  the  Pacific;  the  San  Bias  and  the  Caledonia  routes  both 
fall  west  of  this  line.  No  canal  can  therefore  be  constructed  at  either 
of  these  places  unless  some  arrangement  is  made  with  the  holders  of 
the  Wyse  and  the  Panama  Railroad  concessions. 

The  results  of  the  surveys  made  under  the  direc- 

Maps  and  other  drawings.  •      •  -i  •  .-  £    -i 

tion  or  the  Commission  on  this  portion  or  the 
isthmus  have  been  embodied  in  a  series  of  maps  and  other  plans  which 
accompany  this  report.  The}'  embrace  a  general  map  covering  the 
entire  isthmus  and  the  Gulf  of  Panama,  pi.  2;  two  maps  on  a  larger  scale 
covering,  respectively,  the  San  Bias,  pis.  3  and  4,  and  the  Caledonia  and 
San  Miguel  regions,  pi.  5;  two  maps  on  same  scale  as  the  last  showing 
the  coast  and  elevation  observed  from  the  sea,  pis.  7  and  S,  besides  12 
panoramic  sketches  taken  from  the  sea,  pis.  9  to  20,  and  profiles  of  the 
routes  already  mentioned,  pis.  4  and  6. 

The  thanks  of  the  Commission  are  due  to  the 
^Thanks  for  u.s.s.scor-Navy   Department,  which   detailed    the    steamer 

Scorpion  for  service  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the 
isthmus  during  these  surveys,  and  especially  to  her  commander,  Lieut. 
Commander  Nathan  Sargent,  her  executive  officer,  Lieut.  Roger  Welles, 
and  her  other  officers.  The  presence  of  this  vessel  rendered  practica- 
ble a  task  which  otherwise  might  have  been  impossible  of  execution. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


79 


Fig.l. 


Chapter  V. 

THE  PANAMA  ROUTE. 

The  natural  attractions  of  the  Panama  route  lie  in  the  combination 
of  a  very  narrow  isthmus  with  a  low  summit.  The  width  of  the  isth 
mus  is  less  than  36  miles  in  a  straight  line,  only  5  miles  more  than  at 
San  Bias,  the  narrowest  place,  while  the  original  summit  was  less  than 
300  feet  above  tide  water,  which,  though  higher  than  the  Nicaragua 
summit,  is  less  than  half  the  height  of  any  other  summit  which  has 
been  investigated.     Furthermore,  the  high  portion 

General  description.  .  °         .  ' .  V»       • 

of  the  isthmus  is  limited  to  a  width  ot  about  6 
miles  near  the  Pacific  side,  and  the  Chagres  River  affords  access  by 
canoe  navigation  from  the  Atlantic  to  within  16  miles  of  the  Pacific. 
When  steamship  lines  to  California  were  first  opened  the  Atlantic 
steamers  discharged  their  passengers  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chagres, 
whence  they  were  conveyed  up  that  river  in  canoes  to  Las  Cruces  and 
thence  overland  to  Panama,  where  they  took  the  Pacific  steamer. 
When  the  Panama  Railroad  was  built,  in  the  early  fifties,  its  Atlantic 
terminus  was  fixed  at  the  Bay  of  Limon,  7  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Chagres.  The  road  followed  the  valley  of  the  Chagres  to  Obispo, 
a  few  miles  below  Las  Cruces,  and  thence  crossed  through  the  lowest 
gap  to  Panama.  This  location  is  almost  identical  with  that  subse- 
quently adopted  for  the  canal.     (See  pi.  21.) 

The  isthmus  here  runs  nearly  east  and  west,  but  the  course 
of  the  railroad  or  canal  is  from  northwest  to  southeast,  the  Pacific 
terminus  being  about  22  miles  farther  east  than  the  Atlantic 
terminus.  The  Atlantic  port  is  Colon,  and  the  Pacific  port  Panama. 
At  Colon  the  mean  tidal  range  is  about  1  foot;  at  Panama  it  is  about 
20  feet.  The  harbors  are  not  of  the  first  class.  The}r  have  served  the 
demands  of  a  limited  commerce  heretofore.  Some  improvements  at 
Colon  would  be  necessary  if  the  canal  should  be  built.  The  defect  of 
Colon  Harbor  is  that  it  is  exposed  to  "northers."  When  these  are 
severe,  ships  are  now  compelled  to  go  to  sea.  This  may  occur  once 
or  more  each  year.  Panama  Harbor  is  a  roadstead  behind  islands  at 
the  head  of  a  great  bay  or  gulf.  For  the  terminus  of  a  canal  it  is 
sufficient,  as  the  stay  of  vessels  is  expected  to  be  short. 

The  Panama  route  was  surveyed  by  Commander  E.  P.  Lull,  United 
States  Navy,  in  1875.     He  recommended  a  canal 

Lull  survey,  1876.  .   .    ,       ,      J'  .  ,         ,  .  „         , 

with  locks  and  with  a  location  generally  above  the 
overflow  bottom  of  the  Chagres.     It  was  to  have  a  depth  of  26  feet  and 
80 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  8l 

a  bottom  width  of  60  to  72  feet.  The  locks  were  to  have  a  length 
450  feet  between  miter  .sills  and  width  65  feet.  He  fixed  his  summit 
level  at  124  feet  above  tide  level  and  proposed  to  use  12  locks  on  each 
side.  To  supply  the  summit  level  water  was  to  be  impounded  by  a 
dam  to  be  built  across  the  Chagres  River  at  a  site  not  far  from  the 
one  subsequently  selected  by  the  new  French  company  at  Alhajuela, 
from  which  a  feeder  of  complicated  character  would  lead  it  to  the 
canal.     He  estimated  the  cost  of  this  canal  at  $94,511,360. 

In  the  year  1876  an  association  entitled  "  Societe  Civile  Internationale 
du  Canal  Interoceanique"  was  organized  in  Paris,  with  Gen.  Etienne 
Tiirr  as  president,  to  make  surveys  and  explorations  for  a  ship  canal 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  An  expedition  under  the  direction  of 
Lieut.  L.  N.  B.  Wyse,  an  officer  of  the  French  navy,  was  sent  to  the 
Isthmus.     In  May,  1878,  Lieutenant  Wyse  in  the 

The  Wyse  concession.  .  .        . 

name  or  the  association  obtained  a  concession  from 
the  Colombian  Government,  commonly  known  as  the  Wyse  concession. 
In  May,  1879,  an  international  congress,  composed  of  135  delegates 
from  various  nations,  including  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and 
Germany,  but  the  majority  of  whom  were  French,  was  convened  in  Paris 
under  the  auspices  of  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  to  consider  the  question  of 
the  best  location  and  plan  for  a  canal  across  the  American  isthmus. 
After. a  session  of  two  weeks,  the  congress  decided  that  the  canal  should 
be  located  on  the  Panama  route,  and  should  be  at  the  sea  level  and 
without  locks.     Immediately  after   the  adiourn- 

The  old  company.  _   "  " 

ment  or  the  congress,  the  Panama  Canal  Company 
was  organized  under  a  general  law  of  France  with  the  title  "Com- 
pagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Interoceanique,"  with  Ferdinand  de 
Lesseps  as  president.  It  purchased  the  Wyse  concession  from  the 
first-named  company,  paying  therefor  10,000,000  francs.  An  attempt 
to  float  the  stock  of  this  company  in  August,  1879,  failed,  but  a  second 
attempt,  made  in  December,  1880,  was  fully  successful.  The  issue 
was  fixed  at  600,000  shares  of  500  francs  each.  It  was  all  sold.  The 
next  two  years  were  devoted  to  surveys  and  examinations  and  prelim- 
inary work  upon  the  canal.  Operations  upon  a  large  scale  were 
inaugurated  in  the  early  part  of  1883.  The  plan  adopted  was  for 
a  sea-level  canal  having  a  depth  of  29. 5  feet  and  bottom  width 
of  72  feet,  involving  excavation  estimated  at  157,000,000  cubic 
yards.  The  terminus  on  the  Atlantic  side  was  fixed  by  the  anchor- 
age at  Colon  and  that  on  the  Pacific  side  by  the  anchorage  at 
Panama.  Leaving  Colon  the  canal  passes  through  low  ground  by 
a  direct  line  for  a  distance  of  6  miles  to  Gatun,  where  it  intersects 
the  valley  of  the  Chagres  River,  passes  up  that  valley  a  distance  of 
21  miles  to  Obispo,  where  it  leaves  the  Chagres  and,  following  the 

S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 6 


82  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

valley  of  a  small  tributary,  cuts  through  the  continental  divide  at 
Culebra  and  thence  descends  by  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  to 
Panama  Bay.  Its  total  length  from  30  feet  depth  in  the  Atlantic  to 
30  feet  depth  in  the  Pacific  is  about  47  miles.  Its  location  is  such  as 
to  give  easy  curvature  everywhere.  To  secure  this,  it  was  necessary 
to  select  a  point  for  crossing  the  divide  where  the  height  was  some- 
what greater  than  that  of  the  lowest  pass.  The  maximum  height  on 
the  center  line  in  the  Culebra  cut  is  about  333  feet  above  the  sea.  To 
control  the  floods  of  the  Chagres,  various  schemes  were  proposed,  the 
most  prominent  being  the  construction  of  a  dam  at  Gamboa  to 
impound  the  water  of  the  upper  river  and  the  excavation  of  inde- 
pendent channels  to  the  sea.  The  dam  was  afterwards  decided  to  be 
impracticable,  and  the  problem  remained  unsolved.  The  cost  was 
estimated  by  de  Lesseps  in  1880  at  $127,600,000,  and  the  time  required 
at  eight  years.  Work  under  this  plan  continued  until  the  latter  part 
of  1887.  The  fact  had  by  that  time  become  evident  to  all,  which 
had  for  a  long  time  been  evident  to  the  well  informed,  that  the 
canal  could  not  be  completed  at  the  sea  level  with  the  resources  of 
time  and  money  then  available.  A  provisional  change  of  plan  was 
accordingly  made,  under  which  the  final  completion  at  the  sea  level 
was  to  be  deferred  to  a  future  time,  and  the  opening  of  a  canal  to 
navigation  was  to  be  hastened  by  the  introduction  of  locks.  This 
being  considered  a  temporary  expedient,  the  summit  level  was  to  be 
supplied  with  water  from  the  Chagres  River  by  pumps.  Work  under 
this  plan  was  pushed  with  vigor  until  1889,  when  the  company  becom- 
ing bankrupt  it  was  dissolved  by  a  judgment  of  the  Tribunal  Civil  de 
la  Seine,  dated  February  4,  1889,  and  a  liquidator  was  appointed  by 
that  court  to  take  charge  of  its  affairs. 

In  the  appointment  of  the  liquidator  the  court  kept  prominently  in 

view  the  completion  of  the  canal,  and  it  authorized  him  to  cede  to  a 

new  association  all  or  part  of  the  assets,  to  make  or  ratify  agreements 

with  the  contractors  which  had  for  their  object 

Liquidation.  .... 

the  continuation  of  the  works,  and  to  borrow 
money  for  that  purpose.  The  liquidator  reduced  the  force  gradually 
and  finally  suspended  the  works  May  15,  1889.  He  then  proceeded  to 
satisfy  himself  that  the  canal  project  was  feasible,  a  question  about  which 
the  failure  of  the  company  had  caused  grave  doubts.  He  appointed  a 
"commission  d'etudes,"  composed  of  French  and  foreign  engineers, 
11  in  number,  having  at  their  head  Inspector-General  Guillemain, 
director  of  the  Ecole  Nationale  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees,  which,  after  a 
study  of  the  entire  subject  and  visiting  the  isthmus,  rendered  a  report 
May  5,  1<S90,  in  which  it  submitted  a  plan  for  a  canal  with  locks.  It 
expressed  the  opinion  that  the  canal  could  be  constructed  within  eight 
years.     It  reported  that  the  plant  on  hand  was  in  good  condition  and 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  83 

would  probably  suffice  for  finishing  the  canal.  It  estimated  the  cost 
of  completion  at  $112,500,000  for  the  works,  which  it  thought  should 
be  increased  to  $174,600,000  (900,000,000  francs)  to  include  adminis- 
tration and  financing.  It  found  much  difficulty  in  estimating  the 
value  of  the  work  done  and  of  the  plant,  but  gave  as  a  rough  approx- 
imation one-half  the  estimated  cost  of  completing  the  canal,  or 
$87,300,000  (450,000,000  francs).  It  called  this  an  "intuitive  esti- 
mate." More  weight  has  been  attached  to  this  estimate  in  recent  docu- 
ments by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  than  its  authors  claimed 
for  it. 

The  time  within  which  the  canal  was  to  be  completed  under  the 
Wyse  concession  having  nearly  expired,  the  liquidator  sought  and 
obtained  from  the  Colombian  Government  an  extension  of  ten  years. 
The  law  of  Colombia  granting  this  extension  is  dated  December  26, 
1890.  It  provided  that  a  new  company  should  be  formed  and  work 
upon  the  canal  resumed  on  or  before  February  28,  1893.  This  con- 
dition not  having  been  fulfilled,  a  second  extension  was  sought  and 
obtained  April  4,  1893.  It  provided  that  the  term  of  ten  years  granted 
by  the  extension  of  1890  should  begin  to  run  not  later  than  October 
31,  1894.  By  an  agreement  dated  April  26,  1900,  the  time  was  still 
further  extended  to  October  31,  1910.  The  validity  of  the  last  exten- 
sion has  been  called  in  question.  Full  copies  of  the  concession  and  its 
various  extensions  will  be  found  in  Appendices  GG,  HH,  II,  JJ. 

The  liquidator  found  himself  laboring  under  special  legal  difficulties, 
from  which  he  obtained  relief  by  the  special  law  of  the  French  Cham- 
bers, dated  Juty  1,  1893.  (See  Appendix  KK.)  He  finally  secured 
the  organization  of  a  new  company  on  the  20th,  of  October,  1894, 
with  a  capital  stock  of  650,000  shares  of  100  francs  each.  Six 
hundred  thousand  shares  had  been  subscribed  to  be  paid  for  in 
cash,  and  50,000  shares  were  given  as  full-paid  stock  to  the  Colom- 
bian Government  in  compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  extension 
of  the  concession,  dated  December  26,  1890.  Thus  the  cash  capital 
of  the  company  was  60,000,000  francs,  or  $11,640,000,  a  sum  deemed 
sufficient  for  the  provisional  operations  contemplated.  The  scandals 
connected  with  the  failure  of  the  old  company,  which  had  led  to 
the  prosecution  and  conviction  of  De  Lesseps  and  other  prominent 
persons,  had  made  it  difficult  to  secure  even  that  amount.  Suits  had 
been  brought  against  certain  loan  associations,  administrators,  con- 
tractors, and  others  who  were  supposed  to  have  unduly  profited  by 
the  extravagant  management  of  the  old  company.  A  series  of  com- 
promises were  made  with  t^ese  persons,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that 
they  should  subscribe  for  stock  in  the  new  company  on  condition  that 
the  suits  should  be  dropped.  Whatever  amount  remained  to  make  up 
the  60,000,000  francs,  after  deducting  the  sums  thus  obtained  and 


84  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

those  to  be  obtained  by  public  subscription,  was  to  be  subscribed  by 

the  liquidator.     The  stock  was  subscribed  as  follows,  viz  : 

Francs. 

Ei  ffel 10, 000,  000 

Credit  Lyonnais 4, 000,  000 

Societe  Generale 4, 000, 000 

Credit  Industriel  et  Commercial 2, 000, 000 

Administrators  of  the  old  company 7,  885,  000 

Artigue,  Sonderegger  &  Co " 2, 200,  000 

Baratoux,  Letellier  &  Co 2,200,000 

Jacob  heirs 750, 000 

Couvreux,  Hersent  &  Co 500, 000 

Various  persons  to  the  number  of  sixty,  who  had  profited 

by  S}Tndicates  created  b}7  the  old  company 3,  285,  700 

Hugo  Oberndorffer 3,  800, 000 

Public  subscription 3,  484, 300 

The  liquidator 15, 895, 000 

Total 60, 000, 000 

See  fourth  report  of  the  liquidator  to  the  court,  dated  November 
26,  1895,  pages  8,  9,  and  13. 

The  old  company  and  the  liquidator  had  raised  by  the  sale  of  stock 
and  bonds  the  sum  of  $246,706,431.68.  The  securities  issued  to  raise 
this  money  had  a  face  value  of  $435,559,332.80.  The  number  of  per- 
sons holding  them  is  estimated  at  over  200,000/  There  have  been 
excavated  in  all  about  72,000,000  cubic  yards. 
There  had  been  purchased  and  transported  to  the 
isthmus  an  enormous  quantity  of  machinery  and  other  plant,  at  an 
estimated  cost  of  $29,000,000.  Nearly  all  of  the  stock  of  the  Panama 
Railroad — about  68,500  of  the  70,000  shares  existing — also  had  been 
purchased  at  a  cost  of  about  $18,094,000.  A  general  statement  of  the 
receipts  and  expenditures  and  further  details  of  the  history  of  the 
enterprise  down  to  the  formation  of  the  new  company,  furnished  by 
M.  Maurice  Hutin,  director-general  New  Panama  Canal  Company, 
will  be  found  in  Appendix  B. 

The  new  company  took  possession  of  the  prop- 

Thc  new  company.  .  , .        . ,         »  .  .  '„  z.n . 

erty  immediately  after  its  organization  in  1894— 
except  the  Panama  Railroad  shares,  which  are  held  in  trust  for  its 
benefit — and  proceeded  to  make  a  new  study  of  the  entire  subject  of 
the  canal  in  its  engineering  and  commercial  aspects.  It  undertook  to 
finish  the  canal,  if  after  the  completion  of  these  studies  that  should  be 
found  expedient.  It  resumed  the  work  of  excavation,  with  a  force 
large  enough  to  comply  with  its  concession,  on  a  part  of  the  line,  the 
Emperador  and  Culebra  cuts,  where  such  excavation  was  sure  to  con- 


See  second  report  of  the  liquidator  to  the  court,  dated  November  12,  1891. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  85 

tribute  to  the  enterprise  if  completed  under  any  plan.  By  the  middle 
of  1895  a  force  of  about  2,000  men  had  been  collected,  and  the  work 
has  progressed  continuously  since  that  time  with  a  force  reported  as 
varying  between  1,900  and  3,600  men.  According  to  the  annual 
reports  of  the  compan}7,  the  amount  of  material  taken  out  was  about 
485,000  cubic  yards  in  1895,  915,000  in  1896,  1,225,000  in  1897, 
1,200,000  in  1898,  and  about  1,210,000  in  1899,  or  about  5,000,000 
cubic  yards  in  all.  The  amount  expended  to  June  30,  1899,  was  about 
$7,000,000,  besides  about  $1,284,000  advanced  to  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company  for  building  a  pier  at  La  Boca. 

The  company's  charter  provided  for  the  appointment  by  the  com- 
pany and  the  liquidator  of  a  special  engineering  commission  of  five 
members  to  report  upon  the  work  done  and  upon  the  conclusions  to  be 
drawn  therefrom,  this  report  to  be  rendered  when  the  amounts  expended 
by  the  new  company  should  have  reached  about  one-half  its  capital. 
The  report  was  to  be  made  public  and  a  special  meeting  of  the 
stockholders  was  then  to  be  held  to  finalty  determine  whether  or  not 
the  canal  should  be  completed  and  to  provide  ways  and  means.  The 
time  for  this  report  and  special  meeting  arrived  in  1898.  In  the 
meantime  the  company  had  called  to  its  aid  a  technical  committee 
composed  of  fourteen  engineers,  European  and  American,  some  of 
them  among  the  most  eminent  in  their  profession.  After  a  stud}^  of 
all  the  data  available  and  of  such  additional  surveys  and  examina- 
tions as  it  had  considered  necessary  to  be  made,  this  committee 
rendered  an  elaborate  report  dated  November  16, 1898.  It  was  repro- 
duced in  Senate  document  No.  188,  Fifty -sixth  Congress,  first  session, 
pages  43-83.  This  report  was  referred  to  the  above-mentioned  statu- 
tory commission  of  five,  which  reported  in  1899  that  the  canal  could 
be  built  according  to  that  project  within  the  limits  of  time  and  money 
estimated.  The  special  meeting  of  stockholders  was  called  immedi- 
ately after  the  regular  annual  meeting  of  December  30,  1899.  It  is 
understood  that  the  liquidator,  who  is  one  of  the  largest  stockholders, 
refused  to  take  part  in  it,  and  that  no  conclusions  were  reached  as  to 
the  expediency  of  completing  the  canal  or  as  to  providing  ways  and 
means.  The  engineering  questions  had  been  solved  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  company,  but  the  financial  questions  had  been  made  extremely 
difficult,  if  not  insoluble,  by  the  appearance  of  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment in  the  field  as  a  probable  builder  of  an  isthmian  canal.  The 
company  is  conducting  its  operations  in  the  same  provisional  way  as  in 
the  last  five  years  and  has  not  }^et  appealed  to  the  public  for  capital. 
The  plan  adopted  by  the  company  involves  two 

>ew  company's  plan.  *  ■  J  i 

levels  above  the  sea-level — one  of  them  an  artificial 
lake  to  be  created  by  a  dam  at  Bohio,  to  be  reached  from  the  Atlantic 
side  by  a  flight  of  two  locks,  and  the  other,  the  summit  level,  to  be 
reached  by  another  flight  of  two  locks  from  the  preceding;  the  summit 


86  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

level  to  have  its  bottom  68  feet  above  the  .sea  and  to  be  supplied  with 
water  by  a  feeder  leading  from  an  artificial  reservoir  to  be  constructed 
at  Alhajueala,  in  the  Upper  Chagres  Valley;  the  ascent  on  the  Pacific 
side  to  be  likewise  by  four  locks,  of  which  the  two  middle  ones  are 
combined  in  a  flight.  The  canal  is  to  have  a  depth  of  29.5  feet  and  a 
bottom  width  of  about  98  feet,  with  an  increased  width  in  certain 
specified  parts.  Its  general  location  is  the  same  as  that  adopted  by 
the  old  company.  The  dimensions  of  the  lock  chambers  are  738  feet 
in  length,  82  feet  in  width,  and  32  feet  10  inches  in  depth  in  the  clear; 
the  lifts  to  vary  from  26  feet  to  33  feet,  according  to  location  and 
stage  of  water.  The  cost  was  estimated  at  $101,850,000  for  the  works, 
which  does  not  include  administration  or  financing.  While  this  is  the 
plan  recommended  by  the  French  engineers,  they  worked  out  in  detail 
a  second  plan,  which  is  an  extension  or  modification  of  the  foregoing, 
which  they  seemed  to  prefer  in  itself,  but  which  they  feared  would 
require  more  time  to  execute.  The  limits  of  their  concession  and  the 
heavy  cost  of  financing  led  them  to  attach  very  great  weight  to  the 
consideration  of  time.  Under  this  second  plan  the  upper  level  was 
omitted,  the  cut  through  the  continental  divide  being  deepened  until 
its  bottom  was  32  feet  above  the  sea;  Lake  Bohio  was  made  the  sum- 
mit level  and  was  fed  directly  by  the  Chagres;  one  flight  of  locks  on 
the  Atlantic  side  and  one  lock  on  the  Pacific  were  omitted;  the  feeder 
from  Alhajuela  was  omitted,  but  the  dam  at  that  place  was  retained. 
The  estimated  cost  of  completing  the  canal  under  this  plan  was  not 
much  greater  than  that  for  the  other,  being  about  $105,500,000.  All 
work  done  for  several  years  under  the  first  plan  would  be  equally 
available  under  the  second  plan,  and  the  company  contemplates  revert- 
ing to  the  second  plan  if  the  experience  of  the  first  few  years  shows 
that  time  will  permit.  In  both  plans  the  dam  at  Bohio  converted  the 
river  between  that  point  and  Obispo  into  a  lake  of  such  dimensions  as 
not  to  be  seriously  affected  by  the  partial  floods  admitted  to  it,  while 
diversion  channels  were  to  be  constructed  on  both  sides  of  the  canal 
from  this  lake  to  the  sea.  With  a  carefully  designed  system  of  sluices 
and  controlling  works  the  violence  of  the  floods  was  to  be  checked  by 
impounding  the  water  both  above  the  Alhajuela  dam  and  Lake  Bohio, 
so  as  to  keep  the  flow  below  the  Bohio  dam  within  the  capacity  of  the 
two  diversion  channels. 

The  old  Panama  Canal  Company  began  its  work 

Physical  data  available.  .  .     .  .     ,  ,        .      , 

without  adequate  knowledge  of  the  physical  con- 
ditions at  the  Isthmus.  It  inaugurated  at  an  early  day  some  of  the 
surveys  and  examinations  required  to  supply  the  deficiency,  and  some 
of  these  it  maintained  as  long  as  it  continued  to  exist.  Additional 
surveys  were  made  by  the  liquidator,  and  very  extended  additional 
surveys  and  observations  have  been  made  by  the  new  company.  The 
information  relating  to  the  topography,  hydrography,  and  geology  of 


REPOBT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  87 

the  Isthmus  is  now  much  more  complete  than  is  usual  before  the  inaug- 
uration of  an  engineering  enterprise  in  a  new  country.  The  canal 
couipain'  spared  no  trouble  or  expense  in  laying  it  all  before  the  Com- 
mission. The  most  important  maps,  drawings,  and  documents  were 
lithographed  or  printed  and  systematically  arranged  for  the  use  of  the 
Commission,  copies  being  furnished  for  each  member.  Many  other 
documents  were  supplied  in  manuscript.  In  all  some  340  documents, 
many  of  them  elaborate  studies,  were  furnished.  A  list  of  them  will 
be  found  in  Appendix  C.  These  supplied  essentially  all  the  data 
required  for  the  preparation  of  plans  and  estimates,  though  further 
information  was  desired  as  to  the  foundation  upon  which  the  great 
dam  at  Bohio  must  be  built,  and  as  to  the  area  of  the  Chagres  River 
drainage  basin.  This  additional  information  was  obtained  by  the  field 
parties  of  this  Commission.  It  was  necessary  also  for  the  purpose  of 
this  investigation  to  verify  the  French  data.  Independent  lines  of 
levels,  measurements  of  distances,  borings,  soundings,  and  hydro- 
graphic  observations  made  by  its  own  parties,  supplemented  by  per- 
sonal observation,  enable  this  Commission  to  state  that  the  data 
furnished  by  the  canal  company  are  essentially  correct. 

The  circumstances  under  which  the  Commission 
pian  for  the  United  states  approaches  the  study  of  a  plan  for  the  canal  differ 

differs  from  that  for  a  com-     „  ,  ■     1        n  i  • 

merciai  corporation.  from  those  of  the  h  rench  engineers  in  two  impor- 

tant particulars.  The  question  of  the  time  required 
for  completion  is  of  less  vital  importance,  since  a  new  concession  from 
the  Colombian  Government  must  be  obtained  in  any  event,  and  since  the 
cost  of  financing  would  be  much  diminished  if  the  United  States  should 
provide  the  funds,  that  question  would  not  be  decisive  against  a  plan 
which  is  otherwise  preferable.  In  a  plan  prepared  for  a  government 
seeking  the  permanent  development  of  its  possessions,  and  content  to 
receive  its  returns  in  an  indirect  wa}^  and  at  a  future  time,  the  canal 
must  have  dimensions  which  will  permit  the  passage  of  the  largest 
ships  now  afloat  or  likely  to  be  constructed.  For  a  time  such  ships 
may  be  exceptional  and  the  canal  revenue  derived  from  them  may  be 
small.  A  plan  prepared  for  a  commercial  corporation  investing  capi- 
tal from  which  an  immediate  and  direct  revenue  is  desired  would 
probably  exclude  such  exceptional  ships,  and  the  dimensions  given  the 
canal — at  least  in  the  beginning- — would  be  less  than  in  the  former 
case. 

One  of  the  greatest  natural  difficulties  to  be 
JSSST """  *  "at"raI  encountered  in  the  construction  of  a  ship  canal  on 
the  Panama  route  lies  in  the  control  of  the  Chagres 
River.  That  stream  is  about  145  miles  long  and  has  a  drainage  area 
above  Bohio  of  about  875  square  miles.  Above  Obispo  it  is  in  general 
a  clear- water  stream  flowing  over  a  bed  of  coarse  gravel;  but  sand, 
clay,  and  silt  in  moderate  quantities  appear  in  the  lower  portions  of 


88  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

its  course.  It  flows  through  a  mountainous  country,  in  which  the 
average  annual  rainfall  is  about  130  inches.  A  maximum  rainfall  has 
been  observed  of  over  6  inches  in  twelve  hours.  Its  discharge  at 
Bohio  varies  from  a  minimum  of  about  350  cubic  feet  to  a  possible 
maximum  of  136,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  excessive  rainfall 
and  the  precipitous  slopes  of  the  valley  give  to  the  river  a  torrential 
character.  On  December  1,  1890,  it  rose  at  Gamboa  23  feet  in  sixteen 
hours,  its  discharge,  which  was  about  9,000  cubic  feet  per  second  at 
the  beginning  of  the  rise,  increasing  in  the  same  time  to  six  or  seven 
times  that  volume.  This  is  the  most  violent  change  of  which  there  is 
definite  record,  but  similar  changes  of  somewhat  less  violence  are  not 
uncommon.  The  admission  of  a  stream  of  this  character  to  the  canal 
would  create  conditions  intolerable  to  navigation  unless  sufficient 
section  of  prism  be  provided  to  reduce  the  current  to  an  unobjection- 
able velocity. 

If   a  sea-level  canal  be  constructed,  either  the 

canal  itself  must  be  made  of  such  dimensions  that 
maximum  floods,  modified  to  some  extent  by  a  reservoir  in  the  Upper 
Chagres,  could  pass  down  its  channel  without  injury,  or  independent 
channels  must  be  provided  to  carry  off  these  floods.  As  the  canal  lies 
in  the  .lowest  part  of  the  valley,  the  construction  of  such  channels 
would  be  a  matter  of  serious  difficulty,  and  the  simplest  solution  would 
be  to  make  the  canal  prism  large  enough  to  take  the  full  discharge 
itself.  This  would  have  the  advantage,  also,  of  furnishing  a  very  large 
canal,  in  which  navigation  under  ordinary  circumstances  would  be 
exceptionally  easy.  It  would  involve  a  cross  section  from  Obispo  to 
the  Atlantic,  having  an  area  of  at  least  15,000  square  feet  below  the 
water  line,  which  would  give  a  bottom  width  of  about  100  feet.  The 
quantity  of  excavation  required  for  such  a  canal  has  been  roughly 
computed,  and  is  found  to  be  about  266,228,000  cubic  yards.  The  cost 
of  such  a  canal,  including  a  dam  at  Alhajuela  and  a  tide  lock  at  Mira- 
flores,  near  the  Pacific  end,  is  estimated  at  not  less  than  $210,000,000. 
Its  construction  would  probably  take  at  least  twenty  years.  This 
Commission  concurs  with  the  various  French  commissions  which  have 
preceded  it  since  the  failure  of  the  old  company  in  rejecting  the  sea- 
level  plan.  While  such  a  plan  would  be  physically  practicable,  and 
might  be  adopted  if  no  other  solution  were  available,  the  difficulties  of 
all  kinds,  and  especially  those  of  time  and  cost,  would  be  so  great  that 
a  canal  with  a  summit  level  reached  by  locks  is  to  be  preferred. 

In  the  case  of  a  canal  with  locks  the  problem  of 
wm!'ti!Kks.UPPly  '°r  ,a"al  controlling  the  floods  is  very  much  simplified,  but 

a  new  one  is  introduced — that  of  supplying  the 
summit  level  with  water.  The  quantity  of  water  required  for  the 
operation  of  the  canal  will  vary  with  the  amount  of  traffic  and  the  size 
of  the  vessels  carrying  it.     Assuming  lo  lockages  per  day  for  vessels 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  89 

of  about  3,000  tons  each,  an  annual  traffic  of  about  1.0,000,000  tons  will 
be  accommodated,  which  is  greater  than  the  amount  to  be  expected  at 
the  opening  of  the  canal.  Ten  lockages  will  require  35,127,960  cubic 
feet  per  day,  or  406  cubic  feet  per  second,  assuming  that  four  of 
these  lockages  are  for  the  full-size  lock  and  six  of  them  for  the  reduced 
size,  using  the  intermediate  gates.  The  loss  from  evaporation  is 
assumed  to  be  6  inches  per  month.  The  area  of  the  lake  to  be 
proposed  hereafter  is  38.5  square  miles,  or  1,073,318,400  square  feet. 
The  loss  from  evaporation  over  this  area  is  536,659,200  cubic  feet 
in  a  month,  or  207  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  loss  from  leakage  at 
the  lock  gates  is  estimated  at  250  cubic  feet  per  second.  To  this  has 
been  added  200  cubic  feet  per  second  for  power  and  other  contingencies. 
Adding  these  amounts  together,  the  total  amount  required  to  operate 
the  canal  for  a  traffic  of  10,000,000  tons  per  annum  is  found  to  be 
1,063,  or,  in  round  numbers,  1,070,  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  average 
annual  discharge  of  the  Chagres  is  far  in  excess  of  this,  being  about 
3,200  cubic  feet  per  second,  but  there  is  a  well-defined  dry  season  when 
the  daily  discharge  is  often  less.  A  deficiency  during  the  months  of  Feb- 
ruary, March,  and  April  is  to  be  apprehended  and  must  be  provided  for, 
though  it  does  not  always  occur.  For  use  during  these  months  some  of 
the  surplus  waters  of  the  other  months  must  be  stored.  The  minimum 
average  discharge  at  Bohio  for  any  month  covered  by  the  records  is 
that  for  March,  1891,  when  it  was  600  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  470 
cubic  feet  less  than  the  amount  required.  If  water  enough  be  stored 
to  supply  this  deficiency,  supposing  it  to  exist  continuously  for  three 
months,  provision  will  be  made  against  a  state  of  affairs  worse  than 
any  that  has  ever  been  known  or  is  likely  to  occur.  A  deficiency  of 
470  cubic  feet  per  second  for  ninety  days  gives  an  aggregate  deficiency 
of  3,654,720,000  cubic  feet,  for  which  storage  room  must  be  provided. 
In  a  lake  having  an  area  of  38.5  square  miles  it  corresponds  to  a  depth 
of  3.4  feet. 

The  greatest  flood  which  has  occurred  since  the 

Flood  discharge   of   the  ,  •  j.     ,i         .    ,  .  ,  ji         -r>  t»    m 

cha!?res  occupation  of  the  isthmus  by   the  Panama  Kail- 

road  (which  covers  a  period  of  fift}T  years),  and 
so  far  as  known  the  greatest  which  ever  occurred,  was  that  of 
November  18,  1879.  No  measurement  was  made  of  its  volume,  but 
the  height  which  it  reached  at  Bohio  is  stated  upon  the  authority 
of  Mr.  Sosa,  a  Colombian  engineer,  to  have  been  39.3  feet  above 
low  water.  A  comparison  of  this  height  with  that  reached  by 
floods  of  which  the  volume  was  measured  (see  Appendix  D)  leads 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  maximum  discharge  at  Bohio  at  the  highest 
point  of  the  flood  in  1879  might  have  been  as  much  as  136,000  cubic 
feet  per  second.  In  reaching  this  conclusion  one  of  the  assumptions 
is  that  there  was  no  change  in  the  size  of  the  waterway  between  1879 
and  the  dates  of  the  later  floods,  and  that  if  the  same  quantity  of  water 


90  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

nad  been  flowing  at  the  later  dates  as  in  1879,  it  would  have  reached 
the  same  height.  Inasmuch  as  the  size  of  the  waterway  was  much 
increased  subsequently  to  1879  b}^  the  excavations  of  the  old  company, 
this  assumption  gives  a  result  which  is  certainly  not  too  low.  In  this, 
as  in  all  other  cases  of  doubt,  the  assumptions  have  been  made  such  as 
to  err  on  the  safe  side,  if  at  all.  The  other  greatest  floods  of  which 
there  are  records  are  those  of  1885,  with  a  height  at  Bohio  33.8  feet; 
1888  with  height  31.7  feet;  1890  with  height  32.1  feet,  and  1893  with 
height  28.5  feet.  The  last  two  were  measured,  the  maximum  dis- 
charge in  1890  being  71,998  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  in  1893,  18,975 
cubic  feet.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  floods  in  which  the  discharge 
exceeds  75,000  cubic  feet  per  second  are  of  rare  occurrence.  If  the 
works  be  so  designed  that  such  a  flood  would  produce  no  currents 
which  would  interfere  with  navigation,  and  that  a  flood  of  110,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  while  it  might  temporarily  suspend  navigation, 
would  not  injure  the  structure  of  the  canal,  ample  provision  will  be 
made  for  the  flood  control  of  the  Chagres. 

No  location  suitable  for  a  dam  exists  on  the  Chagres  River  below 
Bohio,  and  while  this  location  is  not  without  difficulties  it  has  the 
great  advantage  that  about  3  miles  southwest  of  the  dam,  near  the 
head  of  the  Rio  Gig-ante,  a  tributary  of  the  Cha- 
gres, there  exists  an  excellent  site  for  a  spillway, 
by  which  the  discharge  from  the  lake  can  be  kept  well  away  from  the 
dam  and  accessory  works,  and  may  be  made  extremely  large  without 
inconvenience  either  to  the  canal  itself  or  to  the  country  below  the 
lake.  The  height  of  this  spillway  would  regulate  the  height  and  area 
of  the  lake.  After  careful  consideration  of  the  requirements  for  flood 
control  and  for  storage  against  deficiency  in  the  diy  season,  and  also 
of  the  effect  upon  the  amount  of  excavation  required  for  the  canal 
through  the  continental  divide,  the  Commission  has  decided  to  fix 
this  height  at  85  feet  above  mean  tide,  and  to  make  the  spillway  a 
fixed  weir  2,000  feet  long.  The  area  of  the  lake  at  this  height  is 
38.5  square  miles,  or  1,073,318,100  square  feet.  Using  coefficient 
3.5  in  the  weir  formula,  it  is  computed  that  with  a  depth  of  5 
feet  over  its  crest  the  weir  will  discharge  78,260  cubic  feet  per  second. 
In  reaching  elevation  90  the  area  of  the  lake  will  be  enlarged  to 
about  13  square  miles  and  it  will  impound  over  5,680,000,000  cubic 
feet  of  water.  The  quantity  of  water  discharged  over  the  weir 
while  the  lake  is  rising  from  elevation  85  to  elevation  90,  assum- 
ing circumstances  of  flow  similar  to  those  observed  in  the  flood 
of  1893,  is  computed  to  be  about  1,000,000,000  cubic  feet.  (See  Ap- 
pendix E.)  The  total  quantity  of  water  impounded  and  discharged 
before  the  lake  will  rise  above  elevation  90  is  therefore  nearly 
10,000,000,000  cubic  feet.  It  provides  for  unimpeded  navigation 
during  all  floods  not  exceeding  75,000  cubic  feet  per  second,     The 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  91 

velocity  of  the  currents  in  the  narrowest  part  of  the  lake  would 
not  exceed  2  feet  per  second.  Floods  may  occur,  however,  which 
will  cause  the  lake  to  rise  above  elevation  90.  From  the  data  avail- 
able it  is  not  possible  to  compute  with  precision  the  exact  height  which 
a  flood  ma}T  hereafter  attain,  but  the  extreme  possible  effect  of  a  flood 
discharging  140,000  cubic  feet  per  second  for  a  prolonged  period  would 
be  to  raise  the  water  over  the  spillway  to  92.5  feet.  All  great  floods 
are  of  short  duration,  and  such  a  flood  is  absolutely  without  precedent, 
being  as  improbable  as  any  other  convulsion  of  nature.  The  crest  of 
the  dam  has,  however,  been  placed  at  100  and  the  top  of  the  lock  walls 
and  gates  at  94,  to  make  them  entirely  safe  from  overflow  by  even  such 
a  flood,  the  ill  effect  of  which  would  be  limited  to  the  temporary 
obstruction  of  navigation  by  swift  currents  in  the  narrowest  part  of 
the  lake,  where  the  velocity  might  reach  5  feet  per  second.  Under 
extreme  conditions  the  lake  might  be  lowered  to  82  to  provide  water 
for  operating  the  canal  during  the  dry  months.  The  excavations  will 
be  so  adjusted  as  to  give  a  depth  of  35  feet  at  that  level. 

This  provision  for  the  storage  of  water  for  use  in  the  dry  season  is 
ample  for  a  traffic  of  10,000,000  tons  per  annum 

Future   increase   of    water       •  1  <•    ,1  •  _  T, 

gu    .  in  vessels  of  the  size  now  in  common  use.     It 

will  be  equally  ample  for  a  much  larger  tonnage 
if,  as  seems  probable,  the  size  of  vessels  continues  to  increase.  For 
example,  the  number  of  vessels  which  passed  the  Suez  Canal  in  1900 
was  3,441,  against  3,389  in  1890,  while  the  gross  tonnage  in  1900  was 
13,699,238,  against  9,749,129  in  1890.  The  number  of  vessels  in  1900 
was  less  than  in  1898,  while  the  total  tonnage  was  greater.  The 
annual  flow  of  the  Chagres  and  the  topography  of  the  country  are 
favorable,  however,  to  a  very  large  increase  of  the  supply,  if  that  be 
found  desirable  in  the  future.  A  reservoir  can  be  constructed  at 
Alhajuela  with  a  capacity  for  storing  an  additional  volume  of  water 
four  times  that  now  provided  for  daily  consumption. 

The   overflow   of    Lake   Bohio   will    discharge 

Disposal  of  overflow.  .  .  *->i 

through  the  (Jigante  spillway  into  rena  Blanca 
Swamp,  thence  through  natural  and  artificial  channels  to  the  Chagres 
River  below  Gatun,  and  thence  through  that  river  to  the  sea,  being 
kept  out  of  the  canal  in  the  lowlands  by  levees  where  necessary. 

The  canal,  as  thus  projected,  may  be  described 

Detailed  description.  „   „  '  ,  , 

as  follows  (see  pis.  21,  22,  23): 
Beginning  at  the  6  fathom  line  in  Limon  Bay,  a  channel  500  feet 
wide  at  bottom,  and  with  side  slopes  1  on  3,  is  excavated,  curving 
gently  to  the  left  upon  a  radius  of  6,560  feet,  until  it  reaches  a  point 
just  inside  the  jetty  constructed  by  the  old  Panama  Canal  Company. 
Here  it  changes  direction  to  the  right  upon  a  curve  of  3,280  feet  radius, 
and  is  then  conducted  upon  a  straight  line  for  a  distance  of  2,000  feet 


92  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Entrance  and  harbor  at 


to  a  point  2.39  miles  from  deep  water  in  the  bay. 
For  about  a  mile  this  wide  channel  is  inside  the 

Colon. 

shore  line,  forming-  a  narrow  but  well-protected 
harbor.  Near  the  apex  of  the  second  curve  the  bottom  width  is 
increased  to  800  feet  for  a  length  of  800  feet,  to  provide  a  turning 
basin.  The  estimated  cost  of  this  entrance  and  harbor  is  $8,057,707, 
of  which  $1,936,991  is  for  work  outside  the  jettjT.  The  annual  cost  of 
maintenance  is  estimated  at  $30,000. 

From  the  inner  end  of  the  harbor  the  bottom  width  of  the  canal  is 
150  feet,  the  side  slopes  of  1  on  3  being  retained  for  1.86  miles  through 
the  swamp,  after  which  they  are  reduced  to  the  standard  used  in  firm 

earth,  and  are  kept  at  that  standard  for  a  distance 

of  12.56  miles  farther  to  the  Bohio  locks.  The 
length  of  this  level  measured  from  the  inner  end  of  the  harbor  is  14.42 
miles.  Its  estimated  cost  is  $11,099,839,  including  $151,347  for  levees 
to  exclude  flood  waters  and  $299,000  for  the  lower  approach,  1,200  feet 
long,  to  the  lock. 

At  Bohio  is  located  a  double  flight  of  locks,  having  a  total  lift  vary- 
ing from  82  feet  at  the  minimum  level  of  the  lake  to  90  feet  at  the 
maximum,  41  to  45  to  each  lock,  the  normal  lift  being  85  feet.     These 

locks  are  on  the  location  adopted  bv  the  French 

Bohio  locks.  to 

company,  lhey  are  shown  on  PI.  24  and  are 
of  the  type  adopted  for  both  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  canals  and 
described  elsewhere  in  this  report.  The  estimated  cost  of  this  flight 
of  double  locks,  four  lock  chambers  in  all,  is  $11,567,275,  including 
excavation. 

Above  the  locks  the  canal  enters  the  artificial  lake  formed  by  the 
Bohio  dam  and  known  as  Lake  Bohio.  For  the  first  7  miles  it  is  a 
broad,  deep  body  of  water,  affording  room  for  anchorage,  as  well  as 

navigation.     Beyond  this  some  li^ht  excavations 

Lake  Bohio.  te  J  & 

are  necessary.  At  the  upper  end  the  channel  will 
be  enlarged  to  provide  for  the  flood  discharge  of  the  Chagres,  being 
given  a  minimum  section  of  42,000  square  feet.  The  length  of  the 
channel  in  Lake  Bohio  is  12.68  miles  from  the  locks  to  the  point 
where  the  canal  leaves  the  Chagres.  The  section  extends  ninety-three 
hundredths  of  a  mile  farther,  to  the  point  where  it  enters  the  cut 
through  the  divide.  The  estimated  cost  of  this  section  is  $2,952,154, 
including  $434,400  for  the  upper  approach  to  the  Bohio  locks. 

Near  the  entrance  to  the  summit  cut  will  be  placed  a  pair  of  gates  100 
feet  wide,  so  that  if  it  should  become  necessary  to  draw  off  the  water 
from  the  summit  cut  the  level  of  Lake  Bohio  would  not  be  affected. 

These  gates  will  be  at  the  site  of  a  lock  proposed  by 

Obispo  Kuard  sates.  ._  °  «5_         •  j 

the  h  rench  company  near  Obispo,  with  a  founda- 
tion on  hard  rock.  The  estimated  cost  of  these  gates,  including 
masonry  and  excavation,  is  $21*5,434. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  93 

The  summit  cut  is  7.91  miles  long  from  the  Obispo  gates  to  the 

Pedro  Miguel  locks.     The  highest  point  is  about  5  miles  from  the 

Obispo  gates,  where  the  bottom  of  the  canal  at  the  axis  is  286  feet  below 

the  natural  surface  of  the  ground.     This  is  the 

Culebra  cut.  ° 

famous  Lulebra  cut,  though  the  name  has  often 
been  applied  only  to  the  mile  of  heaviest  work.  There  is  a  little 
very  hard  rock  at  the  eastern  end  of  this  section,  and  the  western  two 
miles  are  in  ordinary  materials.  The  remainder  consists  of  a  hard 
indurated  clay,  with  some  softer  material  at  the  top  and  some  strata 
and  dikes  of  hard  rock.  In  fixing  the  price  it  has  been  rated  as  soft 
rock,  but  it  must  be  given  slopes  equivalent  to  those  in  earth.  This 
cut  has  been  estimated  on  the  basis  of  a  bottom  width  of  150  feet, 
with  side  slopes  of  1  on  1.  While  the  cut  would  probably  not  be  fin- 
ished with  this  uniform  slope,  this  furnishes  as  correct  a  basis  of  esti- 
mate as  can  now  be  arrived  at.  The  entire  cut  will  be  lined  with 
masonry  walls,  finishing  at  elevation  92,  2  feet  above  high  water, 
these  walls  having  nearly  vertical  faces  and  furnishing  benches  38  feet 
wide  on  either  side  of  the  canal,  on  one  of  which  the  Panama  Railroad 
will  be  laid,  while  it  is  probable  that  a  service  track  will  be  placed  on 
the  other. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  instability  of  the  Culebra  cut;  in 
point  of  fact,  there  is  a  clay  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  deep  cut 
which  flows  readily  when  saturated,  but  which  will  give  little  trouble 
if  thorough!}7  drained;  probably  nine-tenths  of  the  material  would 
naturally  be  classed  as  hard  clay  of  stable  character;  it  would  weather 
somewhat,  and  the  surface  might  require  some  repairing  with  concrete 
in  bad  places,  a  practice  common  in  deep  cuttings  in  Europe.  This 
cla}7  disintegrates  rapidly  in  water,  and  for  this  reason  the  canal  prism 
should  be  confined  between  masonry  walls.  With  the  provision  made 
for  broad  benches  on  each  side,  on  which  any  slight  slides  would  be 
arrested,  it  is  believed  that  no  trouble  will  be  experienced.  The 
estimated  cost  of  the  6.02  miles  of  heavy  work  is  $41,940,180,  and  of 
the  entire  7.91  miles  between  the  Obispo  gates  and  the  Pedro  Miguel 
locks,  $44,414,460,  including  the  upper  approach  to  these  locks.  It 
would  probably  take  eight  years  to  excavate  this  section  of  the  canal. 

The  amount  of  excavation  in  this  section  is  43,237,200  cubic  yards. 
The  concentration  of  so  large  an  amount  of  excavation  in  so  small  a 
space  is  without  precedent.  The  engineer  will  recognize  at  once  that 
thorough  organization  and  tools  specially  adapted  to  the  work  are  here 
required.  Fortunately  there  is  ample  ground  on  which  to  deposit  the 
spoil  both  north  and  south  of  the  divide.  The  method  of  conducting 
the  work  in  general  principles  and  in  detail  should  be  thoroughly 
worked  out  before  actual  execution  is  begun.  No  work  has  ever  been 
undertaken  on  which  the  highest  class  of  practical  engineering  talent 
could  produce  so  great  economies  as  in  this  great  concentrated  exca- 


94  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

vation.     Its  cost  has  been  estimated  at  80  cents  per  cubic  yard;  bad 
management  might  easily  increase  this  to  a  dollar,  and  it  is  not  impos- 
sible that  with  a  carefully  considered  equipment  the  cost  might  be 
reduced  to  60  cents. 
The  Pedro  Miguel  locks  (see  pi.  25)  will  be  similar  to  the  Bohio 
locks,  the  aggregate  lift  varying  from  54  to  62 
feet.     There  is  an  excellent  rock  foundation  here. 
The  estimated  cost  of  these    locks,  including   an    adjacent  dam,   is 
$9,081,321. 

A  level  1.33  miles  long  extends  from  the  Pedro 

Pedro  Mlstuel  level. 

Miguel  locks  to  the  last  lock,  which  is  at  Miraflores. 
The  normal  elevation  of  the  surface  of  the  water  is  28.  The  estimated 
cost  of  this  section  is  $1,192,286  including  $388,880  for  lock  approaches 
at  each  end. 

At  the   end  of   this  level  will   be  located  the 

Miraflores  look. 

Miraflores  lock  (see  pi.  25),  with  a  hit  varying 
from  18  feet  at  high  tide  to  38  feet  at  mean  low  tide.  There  is  a  good 
rock  foundation  for  this  lock.  A  spillway  will  be  required  to  regulate 
the  height  of  this  level.  The  estimated  cost  of  this  lock  and  spillway 
is  $5,781,401. 

For  4.12  miles  beyond  the  Miraflores  lock  the  canal  extends  through 
a  low  swamp  country  through  which  the  Rio  Grande  runs.  Occa- 
sional rock  is  found  here,  but  the  material  is  generally  very  soft  and 

the  canal  has  been  estimated  for  a  bottom  width  of 

Pacific  maritime  section.  .  ... 

150  feet  with  slopes  ot  1  on  3.  I  his  brings  the 
canal  to  a  point  known  as  La  Boca  where  the  Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany has  constructed  a  large  and  substantial  wharf.  A  dredged  chan- 
nel 200  feet  wide  with  slopes  of  1  on  3  will  extend  from  this  point 
4.41  miles  to  the  6-fathom  line  in  Panama  Bay.  The  first  2  miles  of 
this  dredged  channel  are  through  flats  which  are  bare  at  low  water, 
where  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  submerged  rock.  The  total 
cost  of  this  section  from  the  lock  to  deep  water  is  estimated  at  $12,- 
427,971,  of  which  $1,464,513  is  for  work  outside  of  La  Boca.  The 
cost  of  maintenance  of  this  channel  is  included  in  that  of  the  canal. 
No  separate  estimate  for  maintaining  a  harbor  at  Panama  is  submitted, 
because  it  is  a  natural  roadstead,  not  requiring  expenditure. 

The  Bohio  dam  is  the  most  important  structure 

ItolllO    (I.I  III.  IT  1  •  e  •  <?•! 

on  the  line,  being  or  great  magnitude,  or  vital 
necessity  to  the  scheme,  and  offering  many  difficulties  of  construction. 
The  Commission  has  devoted  much  time  to  the  procurement  of  full 
and  reliable  information  concerning  the  foundation  upon  which  this 
dam  must  rest,  and  to  a  study  of  the  various  types  of  structures  which 
might  be  adopted. 

The  borings  made  by  the  French  engineers  upon  and  near  the  line 
of  the  dam  as  furnished  to  the  Commission  were  21  in  number.     In 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  95 

the  central  part  of  the  valley  they  did  not  go  down  to  rock.  In  this 
case  the  Commission  decided  to  do  more  than  verify  the  data  furnished 
to  it,  and  caused  a  large  number  (86)  additional  borings  to  be  made. 
With  the  exception  of  seven,  which  were  abandoned  before  com- 
pletion on  account  of  accidents  to  the  apparatus  or  unusual  difficulties 
of  soil,  all  of  these  borings  reached  rock.  They  show  a  variety  of 
materials — hard  clay,  soft  clay,  sand,  gravel,  and  some  mixtures  of 
sand,  clay  and  gravel  in  varying  proportions.  These  materials  are 
found  in  beds  of  varying  shape  and  thickness,  not  distributed  with 
uniformity  and  not  arranged  according  to  any  general  law  from  which 
can  be  deduced  the  character  of  the  soil  at  points  other  than  those 
actually  examined.  In  every  section  constructed  from  the  borings,, 
strata  of  greater  or  less  dimensions  are  found,  which  are  permeable 
by  water.  How  far  these  extend  and  whether  or  not  they  com- 
municate with  the  surface  of  the  ground  above  the  site  of  the  dam  are, 
points  about  which  information  can  not  be  obtained  in  advance  with 
certainty-  If  a  dam  be  built  with  permeable  strata  under  it  there 
will  probably  be  leakage,  but  what  the  amount  of  this  will  be  is  a  ques- 
tion about  which  there  is  room  for  much  difference  of  opinion.  It  would 
seem  probable  to  many  that  the  leakage  will  not  be  sufficient  to  endan- 
ger the  water  supply,  and  that  an  earthen  dam  is  therefore  feasible,, 
but  it  is  evident  that  here  is  a  danger  to  be  avoided  if  possible.  A 
masonry  dam  founded  throughout  upon  the  rock,  or  an  earth  dam 
with  a  masonry  core  going  down  everywhere  to  rock,  would  close 
the  valley  completely  and  would  leave  no  question  open  as  to  its 
future  efficiency.  In  its  preliminary  report  the  Commission  based! 
its  estimates  on  a  masonry  dam.  The  examinations  of  the  ground  had 
not  at  that  time  been  completed.  So  far  as  they  had  progressed  they 
showed  a  site  where  a  masonry  dam  seemed  the  most  suitable,  but  it 
was  subsequently  found  that  the  depth  to  rock  upon  that  site  was  at 
least  143  feet  below  sea  level  at  the  deepest  part.  It  was  considered 
best  to  avoid,  if  possible,  so  great  a  depth  of  foundation.  A  site  was 
found  a  few  hundred  feet  farther  downstream  where  the  length  of  the 
dam  would  be  considerably  greater  than  at  the  former  site,  but  the 
greatest  depth  to  rock  revealed  by  the  borings  was  only  128  feet  below 
sea  level.  The  line  runs  from  a  point  near  the  railroad  station  at 
Bohio,  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  straight  across  to  the  rocky  hill  on 
the  west  side.  (See  pi.  26.)  On  the  east  side  the  rock  is  at  the  sur- 
face practically  from  the  water  in  the  river  to  the  end  of  the  dam. 
On  the  west  side  the  bank  above  low  water  is  composed  either  of 
pure  clay  or  of  clay  mixed  with  sand,  while  below  low  water  are  found 
irregular  beds  of  sand  and  sandy  clay.  The  physical  features  of  the 
location  admit  of  the  construction  of  an  earth  embankment  with  a 
heavy  masonry  core  carried  down  to  bed  rock  throughout  the  length 
of  the  structure.  For  reasons  of  economy  that  type  of  dam  is  prefer- 
able to  one  wholly  of  masonry  upon  the  new  site,  and  is  now  adopted. 


96  REPOKT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

It  is  proposed  to  sink  the  foundation  of  the  core  wall  by  the  pneu- 
matic process  at  all  points  where  the  foundation  bed  is  lower  than 
about  30  feet  below  mean  sea  level.  This  requires  the  pneumatic 
process  to  be  used  through  a  length  of  1,314  feet,  of  which  about  310 
feet  is  at  the  maximum  depth  of  128  feet  below  the  sea  level.  Where 
the  foundation  bed  is  above  elevation  — 30,  cofferdams  are  to  be  used. 
This  involves  the  use  of  cofferdams  through  a  length  of  324  feet,  the 
foundation  at  sea  level  being  extended  78  feet  at  the  easterty  end  and 
246  feet  at  the  westerly  end  of  the  pneumatic  work.  The  coffer- 
dams extend  to  a  height  8  feet  above  sea  level.  Above  elevation  8  all 
operations  would  be  carried  on  by  the  ordinal*}'  methods  of  dry  work. 

The  width  of  the  dam  at  the"  top  is  20  feet,  and  its  total  length  is 
2,546  feet.  The  elevation  of  the  top  is  100  feet  above  mean  sea  level, 
affording  a  superelevation  of  the  dam  of  8  feet  above  the  highest  pos- 
sible water  in  the  lake  and  10  feet  above  the  usual  high  water.  Its 
total  height  above  the  lowest  part  of  the  foundation  is  228  feet.  The 
earth  faces  of  the  dam  are  designed  to  have  mean  slopes  of  one  vertical 
to  three  horizontal,  and  to  be  broken  by  three  terraces,  each  6  feet 
wide.  It  is  necessary  to  pave  only  the  upstream  face,  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  both  faces  would  be  heavily  riprapped  with  the  rock  spoil 
from  the  lock  excavation  near  the  westerly  end.  The  masonry  core 
is  30  feet  thick  at  and  below  elevation  — 30.  From  that  level  it  tapers 
to  a  thickness  of  8  feet  at  top. 

Material  for  the  heavy  fill  required  is  found  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood. The  local  conditions  are  such  that  not  less  than  seven- 
eighths  of  the  work  could  be  completed  without  interfering  with  the 
natural  How  of  the  Chagres.  When  it  becomes  necessaiy  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  dam  to  divert  the  river,  the  unfinished  Gigante  spill- 
way and,  later  on,  the  finished  locks  at  Bohio  may  be  employed  as 
diversion  channels.  A  temporary  dam  would  be  required  to  turn  the 
water  through  these?  outlets  at  suitable  stages.  This  temporary  dam 
may  be  placed  either  at  the  site  of  the  permanent  dam  and  tinall}'  be 
buried  in  it,  or  at  some  suitable  point  higher  upstream.  The  cost  of 
the  Bohio  dam  is  estimated  at  $6,309,640.  This  estimate  is  higher 
than  any  which  has  hitherto  been  made  for  this  dam.  It  is  possible 
that  before  actual  construction  a  better  locution  can  be  found  and  the 
cost  reduced.  A  dam  on  the  French  location,  with  masoniy  core  car- 
ried to  rock,  would  contain  less  than  half  the  material  in  the  dam  for 
which  estimates  have  been  made,  but  for  a  length  of  170  feet  the 
foundation  would  be  deeper  than  anywhere  on  the  adopted  location, 
the  maximum  being  146  feet  below  mean  tide. 

The  Gigante  spillway,  which  is  a  structure  of  considerable  mag- 
nitude, is  very  simple.  There  is  a  good  rock  foundation  at  or  above 
tide  level  for  the  entire  length  of  this  spillway. 
It  will  consist  of  a  dam  entirely  of  concrete  with  a 
crest  at  elevation  85,  terminating  in  an  apron  at  elevation  65,  with  a 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  97 

solid  foundation  below  this  level,  the  apron  being  everywhere  below 
the  present  surface  of  the  ground.  The  foundation,  below  elevation 
65,  will  be  put  in  first  and  before  the  flow  of  water  through  the  present 
river  at  the  site  of  the  Bohio  dam  is  checked.  Plans  for  this  spillway 
are  shown  on  plate  27.  The  estimated  cost,  including  the  channel  ways 
immediately  above  and  below  it,  is  $1,209,419. 

The  water  after  passing  over  the  spillway  will 
flow  across  country  about  a  mile  to  the  Pena  Blanca 
swamp.  The  elevation  of  the  surface  of  this  swamp  is  now  22.3,  so 
that  the  water  will  have  a  fall  of  62.7  feet  in  this  mile.  The  swamp  is 
separated  from  the  line  of  the  canal  by  a  ridge,  of  which  the  lowest 
part  is  at  elevation  33.  It  can  be  filled  to  elevation  31  without  incon- 
venience to  the  canal.  Its  outlet  will  be  placed  at  elevation  11.  Its 
area  at  that  level  is  0.447  square  mile  and  at  elevation  31  it  is  1.186 
square  miles.  Its  storage  capacity  between  those  two  levels  is 
455,000,000  cubic  feet. 

From  the  Pena  Blanca  the  water  will  be  dis- 

Peua  Blanca  outlet.  ,•  i  .     ,       ,,         .  ,-<i  t  ^•/••i 

charged  into  the  Agua  Clara  swamp  by  an  artificial 
channel,  located  about  a  mile  from  the  canal,  cut  through  the  ridge 
which  separates  the  two  swamps.  This  channel  will  have  a  bottom 
width  of  500  feet  and  a  depth  of  20  feet  when  the  water  in  Pena  Blanca 
swamp  stands  at  elevation  31.  Its  length  measured  on  the  bottom  is 
5,676  feet  and  the  maximum  depth  of  cutting  is  63  feet,  much  of  it 
rock.  The  bottom  has  a  fall  of  2.2  feet  from  one  swamp  to  the  other. 
This  channel  will  discharge  75,000  cubic  feet  per  second  with  a  mean 
velocity  of  7.5  feet  per  second,  or  5  miles  per  hour,  and  this  it  can 
attain  if  the  difference  of  level  between  the  two  swamps  be  2.1  feet. 
With  a  head  of  7.3  feet  it  can  discharge  over  140,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  at  a  velocity  of  about  9.55  miles  per  hour.  Its  cost  is  estimated 
at  *2,448,076. 

The  present  surface  of  the  Agua  Clara  swamp  is  at  elevation  11.5. 
and  its  area  at  that  level  is  about  2.9  square  miles.  Farther  on  are 
other  swamps — the  Vino  Tinto  and  the  Bruja.  The  ground  separating 
them  from  each  other  and  from  the  line  of  the  canal  is  low,  affording 
a  wide  area  for  the  spread  of  flood  waters,  until  the  neighborhood  of 
Gatun  is  reached.  Here  the  width  of  the  valley  contracts  and  its 
direction  changes,  so  that  an  artificial  channel  becomes  necessary  to 
divert  the  Chagres.  A  channel  was  cut  here  by  the 
old  canal  company,  but  it  is  of  inadequate  dimen- 
sions, and  in  order  to  avoid  some  rock  excavation  it  was  given  an 
awkward  shape.  A  new  channel  will  be  cut  on  a  straight  line,  part 
of  which  will  be  an  enlargement  of  the  present  one.  It  will  have  a 
width  at  bottom  of  650  feet,  and  will  be  excavated  to  a  depth  of  8.5 
feet  below  the  datum  plane,  which  will  give  it  an  area  of  cross  section 
of  about  10,000  square  feet  when  the  surface  of  the  water  is  at  eleva- 

S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 7 


98  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

tion  7.  Its  length  measured  on  the  bottom  is  6,955  feet,  and  the 
maximum  depth  of  cutting-  is  25  feet,  much  of  it  rock.  With  a  head 
of  11  feet  it  can  discharge  140,000  cubic  feet  per  second  at  a  velocity 
of  about  9.55  miles  per  hour.     Its  cost  is  estimated  at  $1,929,982. 

The  canal  in  the  low  region  above  and  below 
Gatum  must  be  protected  from  overflow  by  levees, 
their  total  length  aggregating  about  5.1  miles.  The  height  to  which 
these  levees  should  be  carried  can  not  be  determined  with  accuracy 
from  the  present  data,  and  must  be  tixed  from  observations  of  floods 
hereafter.  As  in  all  other  cases  of  doubt."  a  height  has  been  adopted 
which  will  err,  if  at  all,  upon  the  safe  side.  For  the  purpose  of 
estimate  the  height  has  been  placed  at  elevation  25.  The  width  on 
top  is  13  feet  and  the  side  slopes  1  on  2.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  the  levees  will  be  used  as  spoil  banks  for  the  material  dredged 
from  the  canal,  and  that  their  dimensions,  except  as  to  height,  will 
much  exceed  those  here  given. 

From  Gatum  the  overflow  from  Lake  Bohio  and  all  tributaries 
below  the  lake  on  the  west  side  of  the  canal  will  find  its  way  to  the 
sea  through  the  Chagres  River,  which  the  canal  here  leaves. 

The  onlv  tributary  on  the  east  side  for  which 

Uatun  diversion.  .  ,    .  ..       .       .        _. 

any  special  provision  need  be  made  is  the  Gatun. 
A  diversion  channel  intended  to  take  a  portion  of  the  water  of  the 
Chagres  was  constructed  by  the  old  company  along  the  east  side  of 
the  canal  to  Boca  Grande  back  of  Colon.  It  cuts  across  the  Gatun 
near  the  town  of  the  same  name,  and  while  no  longer  required  for  the 
Chagres,  it  is  available  as  a  new  channel  for  the  Gatun.  It  was 
designed  to  carry  a  discharge  of  17,600  cubic  feet  per  second,  which  is 
much  in  excess  of  the  maximum  discharge  of  the  Gatun.  Some  work 
must  be  done  on  it,  especially  at  the  crossing  of  the  Panama  Railroad, 
where  the  piers  for  a  new  bridge  have  been  built.  The  cost  of  putting 
this  channel  into  service  is  estimated  at  $100,000. 

From  Bohio  to  the  Obispo  gates  the  Panama  Railroad  must  be 
rebuilt  for  15.5  miles  on  a  new  location,  with  a  bridge  across  the 

Chagres  below  Gamboa.  An  estimate  made  from 
8ioPn.nama  Ba,lr°ad  dlTCr"     approximate  profiles  indicates  that  the  cost  of  this 

diversion  will  not  exceed  $75,000  a  mile,  or 
$1,162,500.  From  the  Obispo  gates  the  railroad  will  be  carried  for  6 
miles  on  the  bench  formed  by  the  retaining  wall  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Culebra  Cut,  these  6  miles  being  estimated  to  cost  $10,000  a  mile, 
which  includes  only  track  laying,  ties,  and  ballasting.  Beyond  this 
will  be  a  mile  of  light  work  estimated  at  $25,000,  while  the  main  track 
will  have  to  be  raised  for  2  miles  farthei  at  a  cost  of  $20,000.  Com- 
bining these  figures,  the  total  cost  of  the  diversion  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  becomes  $1,267,500. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


99 


Suming  up  the  several  figures  already  given,  the  total  estimated  cost 
of  completing  the  Panama  Canal  is  as  follows: 


Total  estimated  cost. 


Miles. 


Cost. 


Colon  entrance  and  harbor 

Harbor  to  Bohio  locks,  including  levees 

Bohio  locks,  including  excavation 

Lake  Bohio 

Obispo  gates 

<  lulebra  section 

Pedro  Miguel  locks,  including  excavation  and  dam  . 

Pedro  Miguel  level 

Mirarlores  locks,  including  excavation  and  spillway. 

Pacific  level 

Bohio  dam 

Gigante  spillway 

Pefla  Blanca  outlet 

Chagres  diversion 

Gat  un  diversion 

Panama  Railroad  diversion 


2.39 

14. 42 

.35 

13.61 


7.91 
.35 

1.33 
.20 

8.53 


18, 057, 707 

11,099,839 

11,567,275 

2, 952, 154 

295, 434 

44,414,460 

9,081,321 

1, 192, 286 

5,781,401 

12, 427, 971 

6, 369, 640 

1,209,419 

2, 448, 076 

1, 929, 982 

100, 000 

1,267,500 


Total. 


49.09 


Engineering,  police,  sanitation,  and  general  contingencies,  20  per  cent . 
Aggregate  


120, 194, 465 
24,038,893 


144, 233, 358 


The  total  amount  of  excavation  is  94,863,703  cubic  yards,  exclusive 
of  excavation  for  the  Bohio  dam,  and  the  Gigante  spillway. 

The  location  of  the  canal  is,  in  general,  the  same  as  that  proposed 
by  the  French  company.  Its  total  length,  from  36  feet  deep  in  the 
Atlantic  to  36  feet  deep  in  the  Pacific,  is  49.09  miles.  The  distance 
from  the  inner  end  of  the  harbor  enlargement  at  Colon  to  the  shore 
end  of  the  ba}^  channel  at  La  Boca  is  42.3  miles,  of  which  11  miles  is 
the  broad  channel  of  Lake  Bohio.  The  alignment 
is  exceptionally  good,  the  sharpest  curve  having  a 
radius  of  6,232  feet,  except  one  at  the  entrance  to  Colon  Harbor,  which 
has  a  radius  of  3,280  feet,  but  where  the  bottom  width  is  from  500  to 
800  feet.  The  total  curvature  in  the  entire  length  of  the  canal  is  771° 
39',  distributed  as  follows: 


Length  ami  curvature. 


Number  of  curves. 

Length. 

Radius. 

Total  cur- 
vature. 

1     

Miles. 

0.88 

.48 

4.22 

11.61 

2.44 

1.67 

.73 

.82 

Feet. 

19, 629 

13, 123 

11,483 

9,842 

8, 202 

6, 562 

6,234 

3,281 

o        / 

14    17 

1 

11    04 

4..                 

111    32 

15 

355    50 

4...                    

90    20 

2 

77    00 

1 

35    45 

1 

75    51 

Total              

•   22.85 

771    39 

Alternative  location. 


An  examination  has  been  made  of  a  different 
location  on  a  more  direct  line  between  Gatun  and 
Bohio  by  which  the  distance  will  be  shortened  1.25  miles.  As  this  line 
shows  no  material  saving  in  cost  from  that  described  in  this  report,  it 


100  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

has  been  thought  best,  for  purposes  of  estimate,  to  adhere  to  the 
French  location.  A  description  of  this  line  will  be  found  in  Appen- 
dix F. 

The  time  required   to  pass  through  the   canal 

Time  of  transit.  i      •  -n  •  . 

after  completion  will  vary  with  the  size  of  the  ves- 
sel and  with  the  number  of  other  vessels.  For  the  purpose  of  com- 
parison the  time  has  been  carefully  computed  for  a  ship  400  feet  long, 
50  feet  beam,  and  21.5  feet  draft,  or  what  may  be  called  an  average- 
sized  ship.  The  open  sea  speed  is  taken  at  12. 5  statute  miles,  or  about  11 
knots,  per  hour.  The  reduced  speed  in  various  parts  of  the  canal  and 
the  delays  caused  by  lockages  and  by  passing  other  vessels  have  been 
obtained  from  observation  of  the  practical  working  of  the  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  and  the  Manchester  canals.  They  are  as  follows:  In  canal  sec- 
tions having  a  bottom  width  150  feet,  speed  on  tangents  8  miles  per 
hour,  on  curves  7  miles  per  hour;  in  Panama  Bay  channel,  speed  9 
miles  per  hour;  in  Lake  Bohio,  speed  on  tangents  10  miles  per  hour, 
on  curves  9  miles  per  hour;  in  harbors  and  harbor  entrances,  speed  on 
tangents  10  miles  per  hour,  on  curves  8-^  miles  per  hour;  all  statute 
miles.  The  delay  caused  by  lockages  is  3  hours  and  58  minutes,  unci 
that  caused  by  meeting  other  vessels  L  hour  and  14  minutes.  From 
these  data  the  time  of  transit  through  the  canal  is  computed  to  be  11 
hours  and  1-1  minutes.  A  full  discussion  of  this  subject  will  be  found 
in  Appendix  G. 

The  plan  recommended  by  the  Commission  is,  in  its  general  outlines, 
the  same  as  the  second  plan  of  the  French  engineers,  the  one  preferred 
by  them,  except  for  the  time  required  for  construction.  The  princi- 
pal difference  is  in  the  height  given  to  the  Bohio  dam  and  the  important 
consequences  which  result  therefrom.  A  marked  feature  of  the  Com- 
mission's plan  is  its  simplicity.  The  increase  in  the  depth  and  area 
of  Lake  Bohio  renders  it  possible  to  receive  the  full  Hood  discharge  of 
the  Chagres  directly  into  it  without  impeding  navigation  and  at  the 
same  time  to  take  full  advantage  of  favorable  topo- 
iuIkkIoi"  "nian!  *  m"  ^rttphital  features  of  the  country  in  the  subsequent 
discharge  of  the  surplus  waters.  The  Alhajuela 
dam  becomes  unnecessary  for  (food  control,  and  its  construction  may 
be  deferred  until  additional  storage  capacity  is  required  as  the  result 
of  a  large  increase  in  the  traffic  of  the  canal  in  the  future.  The  outlet 
of  Lake  Bohio  becomes  a  single  fixed  weir  instead  of  two  weirs  with 
regulating  gates  and  with  two  separate  channels  to  the  sea.  A  great 
reduction  also  results  in  the  amount  of  excavation  required  to  cut 
through  the  continental  divide.     There  is  a  material  reduction  of  cost. 

The  quantities  given  in  the  foregoing  estimate  are  based  upon  the 
present  condition  of  the  Isthmus,  utilizing  the  excavations  already 
made  where  they  are  useful.  The  new  company  has  excavated  about 
5,000,000  cubic  yards,  which,  added  to  the  72,000,000  cubic  yards  exca- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  101 

vated  prior  to  its  organization,  make  a  total  of  77,000,000  cubic  yards 

excavated  by  the  two  companies.     Much  of  it  is  of 

vaiu,  of  excavation  »i-  lue  because  of  the  various  changes  of  plan. 

ready  done.  °  *■ 

For  example,  sites  for  locks  have  been  excavated 

and  then  abandoned;  the  spoil  banks  on  the  Atlantic  maritime  section 
frequently  come  within  the  limits  of  the  canal  prism  now  projected 
and  must  be  rehandled.  The  amount  of  work  done  which  will  be  of 
value  under  the  plan  recommended  by  the  Commission  has  been  care- 
fully computed  for  the  main  canal  line,  and  is  found  to  be  36,689,965 
cubic  yards.  The  amount  of  excavation  which  can  be  utilized  in  the 
Chagres  diversion  is  210,873  cubic  yards  and  in  the  (latum  diversion 
2,685,494  cubic  yards.  Adding  these  together  the  total  quantity  of 
excavation  which  will  be  of  value  in  the  new  plan  is  39,586,332  cubic- 
yards.  A  temporary  diversion  of  the  Panama  Railroad  has  been 
made  at  the  Culebra  cut  which  also  must  be  considered.  Using  the 
same  classification  of  materials  and  the-  same  unit  prices  as  in  the 
other  estimates,  with  the  20  per  cent  added  for  contingencies,  the 
value  of  the  work  done  is  found  to  be: 

Canal  excavation $21,020,386 

Chagres  diversion .       178, 186 

Gatun  diversion 1,  396,  456 

Railroad  diversion  (4  miles) 300,000 

22,895,028 
Contingencies.  20  per  cent 4,  579,  005 

Aggregate  27, 474,  033 

There  is  on  hand  an  immense  amount  of  plant,  consisting  of  loco- 
motives,   excavators,    dredges,    cars,    rails,    and 

Plant  on  haud.  t  &  ' 

machines,  implements,  tools,  spare  parts,  and  sup- 
plies of  various  kinds,  besides  buildings  used  for  offices,  quarters, 
storehouses,  hospitals,  and  miscellaneous  purposes,  and  some  30,000 
acres  of  land.  The  inventory  furnished  to  the  Commission  includes 
many  thousands  of  items,  classified  as  follows: 

1.  Lands  not  built  on. 

2.  Buildings,  2.431  in  number,  divided  among  47  subclassifications. 

3.  Furniture  and  stable  outfit,  with  17  subclassifications. 

4.  Floating  plant  and  spare  parts,  with  24  subclassifications. 

5.  Rolling  plant  and  spare  parts,  with  17  subclassifications. 

6.  Plant,  stationary  and  semistationary,  and  spare  parts,  with  25 
subclassifications. 

7.  Small  material  and  spare  parts,  with  4  subclassifications. 
S.   Surgical  and  medical  outfit. 

9.  Medical  stores. 

10.  Office  supplies,  stationery  • 

11.  Miscellaneous  supplier,  with  740  subclassifications. 


102  REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

As  a  general  rule,  this  property  shows  signs  of  attention,  and  the 
evidence  seems  satisfactory  that  it  has   been  well  cared  for  since  the 
liquidator  took  charge  of  it  in  1889.     It  would  manifestly  be  impru- 
dent,  however,  to  fix  a  value  upon   any  impor- 

Yalue  of  plant.  .  . 

tant  machine  which  has  been  idle  that  length  of 
time  without  first  actually  testing  it  at  work,  however  neatly  painted 
and  sheltered  it  may  now  be.  Much  of  the  property  is  ill  adapted  to 
American  methods,  and  all  of  it  is  now  from  thirteen  to  twenty  years 
old,  during  which  period  the  improvements  in  this  class  of  machinery 
have  been  such  that  contractors  would  generally  find  it  to  their 
advantage- to  buy  entirely  new  machinery  of  modern  pattern  rather 
than  attempt  to  use  this  of  an  older  class,  even  if  given  to  them  free 
and  in  good  order.  The  locomotives,  rails,  and  cars  may  be  of  some 
service,  but  their  value  is  doubtful;  the  locomotives  are  much  lighter 
than  is  desirable  for  economical  service,  the  rails  are  of  a  pattern  ill 
fitted  to  rough  use,  and  the  ears  have  narrow-tread  wheels.  The  cars 
are  probably  the  best  part  of  the  whole  outfit.  It  has  seemed  to  the 
Commission  that  in  acquiring  the  Panama  Canal  the  United  States 
should  not  buy  this  plant  as  a  whole,  and  that  no  special  allowance 
should  be  made  for  it  in  estimating  the  total  value  of  the  property. 
Its  owners  may  realize  something  by  the  salt1  of  portions  of  it  to 
contractors  if  the  latter  find  that  they  can  use  it  to  advantage.  This 
valuation  is  all  that  the  Commission  can  put  upon  the  plant:  it  has 
already  appeared  in  the  estimates,  since  the  unit  prices  have  been 
fixed  upon  the  condition  that  contractors  furnish  their  own  plant, 

The  same  is  true  of  the  great  majority  of  the 

Value  of  buildings.  .  • 

buildings,  including  all  barracks,  storehouses, 
shops,  stables,  and  miscellaneous  buildings,  and  excepting  only  the 
hospitals  and  principal  administration  buildings.  The  latter  would  be 
the  subject  of  special  negotiation.  They  have  appeared  in  the  esti- 
mates under  the  head  of  contingencies;  no  special  allowance  is  made 
for  them  here. 

The  concession  is  of   no  value  to  the  I'nited 
laLT  °'    ,'°"cession  *""     States,  since  a  new  one   must   be  obtained   from 

the  Colombian  Government  in  any  event.  It  is 
the  same  with  the  lands,  title  to  which  is  dependent  upon  the  comple- 
tion of  the  canal,  and  is  still  to  be  earned. 

The  existence  of  the  Panama  Railroad  is,  however,  a  very  important 
factor,  as  it  supplies  a  service  railroad   for  the  entire   length  of   the 

canal.     On  the  basis  of  $75,000  a  mile,  this  rail- 

Value  of  Panama  Itallroatl.  ,  ,  ,     ,  ,  ,.>.,,,. 

road  would  be  worth  $3,500,000,  which  is  half 
the  face  value  of  its  capital  stock.  In  view  of  its  good  condition  and 
its  valuable  termini,  it  should,  not  be  estimated  for  purposes  of  canal 
construction  at  less  than  ^vSOU/JOO,  the  par  value  of  the  68,500  shares 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  103 

of  its  stock  held  by  the  canal  company.     The  exceptional  gauge — 5 
feet — somewhat  reduces  its  value,  as  it  adds  to  the  cost  of  rolling  stock. 

The  maps,  drawings,  and  records  are  unusually 

Value  of  maps  and  records.  . 

complete,  and  their  value  is  great,  though  not 
capable  of  accurate  estimate.     In  the  judgment  of  the  Commission,  a 
fair  allowance  for  these  would  be  $2,000,000. 
T  .  ,    ,      , ,.    „  Summing  up  the  foregoing  items,  the  total  value 

Total  value  of  the  Panama  fe      1  .     &         &  ) 

<anai.  of  the  property  is  found  to  be: 

Excavation  already  done $27,  474,  033 

Panama  Railroad  stock  at  par 6,  850,  000 

>s,  drawings,  and  records ... 2,  000,  000 


Total  „  _ 36.  324,  033 

to  which  add  10  per  cent  to  cover  omissions,  making  the  total  valua- 
tion of  the  Panama  Canal  $40,000,000. 


Attractive  features. 


Chapter  VI. 

THE  NICARAGUA  ROUTE. 

The  Nicaragua  route  attracted  the  attention  of 
explorers  in  the  early  days  of  interoceanic  canal 
discussion,  and  was  regarded  by  many  as  a  most  favorable  one.  Water 
communication  by  means  of  a  large  river  and  lake  from  the  Atlantic 
to  within  a  short  distance  of  the  Pacific  accentuates  the  natural  advan- 
tages of  this  route  and  at  the  same  time  tends  to  exaggerate  them 
and  to  obscure  the  attendant  difficulties. 

Lake  Nicaragua  is  about  103  miles  long.      It  lias 

Lake  Nicaragua.  .  . -.,        0      ,  .-,  j 

a  maximum  width  or  about  45  miles  and  an  area 
of  about  3,000  square  miles.  It  is  fairly  regular  in  outline,  with  its 
longer  axis  nearly  parallel  to  the  Pacific  coast,  which  in  this  vicinity 
has  a  northwesterly  direction.  It  resembles  Lake  Erie  somewhat  in 
shape,  but  has  only  about  one-third  the  area  of  the  latter.  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  existence  of  this  lake  had  long  been  known, 
it  appears  that  the  first  instrumental  survey  was  made  by  the  Nicara- 
gua Canal  Commission  in  1898.  It  was  then  found  that  the  bottom  of 
the  lake  is  above  sea  level  over  the  greater  part  of  its  area,  a  com- 
paratively small  depression  being  below  that  level.  The  maximum 
depth  is  about  200  feet,  and  is  found  just  south  of  the  island  of 
Ometepe,  which  has  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet. 

About  18  miles  to  the  northwest  of   Lake   Nica- 

Lake  Managua.  .  ,  . 

ragua.  and  on  the  prolongation,  ot  its  axis,  lies  Lake 
Managua,  extending  a  distance  of  37  miles  toward  the  Gulf  of  Fon- 
seca,  a  large  natural  harbor  opening  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  drain- 
age of  Lake  Managua  is  through  the  river  Tipitapa,  which,  however, 
is  frequently  without  water  in  the  dry  seasons.  This  lake  is  <>.'>  miles 
from  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca.  A  somewhat  shorter  route  from  Lake 
Managua  to  the  Pacific  crosses  I  he  plain  of  Leon  to  the  bay  of  Corinto, 
a  distance  of  about  35  miles  in  an  air  line. 

The  surface  of  Lake  Nicaragua  is  generally  a 
>irar;S!"°ns  °*  '' a k "  little  more  than  LOO  feet  above  sea  level,  [ts  ex- 
treme fluctuation  is  not  definitely  known.  Its 
annual  fluctuation  varies  with  the  annual  rainfall  and  the  discharge  of 
the  streams  that  empty  into  it.  These  are  small,  and  in  the  dry  season 
they  discharge  very  Little.  Mr.  Menocal  in  his  report  for  L885  states 
that  the  lake  was  as  high  as  1  L0.63  feet  above  mean  sea  Unci  at  the  end 
mi 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  105 

of  the  wet  season  of  L878.  This  is  perhaps  founded  on  the  observations 
of  the  residents  of  Granada,  who  are  reported  to  have  seen  the  water 
of  the  lake  up  to  the  top  of  the  steamboat  wharf  at  that  place.  This 
may  be  regarded  as  an  approximate  determination  of  highest  lake 
level.  The  data  for  fixing-  the  minimum  level  of  the  lake  are  equally 
uncertain;  but  it  is  stated  on  the  authority  of  what  are  believed  to  be 
competent  witnesses  that  it  has  been  as  low  as  97  or  less.  These 
extremes  have  only  been  reached  at  long  intervals.  The  fluctuations 
in  the  last  three  years,  during  which  time  regular  observations  have 
been  taken,  have  amounted  to  only  6.09  feet. 

The  drainage  basin  of  the  lake  is  in  great  part  mountainous.    This  is 

particularly  the  ease  on  the  east  side,  where  it  is  separated  (except  in 

the  immediate  vicinity  of  its  outlet)  from  the  district  draining  into  the 

Atlantic  by  a  mountain  range.     There  is  reason  to 

Characteristics  of  drain-     fe  j.        that   his  formerly  the  continental 

aire  basin.  fe 

divide.  At  the  present  time  the  divide  is  between 
the  lake  and  the  Pacific.  Until  the  surveys  of  Colonel  Childs,  made  in 
1850-1852,  the  lowest  passes  known  across  this  divide  were  supposed 
to  be  those  from  Lake  Managua  to  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca  and  the  Bajr 
of  Corinto,  and  canal  lines  from  the  lakes  to  the  Pacific  were  projected 
to  those  points.  Colonel  Childs  developed  a  far  better  route,  crossing 
the  divide  at  an  elevation  of  only  153  feet  above  mean  tide  and  follow- 
ing the  valley  of  a  small  stream  ealled  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Pacific  at 
Brito.  The  entire  region  between  the  lakes  and  the  Pacific  is  now 
well  enough  known  to  establish  beyond  doubt  that  this  is  the  lowest 
erossing  of  the  divide,  and  is  in  every  respect  the  best  canal  route. 

The  San  Juan  River,  through  which  the  lake  discharges  at  Fort 

San  Carlos,  follows  a  tortuous   course   in   a   southeasterly   direction 

and   empties  through  several    mouths  into  the  Caribbean   Sea   near 

Grevtown.     The  distance  from  the  lake  outlet  to 

The  San  Juan  River.  .        .      .  .  „ 

the  mouth  of  the  river  is  about  80  miles  in  an  air 
line,  but  about  120  miles  following  the  windings  of  the  river,  the 
greater  portion  of  the  valley  drained  being  on  the  right  bank,  where 
the  divide,  a  lofty  mountain  range,  is  about  50  miles  distant.  On  the 
left  bank  the  divide  is  only  10  to  20  miles  from  the  river,  and  the 
crest  is  much  lower.  The  Indio,  which  empties  into  the  Caribbean 
Sea  some  6  miles  northwest  of  Grevtown,  runs  generally  parallel  to 
the  San  Juan,  the  headwaters  of  some  of  its  tributaries  being  only 
about  15  to  20  miles  distant  from  that  river. 

The  principal  tributaries  of  the  San  Juan  on  the 
3^n^ntnZ^n    left  bank  are  the  Melchora,  Sabalos,  Santa  Cruz, 

Bartola,  Machuca,  Danta,  and  San  Francisco,  but 
none  of  them  are  of  great  size.  The  most  important  in  their  relation 
to  the  canal  project  are  the  Danta  and  San  Francisco.  They  are  in  a 
region  of  heavy  rainfall,  hut  it  is  impossible  to  measure  their  greatest 


106  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

flood  discharges  because  they  overflow  their  banks  and  intercommuni- 
cate, and  also  because  backwater  from  the  San  Juan  extends  for  a 
considerable  distance  up  their  valleys.  The  soil  in  their  beds  and 
banks  is  of  a  soft,  alluvial  character,  generally  free  from  grit,  and 
contains  quantities  of  decayed  or  decaying  vegetation.  When  drained 
it  stands  well  on  steep  slopes,  as  is  shown  by  the  banks,  which  are 
often  vertical.  At  a  short  distance  from  the  banks,  where  the  drainage 
is  imperfect,  the  material  is  very  soft  to  a  great  depth.  Their 
drainage  basins  are  covered  with  a  dense  tropical  growth  which  pro- 
tects the  soil,  so  that  water  finds  its  way  into  the  streams  with  compar- 
atively little  solid  matter  in  suspension.  The  Sabalos,  while  not  a 
large  stream,  attains  considerable  size  at  times.  Gaugings  taken  b\T 
this  Commission  show  that  the  discharge  often  reaches  as  much  as 
2,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  maximum  measured  was  on  Sep- 
tember -I'd.  1899,  when  it  reached  12,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
minimum  discharge  is  as  low  as  23  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  Santa 
Cruz  is  of  similar  character,  while  the  Melchora,  Bartola,  and 
Machuca  are  much  smaller  streams. 

On  the  right  bank  are  the  Frio,  the  Poco  Sol,  the  San  Carlos,  and 
the  Se'rapiqui,  besides  several  smaller  streams.  The  Frio  is  treated  as 
a  river  discharging  into  the  lake.  Its  mouth,  however,  is  close  along- 
side the  outlet  of  the  San  Juan.  It  is  a  river  of  some  importance  when 
in  flood,  though  it  is  small  in  the  dry  season.  A  discharge  of  nearly 
12,000  cubic  feet  per  second  was  observed  by  the  Nicaragua  Canal 
Commission.  The  Poco  Sol  is  a  much  smaller  stream.  There  is  little 
known  of  its  watershed,  though  the  maps  show  its  source  in  the  moun- 
tainous region  of  Costa  Rica.  The  river  has  been  gauged  and  its  dis- 
charge determined  in  a  series  of  18  gaugings  extending  over  a  period 
of  one  year,  viz,  from  October,  1899,  to  the  latter  part  of  September, 
1900.  On  April  20,  1900,  the  discharge  was  only  34  cubic  feet  per 
second.  On  July  15,  1900,  the  discharge  was  2,651  cubic  feet  per 
second;  this  was  the  maximum  observed.     No  appreciable  amount  of 

sediment  has  been  brought  into  the  San  Juan  by 
li^rTr^tl^.^"    anv  oi  tnese  tributaries  during  the  continuance  of 

the  surveys  extending  over  tin1  last  four  years,  and 
there  is  no  indication  in  tin1  San  Juan  itself  that  any  of  its  tributaries 
above  the  San  Carlos  contributes  an  amount  of  sediment  that  is  appre- 
ciable in  connection  with  the  maintenance  of  a  navigable  channel. 

The  largest  and  most  important  tributary  of  the  San  Juan  is  the  San 
Carlos.  It  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Costa  Rica,  flows  northeasterly 
and   empties   into  the   San  Juan   about  57  miles  (measured  along  the 

windings  of  the  river)  from  the  lake.     Ltisawide, 

swift  stream,  having  a  drainage  area  of  about  L,500 
square  miles,  as  determined  from  the  best  maps  available.     This  esti- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  107 

mate  may  be  too  great  or  too  small,  as  the  region  has  never  been  sur- 
veyed. The  discharge  varies  within  wide  limits.  It  is  known  to  have 
been  as  low  as  3,000  cubic  feet  pev  second,  and  as  high  as  66,820  cubic 
feet  per  second.  The  estimated  possible  maximum  is  100,000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  Its  banks  as  far  as  they  have  been  explored  are  of  clay 
and  withstand  well  the  action  of  the  river  current.  It  is  proper  to 
remark,  however,  that  information  on  the  physics  of  this  river  is 
mainly  limited  to  what  is  obtainable  near  its  mouth.  The  bed  of  the 
river  in  the  lower  part  is  sand  which  is  easily  put  in  motion.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  sources  of  this  sand  are  the  volcanoes  in  the  Costa 
Rican  mountains.  That  found  in  the  delta  of  the  San  Juan  River  is 
similar  in  character.  The  floods  of  this  stream  are  of  great  violence 
and  frequency. 

The  Serapiqui  is  a  river  of  similar  character  to 

Seraplqui  Klver.  *     ■*■  .     .  . 

the  San  Carlos,  but  it  is  not  so  large.  It  is  a  sand- 
bearing  stream  and  adds  a  large  quota  of  this  material  to  the  main 
river.  Its  measured  discharge  varies  from  about  3,000  cubic  feet  to 
about  26,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Its  maximum  is  doubtless  much 
greater. 

There  is  another  river  still  farther  to  the  east- 
ward  called  the  Negro,  which,  according  to  the 
maps,  drains  a  large  area  of  Costa  Rican  territory,  and  discharges  into 
the  Colorado  outlet  of  the  San  Juan.  Very  little  is  known  of  the 
characteristics  of  this  stream  and  no  effort  was  made  to  secure  any 
information,  as  it  does  not  affect  the  question  before  the  Commission. 

The  fall  of  the  San  Juan  River  from  the  lake  to 

Fall  in  San  Juan  Klver.  .  . 

the  sea  is  about  100  feet.  About  one-halt  of  this 
occurs  above  the  mouth  of  the  San  Carlos,  and  is  mainly  concentrated 
at  several  rapids.  At  each  of  the  principal  rapids  the  lied  of  the  river 
is  rock.  The  most  important  of  these  is  at  Castillo.  The  fall  in  the 
river  is  here  6  feet  in  a  distance  of  little  more  than  one-third  of  a 
mile.  The  existing  navigation  of  the  river  is  very  much  obstructed 
here  and  boats  can  only  pass  when  the  river  is  high.  Ordinarily 
freight  and  passengers  are  carried  around  the  rapids  on  a  tramway. 

Between  the  Machuca  Rapids  and  the  mouth  of  the  San  Carlos  the 
river  is  deep  and  the  current  moderate.  In  low  stages  it  is  almost 
imperceptible.  When  the  San  Carlos  is  in  flood  the  San  Juan  current 
may  even  set  upstream.  This  part  of  the  river  is  called  the  Agua 
Muerte  (dead  water).  The  bottom  of  the  channel  in  places  is  below 
the  sea  level.  The  amount  of  sediment  delivered  to  the  river  by  its 
upper  tributaries  has  evidently  been  no  greater  than  its  waters  have 
been  able  to  transport,  notwithstanding  the  moderate  current.  Below 
the  moutn  of  the  San  Carlos  the  fall  is  quite  uniformly  distributed. 


108  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  following  table  gives  approximately  the  fall  in  feet  for  the  vari- 
ous reaches  of  the  Sun  Juan  River  from  the  lake  to  the  sea.  with  the 
lake  at  elevation  104: 

Slopes  in  various  reaches  of  San  Juan. 


Reach. 


Distance 

in  miles. 


Fall 

in 

feet. 


27. 16 

5.4 

1.70 

7.3 

7.  98 

1.2 

.38 

6.0 

11.17 

24.5 

.95 

4.0 

15.37 

1.0 

33.02 

30.0 

5.  28 

4.0 

18.65 

20.6 

121.66 

104. 0 

From  the  lake  to  head  of  Toro  Rapids 

In  Toro  Rapids 

From  foot  of  Toro  Rapids  to  head  of  Castillo  Rapids 

In  Castil lo  Rapids 

From  foot  of  Castillo  Rapids  to  head  of  Maehuca  Rapids 

In  Maehuca  Rapids 

From  foot  of  Maehuca  Rapids  to  mouth  of  the  San  Carlos  (Agua  Muerte) 

From  mouth  of  San  Carlos  to  head  of  the  San  Juanillo 

From  head  of  San  Juanillo  to  the  head  of  the  Colorado 

From  head  of  Colorado  to  sea  (via  Lower  Sau  Juau) 

Total,  from  lake  to  sea 

The  slopes  above  given  are  approximate  only,  and  result  from  the 
lake  being  at  elevation  104  and  the  river  under  normal  conditions. 
They  will  vary  with  the  stage  of  the  lake  and  with  the  rainfall  in  the 
drainage  basin  of  the  river. 

The  bed  of  the  Upper  San  Juan  (and  by  this  is 

Bed  of  I'pper  San  Juan.  _.  T  7.  ,        .    .  .  '  . 

meant  the  San  Juan  from  the  lake  to  the  mouth 
of  the  San  Carlos  River)  consists  chiefly  of  silt,  clay,  or  rock.  The 
river  banks  general!}'  resist  the  erosive  action  of  the  currents,  even 
where  the  velocities  are  great.  This  is  due  in  a  measure  to  the  pro- 
tection afforded  by  growing  vegetation,  which  reaches  to  the  water's 
edge  and  sometimes  extends  below  it.  but  mainly  to  the  cohesive 
character  of  the  material.  Below  the  mouth  of  the  San  Carlos  the 
bed  of  the  San  Juan  consists  mostly  of  sand,  which  forms  shifting 
bars. 

Freshets  in  the  rivers  of  the  United  States  are 

San  Juan  In  freshets.  •        i     t  •    •  >  1 

usually  characterized   by  quantities   of    logs  ana 

other  drift  floating  on  the  surface.     As  a  rule  fallen  timber  in  the 

San  Juan  River  remains  where  it   falls,  or  at  least  is  not  moved  any 

great  distance,  as  the  most  of   it   is  too  heavy   to   float.     This  is  an 

important    fact    in    connection    with    the    construction    of    the   canal. 

Where  the  line   passes   through  old  swamps,  doubtless  considerable 

heavy  timber  will  be  encountered  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

About  8  miles   below   the  mouth  of  the  Sera- 
San  Juanillo  Hirer.  ...         ,  T         .,.  . 

piqui   the  oan  Juanillo  branches  off,  following  a 

tortuous  course  until  it  again  joins  the  Lower  San  Juan,  a  short  dis- 
tance southeast  of  Grey  Town.     The  indications  point  to  this  strean 
as  having    been    in   remote   times  an    important  outlet   of  the   main 
river. 

A  short  distance  below  the  mouth  of  the  Sera- 

Coastal  plain.  , 

piqui  the  San  Juan  River  enters  the  coastal  plain. 
a  region  of  swamps,  bayous,  and  lagoons.     About  20  miles  from  the 


KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  109 

sea  it  divides  into  two  outlet  branches — the  Lower  Sun  Juan,  which  dis- 
charges  through  Harbor  Head  Lagoon  near  Grey  Town,  and  the  Colo- 
rado, which  discharges  directly  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  about  15  miles 
to  the  southward.  The  latter  is  the  principal  outlet  and  may  be 
enlarging  at  the  expense  of  the  Lower  San  Juan,  although  as  long  ago 
as  1851  the  gaugings  made  by  Colonel  Childs  showed  that  the  Colorado 
was  carrying  nearly  four-fifths  of  the  total  amount  at  a  mean  stage. 
Each  of  these  outlets  is  subdivided  and  the  entire  system  intercom- 
municates. 

,  ,  . ,  There  are  indications  of  a  general  subsidence  of 

subsidence.  ,  a 

the  Atlantic  coast  in  this  region.  The  former 
rocky  bed  of  the  San  Juan  appears  to  have  been  depressed.  At 
Machuca  Rapids  rock  appears  near  the  water  surface.  At  the  dam 
site  adopted  by  this  Commission  at  Conchuda  the  distance  from  the 
lowT- water  surface  to  the  lowest  point  in  the  rock  cross  section  is  about 
80  feet.  At  the  dam  site  suggested  by  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Commis- 
sion the  distance  is  about  110  feet.  At  Tambor  Grande,  18  miles 
farther  downstream,  it  is  not  less  than  140  feet,  and  is  doubtless  con- 
siderably  more  in  the  lowest  depression.  From  the  mouth  of  the  San 
Carlos  down  is  a  deep  rock}T  trough,  which  is  tilled  with  sand.  Some 
sand  has  also  been  carried  a  short  distance  above  the  San  Carlos  by 
floods  from  that  stream  when  the  San  Juan  was  low. 

In  the  coastal  plain,  which  consists  mainly  of  swamps,  vegetable 
matter  intermixed  with  silt  is  found  to  a  considerable  depth,  but  within 
5  or  6  miles  of  the  coast  sand  is  found  extending  to  a  great  depth 
under  a  light  covering  of  mud. 

Along  the  Atlantic  coast  in  the  vicinity  of  Grey  Town  and  for  some 
distance  inland  the  rainfall  is  the  greatest  known  on  the  continent. 
There  is  no  detinite  dry  season.  Rain  may  be  expected  almost  any 
day  in  the  year.  On  the  other  hand,  the  entire  drainage  basin  of  Lake 
Nicaragua  lies  in  a  region  having  a  well-detined  dry  season.  The 
annual  rainfall  near  Grey  Town  sometimes  amounts  to  nearly  300  inches. 
The  average  is  probably  260  to  270  inches,  while  at  Bluefields,  75  miles 
to  the  north,  and  at  Port  Limon,  70  miles  to  the  southeast,  it  is  less 
than  half  as  much.  There  is  a  perceptible  diminution  in  the  annual 
Rainfall.  rainfall  as   one  proceeds  westward   to  the  lake. 

The  total  for  the  year  1899,  at  Grey  Town  was 
2S5. 93  inches,  while  that  for  the  same  period  at  Ochoa  was  177.91  inches, 
and  at  Fort  San  Carlos  77.20  inches.  For  the  year  1900  the  annual 
rainfalls  were  for  Grey  Town,  266.10  inches,  for  Ochoa,  158.83  inches, 
and  for  Fort  San  Carlos,  89.34  inches.  The  heaviest  observed  rainfall 
in  a  short  period  was  that  at  Silico  station  on  Lake  Silico,  November 
4,  1899,  when  10.5  inches  fell  in  six  hours,  an  average  of  If  inches  per 
hour.  On  the  same  date  a  fall  of  12.48  inches  in  twenty-four  hours 
was  observed  at  Grey  Town.     A  rainfall  of  4  inches  or  more  in  one  day 


110  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN"    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

is  not  a  rare  occurrence  in  that  vicinity.  In  the  drainage  basin  of 
Lake  Nicaragua  the  average  annual  rainfall  is  about  65  inches. 

The  trade   winds   blow   almost  constantly,    but 

Minds.  .  ,  .     , 

they  are  not  strong  enough  to  sensibly  aftect  canal 
navigation.  At  rare  intervals  violent  northers  occur,  which  are  felt 
to  a  less  degree  in  the  interior.  It  is  not  believed  that  the  winds 
would  seriously  interfere  with  canal  navigation  at  any  time. 

It  can  be  readily  understood  that  the  Nicaragua  route,  affording 
water  transportation  from  the  Atlantic  to  within  a  few  miles  of  the 
Pacific,  was  very  attractive  when  navigation  was  carried  on  by  means 
of  small  ships.  It  became  a  favorite  transisthmian  route  immediately 
after  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California.     Passengers  arriving  by  sea 

at  the  port  of  Grev  Town,  at  that  time  an  excellent 

Transit  route. 

harbor,  were  transported  by  steamboats  to  the 
west  shore  of  the  lake;  whence  the  Pacific  was  reached  by  a  short 
stage  line,  which  terminated  at  the  port  of  San  Juan  del  Sur.  This 
was  a  busy  traffic  route  for  some  years.  Successive  projects  for  inter- 
oceanic  communication  have  had  to  provide  for  the  increasing  dimen- 
sions of  ships,  and  as  channel  dimensions  have  thus  been  enlarged  the 
difficulties  of  providing  for  a  safe  navigation  have  become  greater. 
The  serious  difficulties,  however,  are  nearly  all  found  between  Machuca 
Rapids  and  the  Caribbean. 

The  region  of  practicable  canal  routes  is  limited  to  the  north  side  of 
the  San  Juan  River,  by  the  existence  of  the  San  Carlos  and  Serapiqui 

rivers  on  the  south  side.  Financially  it  would  be 
ranlfrltos!   ,,ra,'n,*il"U'    impracticable  to  divert  these  streams,*  and  it  would 

be  equally  impracticable  to  take  them  into  the 
canal.  Hence  all  the  surveys  and  examinations  for  a  canal  route  have 
been  confined  to  the  north  side  of  the  river. 

The  topography  of  the  country  in  the  vicinity  of  the  route  adopted 
is  generally  rough.  The  hills  as  a  rule  do  not  attain  a  great  height, 
but  they  are  usually  steep  and  bunched  together,  with  areas  of  swamp 
or  low  flats  about  them.     The  surface  is  covered  with  a  dense  growth 

of  tropical  vegetation  which  renders  exploration 

Topography.  ° 

or    surveys    extremely    difficult    and    expensive. 

There  are  few  places  where  a  transit  line  can  be  run  50  feet  without 
cutting  out  a  line  of  sight.  This  difficulty  accounts  for  the  paucity  of 
existing  topographical  information,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
country  has  long  been  known  and  studied  for  a  canal  route. 

From  Grey  Town  to  Castillo  the  boundary  between  the  republics  of 

Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua   follows  the   right    bank  of  the  San   Juan 

River.     Thence  to  the  lake,  the  boundary  is  a  line 

Boundary.  .  .. 

on  the  right  bank,  generally  about  2  miles  from 
the  river.  Both  shores  from  Castillo  to  the  lake  are  therefore  m 
Nicaraguan  territory.     When  the  level  of  the  water  of  the  river  is 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  Ill 

raised  by  the  construction  of  the  proposed  dam  at  Conchuda,  sonic  of 
the  lands  in  Costa  Rican  territory  will  he  submerged,  although  the 
canal  line  from  Castillo  westward  to  the  Pacific  will  lie  wholly  in 
X iearaguan  territory. 

While  many  propositions  more  or  less  indefinite  had  previously  been 
made  for  a  canal  across  the  isthmus  in  Nicaragua,  the  first  actual  sur- 
vey made  and  definite  project  proposed  were  those 

Chilils's  project.  Is.VJ.  ^  *  ....  ,,    .   .     . 

of  Col.  (J.  \\  .  Childs,  a  civil  engineer  of  high, 
standing,  in  1850-52.  The  survey  made  by  him  was  for  a  private 
corporation  known  as  "The  American  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal 
Company."  His  project  has  been  the  basis  for  all  subsequent  ones, 
and  the  route  followed  by  him  does  not  differ  greatly  from  that  which 
is  now  recommended  by  this  Commission.  He  reached  the  conclusion 
that  a  ship  canal  through  Nicaragua  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
could  not  be  considered  practicable  upon  any  other  route  than  that 
through  the  valley  of  the  San  Juan  to  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  from  that 
lake  either  southwesterly  upon  a  line  through  some  A'allev  extending 
across  the  dividing  ridge,  or  northwesterly  up  the  river  Tipitapa  to 
Lake  Managua,  thence  through  the  valle}'  extending  from  the  head  of 
that  lake  to  some  feasible  point  for  a  connection  with  the  Pacific.  In 
view  of  the  greater  length  of  a  canal  by  the  latter  route,  the  greater 
amount  of  lockage,  and  uncertainty  of  obtaining  a  full  supply  of  water 
upon  the  higher  summit,  it  was  deemed  best  to  begin  by  exploring  the 
country  lying  directly  between  the  west  side  of  Lake  Nicaragua  and 
the  Pacific. 

He  then  examined  different  routes  from  Lake 
coioneie('hihis.mine<     *    Nicaragua  to  the  Pacific,  beginning  with  that  via 

the  Sapoa  and  terminating  in  Salinas  Bay.  The 
conclusion  was  reached  that  the  line  leading  from  the  lake  at  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Las  Lajas  up  the  eastern  slope  of  the  divide  and 
down  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  on  the  western  slope  to  the  Pacific 
at  Brito  presented  more  favorable  conditions  than  any  other  between 
Lake  Nicaragua  and  the  Pacific,  and  was  superior  to  anjT  route  b}T 
way  of  Lake  Managua.  He  thus  disposed  of  the  routes  terminating 
at  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca,  Port  Realejo,  and  Tamorinda  River.  The 
divide  on  this  line  was  crossed  at  an  elevation  of  about  46  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  lake.  The  plan  adopted  made  the  lake  the  summit 
level;  its  surface  was  to  be  maintained  at  about  108  feet  above  sea 
level  by  means  of  a  dam  1,050  feet  long  and  16.21  feet  high  at  Castillo 
Rapids,  and  another  on  the  west  side  at  Buen  Retiro,  about  10  miles 
west  of  the  lake.  The  latter  dam  was  to  be  290  feet  long  and  33  feet 
high.  The  summit  level  made  by  these  dams,  as  given  by  Colonel 
Childs  in  his  report,  was  to  be  103.43  miles.  It  would  have  been 
longer,  as  the  distance  across  the  lake  was  underestimated.  The  fall 
from  high  lake  to  low  tide  on  the  Atlantic  side  was  to  be  108.73  feet 


112  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

and  on  the  Pacific  .side  111. 17  feet.  On  the  eastern  side  the  summit 
was  to  be  reached  by  12  locks  of  8  feet  lift  each,  1  of  6.5,  and  1  of  6.23 
feet;  on  the  western  side  by  13  locks  of  8  feet  each  and  1  of  7. IT  feet. 
The  water  in  the  canal  was  to  have  a  depth  of  17  feel  and  a  bottom 
width  of  50  feet.  In  earth,  the  side  slopes  were  to  be  I  on  '2  for 
a  height  of  9  feet  from  the  bottom,  then  a  berme  of  »>  feet  followed 
by  a  slope  of  1  on  1^,  paved  with  stone.      In  rock  the  bottom  width 

was  to  he  the  same,  but  for  a  height  of  !>  feet  above 
slopes.6™  0n  tn<*  bottom  each  side  had  a  slope  of  1  on  H;   from 

there  to  a  height  of  15  feet  above  the  water  in  the 
canal  the  slope  wTas  to  be  21  on  1.  At  this  level  there  was  a  berme  9 
feet  wide  for  towing  purposes,  and  from  the  back  of  this  berme  the 
side  slope  was  4  on  1  until  earth  was  reached,  when  the  slope  was 
changed  to  1  on  1-J.  A  passing  place  was  to  be  made  at  the  head 
of  each  lock  and  at  least  one  in  every  mile  of  length  of  the  canal.  At 
these  passing  places  the  bottom  width  of  the  canal  in  earth  was  to  be 
increased  to  90  feet,  and  in  rock  to  L05  feet.  The  bottom  width  of 
that  portion  of  the  canal  occupying  tiie  Rio  Las  Lajas  was  to  be  1(H) 
feet;  at  all  of  the  cuts  through  bars  in  the  river  the  width  at  bottom 
was  to  be  150  feet.  The  locks  were  to  be  60  by  250  feet,  with  17  feet 
depth  of  water  on  their  miter  sills.  Slack  water  navigation  was  to  be 
made  in  the  San  Juan  from  the  lake  to  about  one-half  mile  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Serapiqui  River  by  a  series  of  7  dams.  These  were 
to  be  passed  by  moans  of  locks  on  short  canals.  Below  this  point 
the  canal  left  the  river  on  the  north  side  and  was  to  be  excavated  for 
a  distance  of  28.50  miles  to  17  feet  depth  of  water  in  the  harbor  of 
Grey  Town.  The  line  crossed  the  Rio  San  Jaunillo  about  three-fourths 
of  a  mile  from  its  junction  with  the  San  Juan.  The  San  Juanillo  was 
to  be  diverted  to  the  north. 

The  project  included  the  formation  of  a  harbor  at   Brito  and  the 

improvement  and  enlargement  of  the  one  at  Grej 

Length   ami  cost  of   the    ■-,■,  ,       .      ,.  ,  ,  ,.  .    •  •    v  ,    , 

cana]  I  own  by  jetties  and  by  excavation.    A  lighthouse 

was  provided  for  at  each  harbor.  Grey  Town,  at 
the  time  of  the  examination  made  by  Colonel  Childs,  was  connected 
with  the  sea  by  a  channel  24  feetdeep  and  L,300  feet  wide.  In  the  lake 
the  channel  from  near  Fort  San  Carlos  to  near  Boccas  (Solentiname) 
Islands,  which  wTas  to  be  150  feet  wide,  was  to  be  protected  by  a  row 
of  piles  driven  on  each  side.  On  the  western  side,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Las  Lajas,  the  cut  in  the  lake  wits  to  be  protected  by  a  pier  con- 
structed on  either  side  and  extended  to  deep  water.     The  total   length 

of  the  route  was  given  as  follows: 

Miles. 

From  the  17-foot  curve  in  the  Pacifictodam  at  Buen  Retiro  8.809 

From  dam  at  Buen  Retiro  to  Lake  Nicaragua i».77'.> 


Total  western  division .    18.588 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  113 

Miles. 

Across  Lake  Nicaragua  (now  known  to  be  70.51  miles) 56.500 

From  Lake  Nicaragua  to  dam  near  Castillo 37, 151 

From  dam  near  Castillo  to  dam  near  Serapiqui 53,  874 

From  San  Juan  River  to  17-foot  curve  in  Caribbean 

Sea       28,280 

Total  eastern  division 119.305 

Total 194.393 

Summit  level: 

West  of  lake ■    9.779 

Lake 56.500 

East  of  lake 37.151 

Total 103.430 

The  total  cost  of  the  canal  was  estimated  at  $31,538,319.55,  which 
included  15  per  cent  for  contingencies,  and  the  work  was  to  be  com- 
pleted within  six  years  from  the  time  of  breaking  ground. 

The  contract  between  Nicaragua  and  the  corn- 
Depth  of  cauai  not  as  required  that  the  canal  should  be  large  enough 

great  as  contract  required.   1    .'    1  "       » 

to  accommodate  vessels  of  all  sizes,  and  Colonel 
Chi  Ids  had  been  instructed  by  the  company  to  make  surveys  and  esti- 
mates for  a  work  of  such  dimensions  as  would  comply  with  this  require- 
ment. He  recognized  that  the  dimensions  proposed  would  not  meet  it. 
His  reasons  for  limiting  the  depth  to  17  feet  were  that  the  ratio  of 
increase  of  the  expense  of  a  deeper  canal  would  be  very  great,  and  that 
the  construction  of  a  canal  of  the  dimensions  required  for  vessels  of 
the  largest  size  would  be  an  injudicious  application  of  means  that  the 
company  would  scarcely  favor  or  the  interests  of  commerce  require. 
He  stated  also  that  no  vessels  were  plying  between  the  Atlantic  States 
and  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Pacific  with  a  draft  as  great  as  17  feet,  and 
that  of  261  steam  vessels,  mostly  English,  as  given  in  Murray's  Treatise 
on  Marine  Engines  and  Steam  Vessels,  only  15  drew  over  17  feet,  21 
drew  17  feet,  and  225  less  than  17  feet  each  at  the  load  line.  He  had 
therefore  made  his  plans  and  estimates  with  due  consideration  of  the 
disparity  in  cost  and  general  utility  of  a  canal  of  larger  dimensions. 
At  the  request  of  the  company  this  report  of  the  survey  and  loca- 
tion was  submitted  by  President  Fillmore  to  Col. 

Report   referred  to  J    . 

Colonel  Abert  and    Major      J.     J.     Abeit     and     MilJ.    W.    Tumbull,     Corps     Ot 

Turi,b'111-  Topographical  Engineers,  for  their  inspection  and 

opinion,  and  on  the  20th  of  March,  1852,  they  reported  that  the  plan 
proposed  by  Colonel  Childs  was  practicable,  but  they  expressed  the 
opinion  that  the  jetties  at  Grey  Town  Harbor  and  one  or  both  at  Brito 
S  D— 57-1— Vol  7»— 8 


114  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

could  be  dispensed  with;  also  the  pile  work  in  the  lake  near  Fort  San 
Carlos;  and  that  one  row  of  guide  piles  about  100  feet  apart  to  mark 
the  channel  from  there  to  Boccas  (Solentiname)  Islands  would  be  suffi- 
cient. It  was  also  recommended  that  additional  surveys  be  made 
between  the  San  Juan  River  and  Gre}7  Town  Harbor  to  determine 
whether  a  more  direct  line  could  be  found.  These  modifications,  it 
was  suggested,  would  materially  diminish  the  cost  of  the  canal,  also 
the  time  in  passing  it.  Colonel  Childs  subsequently  proposed  a  project 
for  a  canal  12  feet  deep  with  a  smaller  prism  and  smaller  locks. 

Nothing  further  was  done  by  either  the  Ameri- 

LnU's  project,  1873.  fe  J 

can  Atlantic  and  Facinc  Snip  Canal  Company  or 
anyone  else  looking  to  the  construction  of  this  canal  for  about  twenty 
years,  when  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment,  under  the  charge  of  Commander  A.  F.  Grossman,  U.  S.   N., 

for  the  purpose  of  surveying  an  interoceanic  canal 

Expedition    under    Com-  ,  rpi  j-j.-  -i     1     ji  rr  txt      j. 

mander Grossman,  i.s.n.  route-  The  expedition  sailed  from  Key  West, 
and  arrived  off  Grey  Town  on  April  7,  1872.  On 
April  12,  while  attempting  to  make  a  landing  at  Grey  Town,  the 
boat  containing  Commander  Grossman  capsized,  and  he  with  a  num- 
ber of  his  party  was  drowned.  The  command  of  the  expedition 
then  devolved  upon  Commander  Hatfield,  U.  S.  N.,  who  proceeded 
with  the  surveying  parties  to  Lake  Nicaragua  and  began  operations 
on  the  west  side  of  the  lake,  securing  some  valuable  information 
respecting  the  routes  between  the  lake  and  the  Pacific.  His  investi- 
gations showed  that  Colonel  Childs's  survey  of  the  western  portion  of 
his  line  was  correct.  Commander  Hatfield's  party  made  recon- 
noissances,  with  the  object  of  finding  another  line  by  which  the  route 
could  be  shortened  and  the  Rio  Grande  avoided,  the  upper  part  of  the 
valley  of  the  latter  being  practically  a  gorge  and  liable  to  give  trouble 
in  time  of  flood. 

The  parties  under  the  charge  of    Commander 

Parties  under  Comman-    Tt    .^    it  •    i      ,1  ,  •  <•  ,.  i    *, 

der  iiatfleid.  Hatfield,   with  the  exception  of  a  tew    men,  left 

to  do  some   hydrographic  work   in  the  lake,  for 

which  the  calmer  weather  of  the  rainy  season  is  more  favorable,  were 

withdrawn  from  the  Isthmus  in  .July.     In  November  of  the  same  year 

an  expedition  was  fitted  out  under  the  command 

Lull  succeeds  Hatfield.  *  . 

of  Commander  L.  1 .  Lull,  u.  S.  N.,  who  arrived 
off  Grey  Town  December,  1872.  and  took  up  the  work  begun  by  Com- 
mander Hatfield.  Commander  Lull  made  an  examination  of  a  Dumber 
of  routes  between  the  lake  and  the  Pacific,  and  finally  adopted  the  one 
known  as  the  Medio  route. 

From  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  a  place  called  Las  Serdas,  near  the  outlet 
of  the  Rio  Grande  gorge,  the  line  is  practically  the  same  as  that 
adopted  by  Colonel  Childs.      From  thence  it  swings  to  the  northward 

on  a  radius  of  2,200  feet,  following  the  valley  of  a 

West  Division.  *f  ~ 

small  stream  then  called  the  Chocolata  (called  Gua- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  115 

chipilin  on  recent  maps)  for  a  short  distance,  and  crosses  the  divide 
into  the  valley  of  the  Medio,  which  it  follows  to  the  lake.  The  total 
length  of  the  line  from  Brito  to  the  lake  was  16.33  miles,  being  about 
a  mile  and  a  half  shorter  than  the  Childs  route.  The  summit  of  the 
divide  was  134  feet  above  the  level  of  the  lake,  or  about  241  feet  above 
sea  level,  giving  a  maximum  depth  of  cutting  of  lt50  feet.  There  were 
to  be  11  locks  in  this  section,  including  a  tide  lock  at  Brito,  to  admit 
ships  at  any  stage  of  the  tide.  The  tide  lock  was  to  have  a  lift  of  9 
feet,  the  others  of  10.31  feet  each.  The  brook  Chocolata,  which  the 
route  crossed,  was  to  be  taken  into  the  canal,  but  the  Tola,  as  well  as 
several  smaller  streams,  was  to  be  passed  under  the  canal  by  means  of 
culverts  to  the  Rio  Grande.  The  waters  of  the  latter  stream  were 
conducted  to  the  Pacific  on  the  south  side  of  the  canal,  diversion  chan- 
nels being  provided  where  necessary.  By  this  departure  from  the 
Childs  route  the  Rio  Grande  was  excluded  from  the  canal,  a  feature 
then  deemed  important. 

A  small  harbor  at  Brito  was  to  be  formed  by  the 

construction  of  a  breakwater  extending  easterty 
from  Brito  Head  and  a  short  jetty  from  the  beach  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  entrance.  The  mouth  of  the  river  was  to  be  utilized  for  harbor 
purposes,  and  the  diversion  of  the  stream  to  the  eastward  of  the 
entrance  was  provided  for.  The  harbor  as  designed  was  well  pro- 
tected. 

From  the  lake  eastward  it  was  proposed  to  canalize  the  San  Juan 
River  by  the  construction  of  dams  and  locks  and  short  sections  of 
canal  at  Castillo,  Balas,  and  Machuca  Rapids,  and  at  a  place  about  2 
miles  below  the  mouth  of  the  San  Carlos.     All  the  dams  were  to  be 

comparatively  low,  and   the  waters  of  the  river 

Eastern  division.  "L . 

were  to  be  discharged  over  them.  It  was  esti- 
mated that  the  fall  at  the  first  three  dams  would  be  10.28  feet  each. 
The  fall  over  dam  No.  4  was  expected  to  be  23.87  feet. 

The  lake  was  to  be  held  at  a  minimum  of  107  above  sea  level,  but  no 
provision  was  made  for  holding  it  close  to  that  level  against  a  rise, 
except  that  which  was  afforded  by  the  discharge  through  the  river; 
and  no  effort  whatever  was  made  to  provide  for  the  deficiencies  of  the 
diT  season,  when  the  lake  would  naturally  fall  below  107  from  evapo- 
ration.    The  danger  of  taking  the  San  Carlos  into 

Lake  Nicaragua.  »      i  • 

the  canalized  part  of  the  river  above  dam  No.  4 
seems  to  have  been  fully  realized  by  Commander  Lull,  for  we  find  that 
he  proposed  to  divert  the  waters  of  the  San  Carlos  by  a  cut-off  and 
discharge  them  into  the  San  Juan  below  the  dam,  but  it  is  evident  that 
the  difficulties  of  this  work  were  not  fully  appreciated. 

From  near  the  mouth  of  the  San  Carlos  to  Grey  Town  the  canal  was 
to  be  carried 'in  excavation  a  distance  of  41.9  miles.  The  least  radius 
of  curvature  was  2,500  feet.  The  line  was  to  follow  the  general  course 
of  the  main  river  bank,  cutting  off  bends  wherever  the  conformation 


116  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  the  ground  would  permit,  until  the  head  of  the  San  Juanillo  was 

reached.    From  there  to  Grey  Town  Harbor  it  was 

canal  from  near  San  car-   neai.jv  a  straight  course.     Seven  locks,  in  addition 

los  Hirer  to  (irey  Town.  J  fe 

to  those  abreast  of  the  dams,  were  proposed,  mak- 
ing ten  in  all.  The  last  two  locks  were  to  be  placed  together  and  sea 
level  reached  just  before  the  canal  entered  the  Silico  Lagoon.  From 
there  to  Grey  Town  it  was  expected  to  dredge  a  channel,  embank- 
ments not  being  thought  necessary.  The  seven  locks  were  to  have 
each  a  lift  of  10.87  feet. 

The  depth  throughout  the  canal  was  to  be  26 

Dimensions.  ,  <    ,  •      . 

feet  and  the  locks  were  to  be  400  feet  long  by  75 
feet  wide.  A  number  of  the  streams  which  are  crossed  Irv  the  canal 
were  to  be  passed  under  it  by  means  of  culverts.  The  bottom  width 
of  the  canal  varied  from  50  feet  in  the  deep  earth  cuttings  to  60  feet 
in  the  rock  cuttings  and  72  feet  in  the  shallow  cuttings.  The  harbor 
that  existed  at  the  time  the  Childs  project  was  made  had  since  been 
inclosed  by  the  sand  spit,  which  had  moved  westerly  until  it  united 
with  the  mainland,  converting  the  harbor  into  a  lagoon.  It  there- 
fore became  necessary  to  construct  a  harbor  at  this  entrance.  All 
communication  was  to  be  cut  off  between  the  harbor  and  the  San  Juan 
River,  so  as  to  cause  the  entire  waters  of  the  San  Juan  to  be  discharged 
by  the  Colorado  branch,  but  the  San  Juanillo  was  to  be  discharged 
into  the  harbor  and  a  jett}^  extending  from  the  shore  to  35  feet  of 
water  was  to  be  built.  A  channel  into  the  harbor  was  to  be  dredged 
under  the  lee  of  this  breakwater,  which  had  a  direction  of  NNW. 
The  total  estimated  cost  of  this  project,  allowing  25  per  cent  for  con- 
tingencies, was  $65,722,137. 

From  1873  to  1881,  a  period  of  eleven  years,  no  surveys  were  made 
by  the  Government  or  by  individuals  in  this  connection.  In  1884  the 
Frelinghuysen-Zavala  treaty  was  negotiated  with  Nicaragua,  giving  to 
the  United  States  the  right  to  build  a  canal  across  the  isthmus  from 
ocean  to  ocean  within  the  territory  of  that  Republic,  following  the  most 
available  route.     Another  survey  was  then  ordered.     This  expedition 

was  under  the  command  of  Mr.  A.  G.  Menocal, 

Venocal  surrey.  .  rT     0-v  ,         ,      i    ,  ,, 

civil  engineer,  U.  S.  JN.,  wno  had  been  the  prin- 
cipal assistant  to  Commander  Lull  in  1872  and  LN73.  The  object  of 
this  survey  appears  to  have  been  chief!}'  to  determine  the  advisability 
of  any  changes  in  the  route  for  shortening  the  canal  and  diminishing 
the  cost. 

As  a  result  of   Mr.  MenocaTs  work  a  new  proj- 

Menocal  nrojeet,  1885.  ....  ,,         0  ,  \, 

ect  was  submitted  m  a  report  to  the  Secretary  oi 
the  Navy  November,  1885,  in  which  very  radical  changes  were  made 
in  the  Lull  project.  On  the  west  side,  between  the  lake  and  the  Pacific, 
the  changes  were  confined  to  that  part  of  the  route  between  Las  Serdas 
and  the  lake.     Instead  of  following  the  valley  of  the  Medio  from  the 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  117 

lake  across  the  divide  to  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  lie  adopted 
the  Las  Lajas  route,  several  miles  to  the  southward,  whieh  was  the 
one  originally  surveyed  by  Colonel  Childs.  This  made  it  necessary 
either  to  receive  the  waters  of  the  upper  Rio  Grande  into  the  canal  or 
to  divert  them  to  Lake  Nicaragua  through  a  new  channel,  the  Rio 
Grande  gorge  being  too  narrow  to  take  the  canal  and  river  separately. 
The  maximum  discharge  of  this  stream  was  estimated  by  Colonel 
.    ,  ,,      ,   .     Childs  at  5,070  cubic  feet  per  second,  but  it  was 

Changes  In  Lull  project      ^  '  *  #        7 

on  west  side  suggested  by  thought  by  Mr.  Menocal  that  it  might  sometimes, 
M*nocaK  for  short  periods,  be  as  great  as  10,000  cubic  feet 

per  second.  He  thought  the  taking  of  so  large  an  amount  of  water 
into  the  canal  would  be  dangerous  to  navigation  and  the  stability  of 
the  work;  hence  he  sought  to  find  some  method  of  diverting  it.  This 
he  found  could  be  done  by  building  a  dam  across  the  river  several 
thousand  feet  from  the  canal  and  excavating  an  artificial  channel 
through  the  ridge  which  separated  the  valle}r  of  the  Grande  from  that 
of  the  Juan  Davila,  a  branch  of  the  Las  Lajas.  The  proposed  channel 
was  to  have  a  width  of  75  feet  at  the  bottom,  to  be  15  feet  deep,  with 
proper  slopes,  and  a  fall  of  2.53  feet  per  mile.  The  length  from  the 
dam  to  the  Juan  Davila  was  3.88  miles.  The  waters  of  the  Rio  Grande 
being  thus  diverted,  the  valley  of  that  river  was  practically  diy  as  far 
as  the  Tola,  and  this  enabled  a  better  alignment  to  be  made.  The  Tola 
was  to  be  passed  under  the  canal  by  means  of  a  culvert,  as  in  Lull's 
project.  The  sailing  line  across  the  lake  was  changed  back  to  the  old 
route,  which  started  from  the  mouth  of  the  Las  Lajas  instead  of  from 
that  of  the  Medio. 

On  the  section  from  the  lake  eastward  radical  changes  were  intro- 
duced which  rendered  the  project  for  this  section  entirely  unlike  any 
that  had  jet  been  suggested.  Instead  of  a  succession  of  comparatively 
low  dams  as  far  down  as  the  San  Carlos,  a  single  dam  was  proposed 
at  Ochoa,  about  3£  miles  below  the  mouth  of  that 
river.  This  dam  was  to  create  slackwater  naviga- 
tion in  the  river,  raising  the  like  to  110.  It  practically  converted 
the  river  from  the  lake  to  the  dam  into  an  arm  of  the  lake.  It  was 
expected  that  a  slope  of  4  feet  from  Fort  San  Carlos  to  the  dam, 
which  was  provided  for,  would  discharge  the  surplus  waters  from  the 
lake  and  the  drainage  of  the  river  basin.  The  Ochoa  dam  was  to  be 
built  of  concrete  masonry,  with  a  large  amount  of  loose  stone  on  the 
upstream  side  and  an  apron  on  a  pile  and  grillage  foundation  on  the 
lower  side  to  prevent  undermining.  The  entire  surplus  waters  of  the 
San  Juan  River  were  to  be  discharged  over  the  crest  of  the  dam.  No 
borings  had  been  made  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  foundations, 
but  it  was  supposed  from  the  outcropping  bowlders  on  the  side  hills 
and  on  the  banks,  that  rock  underlaid  the  gravel  and  sandy  bottom  at 
no  great  depth. 


118  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

It  was  supposed  that  the  hills  south  of  the  San  Juan  formed  a  con- 
tinuous range  which  would  hold  up  the  sumit  level  on  that  side.  It 
was  discovered  some  }^ears  later  by  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  that 

this  was  not  the  case,  but  that  embankments  of 
the *San  Juan?    S°U  '  °     considerable  magnitude  would  be  required  between 

the  hills.  The  project  now  being  considered  did 
not  contemplate  such  embankments,  and  no  estimate  was  made  for 
them. 

Starting  from  a  point  a  short  distance  above  the  dam  on  the  north 
side  of  the  river,  the  canal  was  to  be  carried  in  excavation  through 
the  broken  country  at  the  headwaters  of  the  Danta,  crossing  the  latter 
stream  into  the  valley  of  the  San  Francisco,  which  it  also  crossed  and 
followed  to  its  confluence  with  the  Chanchos ;  it  then  ascended  the 
latter  and  a  tributary  thereof  to  the  divide  which  separates  this  drain- 
age system  from  that  of  the  Deseado,  a  tributary  of  the  San  Juanillo. 

After  crossing  the  divide  the  line  entered  the 
eastward™"1     ° l0a    *"    va^eJ  °f  the  Deseado,  which  it  followed  to  the 

coastal  plain,  whence  it  took  a  direct  course  to 
Gre}7  Town  lagoon.  The  summit  level  was  to  be  maintained  across 
the  Danta,  San  Francisco  and  Chanchos,  and  through  the  "east 
divide "  by  a  small  embankment  not  far  from  the  Ochoa  dam  and  a 
large  one  6,500  feet  long  and  51  feet  high  across  the  vallej7  of  the  San 
Francisco  below  the  mouth  of  the  Chanchos.  The  subsequent  surveys 
of  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  showed  that  a  large  number  of 
embankments  was  necessary. 

The  ""divide  cut"  was  an  important  feature  in 

Divide  cut. 

this  project.  It  was  stated  to  be  a  little  less  than 
3  miles  long  and  was  nearly  all  in  curvature.  Mr.  Menocal  states 
that  the  elevation  of  the  divide  between  the  eastern  and  western  flow- 
ing waters  was  280  feet,  but  it  being  impossible  to  locate  the  canal  so 
as  to  follow  the  turns  of  the  valley,  the  line  would  cut  several  spurs 
where  the  excavation  was  still  deeper.  The  maximum  cutting  would 
have  been  about  350  feet. 

The  saving  in  distance  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  over  the  Lull 
route  is  stated  in  Mr.  Menocal's  report  to  be  10.96  miles.  The  project 
contemplated  a  depth  of  28  feet,  increased  in  places  to  30.  The  sum- 
mit level  was  to  be  reached  by  three  locks  on  the  east  side  and  four  on 
the  west.  The  locks  proposed  were  to  have  a  uniform  length  of  650 
feet  between  the  gates  and  a  least  width  of  65  feet.  Locks  1,  2,  and 
3  on  the  east  side  had  lifts  of  26,  27,  and  53  feet,  respectively.     The 

locks  on  the  west  side,  counting  from  the  lake  to 

llllk- 

the  sea,  had  lifts  as  follows:  26.4  feet  for  the  first, 
29.7  feet  each  for  the  second  and  third,  and  for  the  last,  being  a  tide 
lock,  the  lift  was  to  vary  between  24.2  and  33.18  feet,  depending  upon 
the  state  of  the  tide.     The  lock  with  53  feet  lift  was  proposed  to  be 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  119 

cut  out  of  solid  rock  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  divide,  concrete  to  be 
used  only  to  the  extent  required  to  fill  cavities,  to  give  proper  dimen- 
sions to  the  various  parts  and  a  surface  to  the  blasted  rock.  All  the 
other  locks  were  to  be  built  of  concrete,  and  all  were  to  have  a  heavy 
timber  lining  in  the  chambers  and  bays  extending  from  the  tops  of  the 
walls  to  15  feet  below  low-water  level. 

A  narrow-gauge  railroad  was  to  be  built  from 
Grey  Town  to  the  dam  across  the  San  Juan  River 
and  another  between  the  lake  and  Brito. 

The  total  estimated  cost  was  $64,036,197.  This  included  25  per 
cent  for  contingencies,  but  nothing  for  surveys,  hospitals,  shops,  man- 
agement, and  other  necessary  expenses  in  addition  to  the  construction 
contingencies  proper. 

The  Frelinghu}Tsen- Zavala  treatv  was  withdrawn 

pan^?iroje.-tri8l8!).(0n''     from  the  United  States  Senate  by  the  President 

before  ratification,  and  became  inoperative.  But 
a  concession,  known  as  the  Menocal  concession,  was  granted  by  Nica- 
ragua to  the  Nicagagua  Canal  Association,  in  1887,  to  construct  a  canal 
connecting  the  two  oceans.     A  similar  concession  was  granted   by 

Costa  Rica  in  1888.  The  Maritime  Canal  Com- 
pan}gil"1Ziltl°"  °f   COm"     Pan.v'»    °^   Nicaragua,   was   organized    under    the 

terms  of  these  concessions  in  February,  1889,  and 
a  charter  was  granted  by  Congress  to  enable  the  company  to  execute 
the  work.     (See  act  approved  February  20,  1889.) 

The  project  of  the  canal  company  was  essentially 
sam^MeToears!1"  **    the  same  as  that  of  Menocal,  of  1885,  modified  in 

respect  to  the  summit  level.  This  was  to  be 
extended  on  the  west  side  to  within  3£  miles  of  Brito  \>y  the  construc- 
tion of  a  dam  across  the  Rio  Grande  at  La  Flor. 

Surveys  had  shown  that  a  continuous  ridge,  with  a  single  break  at 
the  crossing  of  the  San  Francisco  from  the  north  end  of  the  Ochoa 
dam  to  the  "east  divide,"  did  not  exist,  and  that  in  addition  to  the 

embankment  or  dam  across  that  stream,  a  great 

San   Francisco  embank-  i  ,  i  i  rrn 

nH,utllm,  number  were  necessary  m  other  places.      1  he  sup- 

posed ridge  proved  to  be  a  series  of  hills  of  greater 
or  less  height,  with  saddles  or  low  valleys  between  them.  The  total 
number  of  embankments,  great  and  small,  required  between  the  Ochoa 
dam  and  the  divide,  as  stated  in  the  report  on  final  location  in  1889, 
was  67,  having  a  total  crest  length  of  about  6  miles.  Most  of  them 
were  small,  but  four  of  them  were  very  large,  and  their  construction 
constituted  a  most  difficult  engineering  problem  on  account  of  the 
great  depth  and  the  soft  and  yielding  nature  of  the  soil  at  the  sites. 

It  was  also  found  that  the  ridge  from  the  south  end  of  the  dam  was 
not  continuous  to  the  hills  in  Costa  Rica,  and  that  a  number  of  embank- 
ments to  connect  these  hills  would  be  required.     The  total  number  was 


120  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

21,  with  an  aggregate  length  of  5,540  feet  on  their  crests.  These 
embankments  were  to  be  entirely  of  clay.  This  embankment  line  was 
not  only  shorter  than  the  San  Francisco  line,  but  the  construction  of 
the  dams  in  the  saddles  of  the  ridge  presented  no  special  engineering 
difficulties.  It  was  proposed  to  build  a  waste  weir  in  the  ridge  about 
2f  miles  from  the  Ochoa  dam,  having  its  crest  at  106  feet  above  mean 

sea  level,  to  discharge  the  flood  waters  of  the  San 
n,e2.(arl°S  en,"ank"    Carlos  into  the   valley  of  Curena   Creek,    which 

empties  into  the  San  Juan  below  the  Ochoa  dam. 
Embankments  or  dams  were  also  required  east  of  the  divide  in  the 
valley  of  the  Deseado,  one  of  which  was  to  be  70  feet  high  and  1,050 
feet  long.  Weirs  and  sluices  were  provided  in  the  San  Francisco  and 
Deseado  valleys  for  the  control  of  floods.  Some  of  the  largest  of  the 
embankments  or  dams  on  the  San  Francisco  line  were  first  designed  as 

rock  tills  backed  with  earth,  their  crests  to  be  107 

Other  embankments.  .  .  1  ,  -.      ,  , 

feet  above  mean  sea  level,  and  the  top  and  outer 
slopes  so  shaped  and  paved  with  large  stones  as  to  admit  the  free  flow 
of  water  over  their  surfaces.  These  were  to  be,  in  fact,  so  many 
waste  weirs  for  the  discharge  of  the  surplus  waters  from  the  summit 
level. 

The  Ochoa  dam,  which  was  originally  to  be  of  masonry  with  a  timber 
apron,  was  modified  to  a  rock  fill  backed  with  earth.  The  crest  of  the 
dam  was  fixed  at  105  feet  above  mean  sea  level.  Its  width  across  the 
top  was  to  be  25  feet.  As  the  water  of  the  San  Juan  was  to  be  held 
at  106  in  the  vicinity  of  the  dam,  a  constant  discharge  due  to  a  head 
of  1  foot  over  the  dam  was  expected.  This,  however,  would  not  have 
been  the  case,  for  the  lake  would  have  fallen  to  106  or  lower  in  the 
dry  season  and  the  level  at  the  dam  could  not  have 
sallTuaT^o"^^  "  been  maintained.  It  was  estimated  that  the  dis- 
charge over  the  crest  of  the  dam  might  sometimes 
reach  42,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  the  combined  discharges  with 
the  lake  at  111  over  the  dams,  weirs,  and  through  sluices  were  esti- 
mated at  a  maximum  of  147,800  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  dam  was 
to  be  built  of  rock  taken  from  the  east  divide  cut  and  deposited  by 
means  of  cables  stretched  across  the  river.  On  the  upstream  side  of 
the  rock  pile  thus  formed  clay  was  to  be  deposited  to  render  it  water- 
tight. 

On  the  west  side  of  the  lake  the  summit  level  was 

La  Flordam.  .  .  .  .     . 

to  be  continued  through  the  west  divide  and  down 
the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  a  point  called  La  Flor,  about  3£  miles 
from  the  Pacific,  where  the  valley  narrowed  to  about  1,600  feet.  At 
this  place  the  valley  was  to  be  closed  and  the  summit  level  maintained 
by  a  large  dam.  For  several  miles  above  this  site  the  valley  is  about 
a  mile  or  more  wide,  and  a  large,  deep  basin  would  thus  be  formed  into 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  121 

which  the  floods  of  the  Rip  Grande,  Tola,  and  other  (smaller  streams 
would  be  received,  it  was  hold  that  the  creation  of  this  large  pool 
would  render  unnecessary  the  proposed  diversion  of  the  Upper  Rio 
Grande  into  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  thus  save  about  $1,500,000,  which  the 
proposed  diversion  would  cost.  It  was  at  first  intended  to  build  the 
La  Flor  dam  as  a  rock  till  backed  with  earth,  in  the  same  manner  as 
proposed  for  the  Ochoa  dam,  but  finding  the  underlying  strata  of 
earth  unsatisfactory,  the  plan  was  changed  to  an  earthen  dam  with  a 
masonry  core  extending  down  to  rock.  A  waste  weir  300  feet  long 
was  to  be  provided  cast  of  the  dam  to  discharge  the  surplus  waters 
into  the  bed  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

With  the  adoption  of  a  dam  at  La  Flor,  the  loca- 

tion  of  the  locks  was  fixed  near  its  western  end, 

the  combined  lift  of  two  being  85  feet.     A  third,  which  would  be  the 

tide  lock,  was  to  be  located  a  short  distance  from  the  harbor  and  have 

a  variable  lift  according  to  the  stage  of  the  tide  of  from  21  to  29  feet. 

The  total  cost  of   the   canal  was   estimated   at 

Cost.  . 

$65,000,000,  inclusive  of  25  per  cent  for  contingen- 
cies, but  exclusive  of  interest,  commissions,  and  other  charges  not 
coming  under  the  cognizance  of  the  engineers,  and  on  the  basis  that 
the  work  would  be  prosecuted  with  vigor  along  the  whole  line  and 
without  intermission. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  year,  1899,  the  project  was  submitted  to  a 
board   of   consulting  engineers   for   examination,  report,   etc.     This 

board  made  a  report  on  May  9  of  that  year,  giving 

Report  of  Board  of  Con-       ,i  •     •  ,i      L    j>  ,i         •    j.  ,.  «  •    i       i 

suiting  Engineers.  the  opinion  that  from  the  information  furnished 

by  the  maps,  profiles,  borings,  samples,  and  state- 
ments of  the  chief  engineer  and  other  employees,  the  project  was 
"unquestionably  feasible."  The  board  stated,  however,  that  there  was 
a  possible  hazard  in  respect  to  the  San  Francisco  and  other  basins  that 
they  might  not  prove  sufficiently  retentive,  owing  either  to  the  leakage 
around  the  ends  or  under  the  bases  of  the  dams  and  embankments  from 
concealed  permeable  strata  beneath  the  natural  surface.  They  deemed 
"this  a  remote  danger,  since  both  the  surface  and  subterranean  for- 
mations, as  far  as  revealed  by  the  borings  and  by  the  reports  of  obser- 
vations of  reliable  men  familiar  with  the  locality,  are  favorable.'1  The 
estimate  of  cost  as  determined  by  this  board,  inclusive  of  20  per  cent 
for  contingencies,  was  $87,799,570. 

On  March  2,  1895,  Congress  passed  an  act  pro- 

Mcaragua  Canal  Board,        •  j  •  £  ,i  .     ,  ,       ..        ,  -i        i> 

1896>  viding  tor  the  appointment  of  a  board  of  engin- 

eers to  make  a  survey  and  examination  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  the  feasibility,  permanence,  and  cost  of  the 
construction  and  completion  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  by  the  route  con- 
templated and  provided  for  by  an  act  which  passed  the  Senate  January 


122  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

28,  1895,  entitled  "An  set  to  incorporate  the  Maritime  Canal  Com- 
pany of  Nicaragua,  approved  February  20.  1889." 
Report    of    Nicaragua    ^he  report  Gf  this  Board  was  published  in  House 

Canal  Board  and  estimate  *  ,  ,-*•  r> 

of  cost,  Doc.  No.  279,  h  lfty -fourth  Congress,  first  session. 

It  was  stated  therein  that  more  specific  informa- 
tion was  necessary  before  a  satisfactory  final  estimate  of  the  com- 
pany's project  could  be  prepared,  and  recommended  additional 
examinations  and  surveys.  The  Board  submitted  a  tentative  approxi- 
mate estimate  based  on  the  company's  plans  and  data  amounting  to 
about  $133,000,000. 

On  June  4,  1897,  Congress  passed  an  act  for  the 
MeL^u^iS!!    appointment  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Commission 

to  "continue  the  surveys  and  examinations 
authorized  by  the  act  approved  March  2,  1895.  *  *  *  into  the 
proper  route,  feasibility,  and  cost  of  construction  of  the  Nicaragua 

Canal,  with  a  view  of  making  complete  plans  of 

Act  March  2,  1895.  '     .  b.  .  ,  , 

the  entire  work  of  construction  of  such  canal  as 
therein  provided."  The  results  of  the  surveys  and  examinations  of  the 
Nicaragua  Canal  Commission  are  contained  in  the  report  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  May  9,  1899. 

As  the  project  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Commis- 
vLTvLmLu>rTSl?UA    sion  i&;  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  the  existing 

Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  with  slight  modifica- 
tions, and  as  a  description  of  the  latter  is  given  in  full,  a  brief  descrip- 
tion of  the  former  is  all  that  seems  necessary.  The  route  adopted 
by  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Commission  was  practically  that  suggested  by 
Colonel  Childs,  in  1852,  but  his  project  was  modified  in  some  impor- 
tant respects  and  greatly  enlarged.  The  project  provided  for  a  canal 
with  a  depth  of  30  feet,  a  bottom  width  of  150  feet,  and  with  locks 
665  feet  long  between  quoins,  and  80  feet  wide.  A  single  high  dam 
across  the  San  Juan,  above  the  mouth  of  the  San  Carlos  River,  was 
provided  for,  and  the  canal  carried  thence  on  the  left  bank  of  the  San 
Juan  River  to  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Provision  was  made  for  the  regula- 
tion of  the  lake  level,  a  subject  which  no  prior  project  had  adequately 
dealt  with. 

The  Nicaragua  Canal    Commission  determined 

Safety  of  prime  Impor-       ,-,      ,    •  i        £    ,1  ..     j  i    •  , 

tance.  that  in  a  work  ot  the  magnitude  and  importance 

of  a  canal  connecting  the  two  oceans,  and  of  the 
disastrous  consequences  that  would  result  from  a  failure  to  maintain 
its  integrity  after  it  was  once  opened,  it  was  of  far  more  importance 
that  it  should  be  safe  than  that  it  should  be  cheap.  Plans  that  seemed 
to  the  Commission  to  possess  advantages  in  certain  respects,  but  were 
coupled  with  dangerous  engineering  works,  were  rejected  for  other 
plans  reasonably  free  from  risk.  The  short  and  comparatively  straight 
cut  across  the  country  from  the  neighborhood  of  Ochoa  and  the  exten- 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  123 

sion  of  the  summit  level  neatly  to  the  Atlantic  were  attractive  features 
of  the  Menocal  project,  but  necessitated  dealing  with  some  hazardous 
problems.  The  safer  alternative  of  terminating  the  summit  level  at 
the  San  Juan  River  dam  and  then  following  the  left  bank  of  the  San 
Juan  was  chosen. 

The  large  embankments  across  the  Danta,  the  San  Francisco,  and  at 
other  places  would  have  proved  not  only  far  more  expensive  than  was 
anticipated,  but  hazardous  to  maintain.  The  adoption  of  the  longer 
line  with  lower  level  does  not  eliminate  all  the  difficult  constructions, 
for  some  will  be  found  in  any  project  for  a  canal  across  the  American 
isthmus,  but  it  reduces  their  number  and  brings  them  within  the  limits 
of  safety.  The  Commission  thought  also  that  the  proposed  rock  till 
dam  across  the  San  Juan  River  involved  such  serious  risks  in  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  that  this  form  of  structure  should  be  avoided. 
This  course  seemed  the  more  imperative  from  the 
greiur«nder0eltim,ateJ!,a"  fact  that  the  discharge  of  the  San  Juan  River  had 
always  been  very  much  underestimated.  Gaug- 
ings  at  Ochoa  made  by  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Commission  in  Novem- 
ber, 1898,  gave  104,928  cubic  feet  per  second  as  the  discharge  on 
that  day,  and  at  the  time  the  San  Carlos  was  only  discharging  32,265 
cubic  feet  per  second,  whereas  it  is  now  estimated  that  the  latter  stream 
alone  may  discharge  as  much  as  100,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  A  pos- 
sible discharge  of  200,000  cubic  feet  per  second  at  Ochoa  might  rea- 
sonably be  anticipated  when  both  rivers  were  in  high  flood  at  the  same 
time. 

The  construction  of  a  high  dam  at  Ochoa,  or  at  any  point  below  the 
junction  of  the  San  Carlos,  was  regarded  as  a  work  of  such  difficulty 
that  a  search  was  instituted  for  a  site  higher  up  the  river,  suitable  for 
a  masonry  structure.  Such  a  site  was  found  about  3  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  San  Carlos.  The  first  borings,  which  were  few  in  num- 
ber, indicated  hard  rock  at  a  maximum  depth  of 

Dam  at  Boca  San  Car-         i         ,   -4  ,    »      ,  •■     i  i  i     v    j.  j.i_ 

ios#  about  li  feet  below  sea  level,  but  the  more  exten- 

sive system  made  subsequently  by  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  disclosed  a  very  irregular  bottom  with  a  maximum 
depression  16  feet  lower.  Nevertheless,  the  site  of  the  dam  was  far 
more  favorable  than  the  one  at  Ochoa,  as  the  floods  of  the  San  Carlos 
could  do  it  no  harm. 

The  La  Flor  dam  was  a  large  and  difficult  work,  on  account  of  the 
unsatisfactoiy  foundations.  The  western  end  of  the  summit  level  was 
brought  so  near  the  sea  that  the  space  available  for  locks  was  much 
restricted.  The  ridge  near  the  north  abutment  rises  abruptly  to  a 
height  of  300  feet  and  over,  which  would  have  necessitated  the  location 
of  the  locks  on  the  side  of  a  steep  hill.  Near  the  south  abutment  the 
ground  was  also  unfavorable.  The  project  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal 
Commission  did  not  call  for  locks  in  duplicate,  but  the  desirability  of 


124  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

so  locating1  them  that  an  additional  lock  could  bo  added  in  case  of 
future  demands  was  not  lost  sight  of.  It  would 
p,™;;:,!^:;^"  have  been  very  expensive  to  build  locks  in  dupli- 
cate  on  either  side  of  the  La  Flor  dam.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  were  no  serious  engineering  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
constructing  a  canal  in  excavation  from  the  lake  to  the  sea.  and  the 
slight  advantage  of  the  Tola  basin  as  against  a  canal  pure  and  simple 
did  not,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Commission,  compensate  for  the  extra 
risks. 

The  project  of  this  Commission  follows  the  gen- 

tSSSS^SS!''^    eral  route    of  that  Prosed  by    the    Nicaragua 
Canal  Commission,  but  the  depth  of  water  in  the 

canal  has  been  increased,  the  locks  duplicated  and  enlarged,  and  a  new 

and  better  site  for  a  dam  in  the  San  Juan  found.     The  project  is  as 

follows : 

Beginning  at  the  6-fathom  curve  the  entrance  to  the  canal  will  lie 
between  two  jetties  running  nearly  north  and  south, 

Grey   Town  Harbor  and  J  &  J 

entrance.  about  If  miles  northeast  of  brey  town  and  pass- 

ing close  to  the  most  westerly  bend  of  the  lower 
San  Juan,  near  its  entrance  to  Harbor  Head  Lagoon.  The  entrance  to 
the  harbor  is  to  be  500  feet  wide  and  not  less  than  35  feet  deep  at  low 
water.  At  the  shore  end  of  the  jetties  the  line  swings  to  the  right  on 
a  curve  of  4,175  feet  radius  and  then  passes  into  a  tangent  across  the 
existing  Grey  Town  Lagoon.  For  a  distance  of  2,500  feet  from  the 
inner  end  of  this  curve  the  wTidth  is  continued  at  500  feet.  It  is  then 
widened  to  800  feet  for  a  further  distance  of  1,000  feet,  in  order  to 
furnish  a  turning  basin.  It  is  then  gradually  reduced  to  150  feet,  the 
regular  width  of  canal  at  the  bottom.  This  width  is  reached  2.15 
miles  from  the  6-fathom  curve  in  the  Caribbean.  The  head  of  the  east 
jetty  is  to  extend  to  this  curve  and  is  the  zero  point  to  which  dis- 
tances along  the  canal  are  referred.  The  harbor  thus  formed  is  well 
protected.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  entrance  and  harbor  is  $2,198,860. 
From  the  harbor  the  line  runs  in  a  southwesterly 
Lock  Mo™  l r0™  lir0r  °  direction,  crossing  the  San  Juanillo  to  the  low, 
swampy  ground  along  the  Rio  Misterioso.  At  a 
distance  of  7.56  miles  from  the  entrance  the  line  swings  to  the  left  on 
a  curve  of  11,459  feet  radius,  and  then  follows  a  straight  line  in  a 
direction  a  little  west  of  south  through  the  first  lock,  which  is  located 
9.59  miles  from  the  entrance. 

From  Grey  Town  to  the  Misterioso  the  line  passes 

Swamp  section.  .  .  .    . 

through  a  region  covered  in  places  with  coarse 
swamp  grass  or  silico  palms,  in  other  places  heavily  timbered.  The 
surface  is  but  little  above  sea  level.  The  soil  is  generally  mud  to  a 
depth  of  3  or  1  feet,  underlaid  with  sand  or  sandy  silt  to  below  the 
grade  of  canal  bottom.  The  borings  made  in  this  section  extend  from 
50  to  112  feet  below  sea  level  without  reaching  other  material. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  125 

From  the  first  crossing  of  the  Misterioso  to  lock  No.  1  the- canal 

line  traverses  a  country  in  which  low  hills  are   interspersed   in   the 

coastal  plain,  and  skirts  the  northwestern  edge  of  the  mass  of  bills 

about  Silico  Lake.     The  hills  are  heavily  timbered, 

Material  in  other  places.  1    •       .  t 

but  between  them  the  around  is  flat  and  swampy, 
the  surface  being  composed  of  soft  mud  mixed  with  decaying  vege- 
table matter,  which  in  places  extends  to  a  depth  of  30  feet  or  more. 
This  material  is  generally  underlaid  with  firm  clay.  After  the  first 
crossing  of  the  Misterioso  the  line  follows  the  general  course  of  that 
stream  for  several  miles,  the  swampy  surface  being  from  5  to  10  feet 
above  tide.  Lock  No.  1  is  located  in  a  hill  on  the  southwest  side  of 
the  stream,  and  will  have  a  lift  of  36i  feet  above  mean  low  tide.  This 
lock,  as  well  as  all  others,  will  be  in  duplicate  and  founded  on  rock. 
The  swamps  communicate  freely  with  the  San  Juan  River  through  the 
San  Juanillo  and  other  streams,  and  the  flood  level  rises  at  lock  No. 
1  to  about  1 1  feet  above  sea  level. 

It  is  proposed  to  exclude  flood  water  from  the  canal  on  this  section. 
This  will  require  embankments  on  both  sides.  They  are  to  have  a 
minimum  top  width  of  15  feet,  with  side  slopes  of  1  on  3.  The  crest 
of  the  embankments  will  be  5  feet  above  the  highest  flood  levels. 
These  dimensions  apply  to  all  sections  of  the  canal  where  embankments 
are  required.  On  the  south  side  the  embankment  will  be  formed  of 
spoil  from  the  canal  prism  from  Grey  Town  to  the  Misterioso,  where 
it  connects  with  the  Silico  hills,  the  remaining  distance  to  lock  No.  1 
requiring  only  one  short  embankment  across  a  small  stream.  On  the 
north  side  the  embankment  will  be  formed  in  the 

Embankments.  e~nrr\  • 

same  way  from  Grey  Town  to  the  crossing  of  the 
San  Juanillo.  From  this  point  to  lock  No.  1  the  embankment  line 
follows  first  the  right  bank  of  the  San  Juanillo  to  a  point  about  1  mile 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Deseado  and  then  crosses  a  region  of  low  hills 
and  swamps  to  the  canal  line.  This  embankment  line  is  circuitous, 
and  a  better  one  may  possibly  be  found;  but  it  is  perfectly  practicable 
and  the  construction  will  not  be  difficult  or  costly. 

The  canal  embankment  will  cut  off  the  San  Juan- 

Diversion  of  San  .Juanillo.  .... 

lllo.  lhe  latter  has  another  connection  with  the 
Caribbean  Sea  through  the  Benard  Lagoon  and  the  Indio,  but  the 
route  is  long  and  it  is  deemed  better  to  provide  a  shorter  one.  A 
diversion  is  therefore  to  be  made  by  a  channel  dredged  from  a  point 
on  the  San  Juanillo  about  five-eighths  mile  north  of  the  canal  crossing 
to  the  excavation  made  by  the  Maritime  Canal  Compan}^  and  through 
this  to  Grey  Town  Lagoon.  The  length  of  the  channel  to  be  dredged  is 
about  1^  miles. 

The  length  of  this  section  is  7.44  miles.  For  a  distance  of  6.20 
miles  the  side  slopes  of  the  canal  prism  will  be  1  on  3.  For  the  remain- 
ing distance  the  material  is  generally  firm  and  the  cross  section  will  be 
that  provided  for  firm  earth. 


126  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The   estimated  cost  of  this    section,   including 
approach  wall  to  lock  No.  1.  embankments,   mid 
diversions  of  the  lower  San  Juan  and  San  Juanillo,  is  $5,056,747;  lock 
No.  1,  including  excavation,  fc5,7iy.686. 

From  lock  No.  1  the  line  continues  in  the  gen- 
sectio. .from  Lock  No.  i         j  direction  of  the  Misterioso  for  about  2  miles. 

to  Lock  No.  2. 

It  then  crosses  the  Pescado,  which  drains  a  swampy 
region  to  the  southward,  and  enters  the  region  drained  directly  into  the 
San  Juanillo.  It  crosses  this  stream  about  2  miles  from  the  place 
where  the  San  Juanillo  leaves  the  San  Juan,  and  then  traverses  about 
a  mile  of  swamps  and  low  hills,  passing  into  the  valley  of  the  Rio 
Negro,  a  tributary  of  the  San  Juanillo,  behind  the  hills  at  Punta  Petaca, 
where  it  is  about  1  mile  distant  from  the  San  Juan.  It  then  continues 
in  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Negro,  crossing  it  about  a  mile  east  of  the 
Negro  hills  in  which  lock  No.  2  is  located.  There  are  two  curves  on 
this  section,  each  of  8,594  feet  radius.  The  section  is  generally 
swampy,  but  in  the  Rio  Negro  Valley  the  line  cuts  through  some  hills. 
The  canal  surface  in  this  section  is  to  be  maintained  at  a  minimum 
elevation  of  36  feet  above  mean  tide.  The  flood  levels  immediately 
above  lock  No.  1  appear  to  be  about  31  feet  above  the  same  reference 
and  immediately  below  lock  No.  2  about  43  feet  above  it.  The 
region  communicates  freely  with  the  San  Juan  during  high  water  in 
the  latter,  whence  most  of  the  flood  water  comes,  and  also  receives 
considerable  drainage  from  the  mass  of  hills  north  of  the  line.  The 
embankments  have  not  only  to  maintain  the  canal  level,  but  are  also 
required  to  exclude  floods  from  the  San  Juan  on  the  upper  portion  of 
the  section.  On  the  north  side  of  the  canal  hills  form  the  greater  part 
of  the  line  of  protection,  although  a  few  swamps  have  to  be  crossed  by 
embankments.  On  the  south  side  the  Silico  hills  protect  the  level  for 
several  miles,  but  to  the  westward  of  them  are  long  stretches  of  swamp 
with  soft  bottom  where  embankments  are  required.  These  embank- 
ments constitute  one  of  the  difficulties  of  this  section.  The  estimates 
provide  for  the  removal  of  the  soft  material  for  a  width  of  30  feet  at 
bottom  to  make  the  embankments  safe  when  built.     They  are  located 

in  most  places  so  far  from  the  canal  line  that  the 

material  excavated  would  not  be  available  even  if 
suitable,  which  it  seldom  is.  They  will  be  formed  from  clay  borrowed 
from  the  hills. 

The  swamp  level  near  lock  No.  1  is  at  about  elevation  16,  and  at 
lock  No.  2  about  elevation  38.  Almost  the  entire  area  within  the 
embankment  lines  (some  12  or  13  square  miles)  will  be  below  the 
level  of  water  in  the  canal.      The  total   drainage  tributary   to  the 

section  is  probablv  about  25  square  miles.     A  waste 

Waste  way  anil  lock.  .  "     .  , 

way  is  required  which  will  be  located  at  or  near 
the  Silico  hills  where  the  flood  level  in  the  San  Juan  is  below  the  canal 
level.     It  is  to  be  a  simple  overflow  weir  with  crest  at  elevation  36, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  127 

the  minimum  canal  level,  and  to  have  a  length  of  600  feet,  which  will 
prevent  the  canal  level  rising  above  elevation  37.5.  The  assumed 
maximum  rainfall  is  12  inches  in  twelve  hours,  all  reaching  the  pool 
within  twenty-four  hours.  No  site  with  rock  foundations  has  been 
found  for  this  waste  way.  It  will  be  built  in  the  clay  hills.  Loek 
No.  2  will  have  a  hard  rock  foundation.  The  lift  will  be  18^  feet, 
from  elevation  36  to  elevation  54.5. 

The  length  of  this  section  is  10.96  miles.     A  part  is  through  swamps, 

requiring  side  slopes  of  1  on  3.     In  the  remaining  portion  the  cross 

section  is  reduced  to  the  standard  adopted  for  firm 

Length  and  cost.  .  .  -  .  .  . 

earth,  lhe  estimated  cost  of  this  section,  includ- 
ing approach  walls  to  locks,  embankments,  and  waste  ways,  is  $6,296,632; 
lock  No.  2,  including  excavation,  $4,050,270. 

The  general  direction  of  the  line  in  this  section  is  a  little  north  ot 
west.     It  leaves  the  Rio  Negro  Valley  near  lock   No.  2,  and  passes 

behind  the  Serapiqui  hills,  which  were  formerly 

Section  from  lock  >'o.  "2  1    x      i  ]        -xi      il      i  •     1  ± 

to  lock  No.  3.  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the  high  range  to 

the  northward.  At  this  point  the  line  is  more  than 
a  mile  from  the  San  Juan.  A  short  distance  farther  west  the  route 
crosses  the  Tamborcito  ridge,  after  which  at  short  intervals  it  crosses 
the  Tambor  Grande  and  San  Francisco  ridges.  A  line  located  around 
the  ends  of  these  ridges  near  the  river  would  have  inadmissibly  sharp 
curvature,  and  would  be  liable  to  injury  during  river  floods.  If  car- 
ried across  them  far  from  the  river  the  cuttings  would  be  very  heavy. 
The  line  projected  by  this  Commission  is  at  a  safe  distance  from  the 
river,  and  although  involving  heavy  work,  avoids  the  much  heavier 
work  that  a  location  farther  from  the  river  would  require.  The 
deepest  cut  on  the  center  line  of  the  canal  is  297  feet,  in  the  Tambor- 
cito ridge. 

Riprap  protection  against  river  floods  will  be 

Protection  against  floods  j     •        ,1  i  ,  «    ,1  .         •..,. 

in  San  Juan.  required  in  the  swamp  levels  ot  those  localities 

where  the  line  approaches  close  to  the  river.  After 
crossing  the  San  Francisco  River  the  line  follows  a  westerly  direction 
to  the  Danta,  which  it  first  crosses  about  2  miles  from  the  San  Fran- 
cisco. It  then  follows  the  valley  of  the  Danta,  which  it  crosses  several 
times,  to  lock  No.  3.  This  portion  of  the  line  passes  through  a  swampy 
region  with  occasional  low  hills. 

The  cut  in  the  Tamborcito  ridge  is  the  deepest 

Tamborcito  cut.  ,  °  L 

on  the  route,  and  will  consist  largely  of  hard, 
basaltic  rock.  It  is,  however,  onty  about  3,000  feet  from  the  foot  of 
the  ridge  on  the  east  side  to  the  foot  on  the  west,  and  the  crest  is 
narrow. 

There  are  eight  curves  on  this  section  of  the 

turves.  l       »       i_«    l 

canal,  ot  which  one  has  a  radius  of  4,911  feet,  four 
of  5,730  feet,  one  of  6,876  feet,  one  of  8,594  feet,  and  one  of  11,459 
feet. 


128  EEPORT    OF    THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Since  the  line  was  laid  out  borings  have  shown  that  deep  sand  exists 

under  a  part  of  that  portion  of  it  lying  between  the  Tambor  Grande 

and  the  San  Francisco,  its  upper  surface  being  near  the  canal  bottom. 

It  is  probably  a  former  bed  of  the  San  Juan  River. 

Beeent  examinations.  *■ 

Recent  surveys  and  borings  have  shown  that  this 
material  can  be  avoided  by  a  location  farther  inland,  but  as  it  has  not 
been  practicable  to  take  new  borings  across  the  ridges  on  the  new 
lines,  the  estimates  are  made  on  the  line  that  is  laid  down,  and  include 
an  allowance  for  puddling  the  bottom  of  the  canal  where  needed.  A 
small  amount  of  permeable  material  is  also  shown  b}T  the  borings  in  a 
hill  crossed  by  the  canal  line  near  the  Florida  Lagoon,  and  the  esti- 
mates provide  for  puddling  at  this  localit}\ 

The  surface  of  the  swamp  near  lock  No.  2  has  an  elevation  of  about 
38  feet  above  sea  level,  and  gradually  rises  to  elevation  45  in  the 
Florida  Lagoon,  near  lock  No.  3.  The  line  intercepts  the  drainage 
from  about  75  square  miles  lying  to  the  northward,  and  crosses  the 
Guasimo,  San  Geronimo,  Tambor  Grande,  San  Francisco,  and  Danta, 
as  well  as  a  number  of  small  creeks.  The  beds  of  the  larger  streams 
are  from  15  to  20  feet  below  swamp  level.  The  swamp  bottoms  are 
of  clay  silt,  which  may  settle  under  the  embankments,  but  should  not 
offer  serious  difficulties  to  good  construction.  The  level  of  the  canal 
is  to  be  maintained  at  the  minimum  elevation  of  51.5  feet,  submerging 
all  the  swamps.  The  flood  levels  appear  to  be  about  53  feet  at  the 
Serapiqui  and  56  feet  in  the  San  Francisco  region,  the  latter  being  1£ 
feet  above  the  minimum  stage  in  the  canal.     In  order  to  diminish  the 

currents  through  the  narrow  connecting  channels, 

Drainage.  h  '     ..     &    •  .        . 

three  waste  ways  are  provided,  one  in  the  Serapiqui 
Hills,  500  feet  long,  one  of  the  same  length  in  the  west  flank  of  Tam- 
borcito,  and  one  of  1,000  feet  near  the  Danta.  With  these  waste 
ways  it  is  estimated  that  the  water  in  the  canal  will  never  rise  more 
than  2£  feet  above  the  normal  stage. 

The  wasteways  are  designed  to  be  plain  over- 

Wasteways.  J  •    i       i  i 

now  weirs  built  oi  concrete,  with  the  crests  at  ele- 
vation 54.5,  the  minimum  canal  level.  At  rare  intervals  the  crest  of 
the  Danta  wasteway  may  be  submerged  by  the  San  Juan  Hoods,  but 
the  amount  of  water  taken  into  the  canal  over  it  will  be  so  small  that 
no  trouble  is  apprehended.  The  borings  made  at  the  site  of  the  Danta 
wasteway  show  unfavorable  material  For  foundations,  involving  an 
additional  expense  for  safe  construction,  for  which  provision  has  been 
made  in  the  estimates.  Lock  No.  3.  which  terminates  this  section,  is 
located  on  a  rock  foundation,  having  a  lift  of  bsl  feet,  viz.  from  ele- 
vation 54.5  to  elevation  73  at  minimum  canal  level. 

The  length  of  this  section  is  1(1.75  miles,  and  the 

Length  and  cost.  .  ....  in  i        1 

estimated  cost,  including  approach  walls,  embank- 
ments and  wasteways,  is  $19,330,654;  lock  No.  3,  including  excavation, 

$3,832,745. 


'      REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  129 

Westward  from  lock  No.  3  the  lino  follows  down 

Section  from  lock  No.  S      ,1  n  »  t? i        i  •   ,  <        i     ,  -.i  •        i 

to  lock  No.  4.  lll('  valley  of  hmbankmont  (  rock  to  witlim  about 

1,700   feet  of  its   mouth,   and   then   crosses  some 
hills  and  the  Machado  to  lock  No.  4.     There  arc 

Curves  ami  drainage. 

two  curves  on  the  section   having  radii  of   11,459 

feet  each.  The  excavation  will  be  mainly  in  firm  earth  with  standard 
slopes  to  correspond.  Some  rock  will  be  found  near  the  site  of 'lock 
No.  4,  and  soft  mud  in  crossing-  the  valley  of  the  Machado.  The 
drainage  area  tributary  to  this  section  has  not  boon  well  determined, 
but  is  taken  at  about  9  square  miles,  about  1  square  mile  of  which  will 
be  submerged.  It  is  proposed  to  control  the  surface  of  the  pool, 
between  elevations  of  73  and  TO  feet,  by  a  weir  300  feet  long,  located 
in  a  hill  a  short  distance  east  of  the  Machado. 

Two  embankments  will  be  needed  between  the 

Embankments. 

eanal  and  the  ban  Juan  Kiver,  one  across  kni- 
bankment  Creek,  the  other  across  the  Machado,  where  the  crest  will 
be  about  31  foot  above  the  bottom  of  the  stream  and  about  24  feet 
above  the  swamp  level.  The  borings  show  the  surface  material  in 
this  swamp  to  be  soft,  and  some  of  it  will  have  to  be  excavated,  so 
that  the  embankment  may  rest  on  firm  material.  Lock  No.  4  is  located 
in  a  hill  immediately  west  of  the  Machado.  It  is  proposed  to  control 
the  surface  of  the  summit  level  of  the  canal  between  the  elevations  of 
104  and  110  feet,  hence  this  lock  is  designed  to  have  a  variable  lift, 
the  maximum  being  37  feet  and  the  minimum  31  feet. 

The  length  of  this  section  is  2.77  miles.     The 

Length  and  cost.  .  °  ..... 

estimated  cost,  including  approach  walls,  embank 
ments,  and  waste  wa}T,  is  $4,310,580;  lock  No.  4,  including  excavation, 
$5,655,871. 

Westward  of  lock  No.  4  the  line  passes  through 

Section  from   lock  No.  4  l     1   -n  •  1  1  ±±- 

to  the  san  Juan  Kiver.  a  rough,  hilly  region  where  deep  cutting  is  encoun- 
tered. About  three-fourths  of  a  mile  west  of  the 
lock  the  depth  to  the  bottom  of  the  canal  on  the  center  line  is  218  feet 
below  the  surface.  The  borings  show  a  stratum  of  cla}7  10  feet  thick, 
from  elevation  65  to  elevation  55,  the  top  being  about  4  feet  below 
the  bottom  of  the  excavation.  About  1  mile  farther  westward  is 
another  cut  170  feet  deep  on  the  center  line,  with  a  clay  stratum  10 
feet  thick,  the  upper  surface  being  at  elevation  89.  In  the  latter 
case  the  clay  stratum  is  in  the  wetted  prism  of  the  canal.  In  both 
cases  there  is  rock  overlying  the.  clay.  It  is  supposed  that  the  rock 
„     .  ,  ,  is  a  volcanic  overflow.     Where  the  clay  shows  in 

Special  slopes.  ^ 

the  wetted  prism,  slopes  of  one  on  one  are  pro- 
vided for  both  rock  and  clay. 

„..    ,  The  section  forms  a  part  of  the  summit  level, 

Summit  level.  1  7 

and  has  two  curves,  each  of  5,730  feet  radius. 
The  point  where  it  enters  the  San  Juan  Kiver  is  46.17  miles  by  the 

S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 9 


130  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

canal  line  from  the  6-fathom  curve  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  upper 
end  of  this  section  i.s  3.3  miles  by  the  river  from  the  dam  site  at  Con- 
chuda.  This  dam  will  maintain  the  summit  level,  regulated  by  waste- 
ways  at  the  dam  and  in  the  hills  a  short  distance  southwest  on  the 
Costa  Rica  side.  The  dam,  wasteways,  and  system  of  regulation  are 
fully  described  elsewhere. 

The  length  of  this  section  is  5.30  miles.     The 
estimated  cost,  including  approach  wall  to  lock,  is 


Length  anil  cost. 

18,579,431. 


San  Juan  River  section. 


This  section  embraces  that  portion  of  the  river 
from  the  poiut  where  the  canal  enters  it  above  the 
dam  to  Lake  Nicaragua.  As  already  stated,  the  San  Juan  River  above 
the  mouth  of  the  San  Carlos  is  practically  free  from  sediment,  and  in 
this  respect  is  well  adapted  for  slack-water  navigation.  It  is  very 
crooked,  however,  the  curves  being  so  sharp  in  places  that  the  natural 
channel,  even  if  deep  enough,  would  be  difficult  for  large  ships  to  navi- 
gate. Cut-offs  have  been  located  in  such  places,  improving  the  course 
of  the  channel  and  reducing  the  sailing  distance.  These  improve- 
ments leave  54  per  cent  of  the  total  distance  from  the  dam  to  the  lake 
in  curvature.  Except  in  a  few  cases  the  radius  exceeds  5,000  feet,  but 
in  the  section  between  the  Machuca  and  Castillo  Rapids  the  limit  was 
reduced  to  1,015  feet.     In  the  present  project  the 

Curvature  and  cost.  x  . 

curves  are  of  larger  radius  than  in  any  previous 
one.  They  could  be  improved,  but  the  cost  would  be  increased.  It 
has  been  the  governing  motive  to  preserve  a  judicious  balance  between 
curvature  and  cost. 

In  this  section  there  are  four  curves  of  1,015  feet  radius,  one  of 
4,297,  two  of  1,911,  three  of  5,289,  six  of  5,730,  two  of  5,927,  four  of 
6,876,  one  of  8,385,  five  of  11,159,  and  one  of  17,189.  The  bottom  of 
the  excavated  channel  is  established  at  elevation  69,  giving  a  depth  of 
35  feet  when  the  lake  is  at  101,  its  lowest  stage.  From  the  dam  to 
the  Machuca  Rapids  the  general  direction  of  the  channel  is  north- 
westerly. The  dam  raises  the  water  so  as  to  permit  a  material 
straightening  of  the  line  on  this  part  of  the  section  with  but  little 

excavation.  At  the  Patricia  Rapids  (in  the  fifty- 
curves.  .  -1X1  '      1  • 

ninth  mile)  the  bed  of  the  river  rises  above  the 
grade  of  the  channel  bottom,  and  excavation  is  required  thence  to 
deep  water  in  the  lake. 

The  necessary  straightening  of  the  channel  past  the  Machuca  and 

Diamante  Rapids,  which  are  nearly  continuous,  and  the  Pilares  Rapids 

immediately  above  them,  requires  two  small  cut- 

I'rliiclunl  cut-offs.  l       i  •     i 

oil's  and  slight  widenings  ai  two  other  places. 
There  is  also  a  cut-off  between  the  Patricia  Rapids  and  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Bartola.  At  several  places  between  the  Bartola  and  Castillo, 
points  of  bends  are  cut  off  to  reduce  curvature.     The  line  passes 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  181 

through  two  small  cut-offs  between  ( lastillo  and  the  mouth  of  the  Santa 
Cruz.  At  the  first,  a  short  distance  west  of  Castillo,  the  borings  show 
thai  considerable  rock  will  have  to  be  excavated.  At  the  second  there 
is  comparatively  little,  The  Santa  Cruz  cut-off,  a  short  distance  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Santa  Cruz  River,  saves  nearly  1  miles  of  distance. 
The  line  then  crosses  Sombrero  de  Cuero  Island  and  enters  the  Toro 
Rapids.  There  will  be  a  large  amount  of  rock  excavation  underwater 
between  Castillo  and  the  head  of  the  Toro  Rapids.  The  line  then  fol- 
lows the  river,  impinging  slightly  on  the  banks  in  several  places, 
bisects  Isla  Grande,  and  one-half  mile  above  the  latter  enters  the  Palo 
de  Arco  cut-off,  which  effects  a  saving  of  1.36  miles.  It  then  follows 
the  river,  cutting*  off  one  small  point  just  above  the  Rio  Palo  de  Arco 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Medio  Queso,  where  it  enters  the  San  Fran- 
cisco cut-off.  This  is  the  longest  cut-off  on  the  route,  and  saves  If 
miles.  Beyond  this  the  line  continues  in  the  river  to  the  lsla  del 
Padre,  and  then  cuts  across  the  marsh  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river. 
It  again  enters  the  river  nearly  opposite  Fort  San  Carlos,  after  passing 
which  it  enters  the  lake.  Opposite  Fort  San  Carlos  there  is  some  rock 
to  be  excavated.  The  bottom  width  of  the  channel  in  the  river  and 
in  the  shorter  cut-offs  is  tixed  at  250  feet  on  tangents,  but  increased  on 
the  curves  according  to  the  rule  given  elsewhere,  The  longer  cut-offs 
have  the  standard  canal  width  of  150  feet  at  the  bottom  on  tangents, 
w*ith  corresponding  widenings  on  curves. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Rio  Sabalos,  Isla  Grande,  and  Fort  San  Carlos,  it 
was  found,  after  the  line  described  above  had  been  laid  down,  that  a 
material  reduction  in  the  estimated  cost  of  the  canal  could  be  made  by 
slight  changes  in  alignment  at  these  places.  These  changes  in  align- 
ment have  been  adopted  by  the  Commission,  and  are  indicated  on 
plates  30,  31,  12,  13,  1-1,  15,  and  63  by  broken  lines,  and  on  profile, 
plate  49a.  The  estimates  are  based  on  the  new  alignment.  The 
changes  are  as  follows: 

First,  that  near  Rio  Sabalos  begins  in  the  Santa  Cruz  cut-off  at 
mile  69.41,  follows  a  westerly  course,  cutting  off  a  small  portion  of 
Isla  Sombrero  de  Cuero,  and  passes  through  Toro  Rapids  a  little 
north  of  the  line  first  adopted.  It  then  crosses  the  latter,  passes 
through  the  point  of  land  opposite  the  mouth  of  Rio  Sabalos,  crosses 
the  San  Juan  into  Sabalos  cut-off,  and  rejoins  the  line  first  adapted  to 
mile  75.61. 

The  second,  near  Isla  Grande,  begins  near  the  middle  of  the  long 
curve  east  of  Isla  Grande,  mile  79.72,  continues  on  a  curve  following 
approximate^  the  old  channel  north  of  the  island,  and  joins  the  line 
first  adopted  at  mile  82.51. 

The  third  begins  about  If  miles  below  Fort  San  Carlos,  mile  93.94, 
follows  close  to,  but  north  of,  the  line  first  adopted,  crosses  the  latter 
at  mile  91.85,  and  enters  the  lake  about  400  feet  to  the  southward  of 
the  first  line. 


132  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

These  changes  add  479  feet  to  the  total  distance  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  and  change  slightly  the  curvature  given  in  a  preceding 
paragraph. 

The  total   length  of   the  river  section  on  the 

Length  and  cost.  it  . 

adopted  alignment  is  49.64  miles,  and  the  estimated 
cost  is  $23,155,670. 

The  line  enters  the  lake  on  a  curve  of  11,459 

Lake  Nicaragua  section. 

feet  radius,  and  then  continues  on  a  tangent,  pass- 
ing southward  of  the  Balsillas  Islands  and  northward  of  the  Solen- 
tiname  group.  Near  the  latter  it  crosses  a  submerged  channel,  where 
for  a  short  distance  no  excavation  will  be  required,  and,  passing  around 
a  short  curve  in  deep  water,  enters  a  second  tangent,  where  some  exca- 
vation is  required  for  a  distance  of  10.77  miles.  This  tangent  con- 
tinues to  the  vicinity  of  the  mouth  of  the  Las  Lajas  on  the  west  side 
of  the  lake.  The  lake  bottom  on  the  sailing  line  lies  below  the  grade 
of  the  canal  bottom  for  a  distance  of  41.78  miles;  the  remainder,  28.73 
miles,  will  require  excavation.  On  approaching  the  mouth  of  the  Las 
Lajas,  the  line  swings  to  the  westward  in  deep  water  to  the  long  tan- 
gent at  the  east  end  of  the  western  division  of  the 

Dredged  channel  in  lake.     ° 

canal,  lhe  bottom  from  .bort  ban  Carlos  to  deep 
water  in  the  lake  consists  of  soft  mud  6  to  17  feet  deep,  underlaid  by 
hard  clay  and  sand.  The  mud  is  so  soft  in  places  that  it  is  difficult 
to  determine  its  surface.  The  steamboat  navigating  the  lake  pushes 
its  way  through  several  feet  of  it  when  the  lake  is  low.  This  mate- 
rial will  take  a  flat  slope,  and  after  a  channel  is  excavated  through  it 
there  will  be  some  expense  for  maintenance. 

On  the  west  side  the  excavation  in  the  lake  com- 

Channel  on  west  side  of  -,    er,       -i        j:  ±l        i~  tj.       *ii  •   i. 

lake>  mences  1.52  miles  from  the  shore.     It  will  consist 

chiefly  of  rock,  and,  as  it  is  submerged,  is  estimated 
at  the  price  for  rock  excavation  under  water.  The  material  excavated 
from  the  west  side  of  the  lake  can  be  wasted  where  it  will  form  jetties 
for  the  protection  of  this  entrance.  The  bottom  width  of  the  channel 
in  excavation  in  the  lake,  both  on  the  east  and  west  sides,  will  be  300 
feet. 

The  total  length  of  the  lake  division  is  70.51  miles,  and  the  estimated 
cost  is  $7,877,611. 

The  entrance  to  the  canal  from  Lake  Nicaragua 

^  Lake  Nicaragua  to  lock      .g  ^^  ^^  ^   ^.^  Qf   ^  ^^  of   ^  r[q 

Las  Lajas.  The  line  extends  in  a  southwesterly 
direction,  following  first  the  Las  Lajas,  which  it  crosses  four  times  in 
a  distance  of  H  miles,  then  following  the  general  course  of  a  small 
tributary,  called  the  Gruiscoyol,  to  the  continental  divide.  The  sur- 
face of  the  ground  from  the  lake  rises  gradually  until  the  divide  is 
reached  at  elevation  153,  a  distance  of  about  5  miles  from  the  lake 
shore.     The  highest  point  on  this  section  is  a  small  projecting  hill 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  133 

three-fourths  of  a  mile  east  of  the  divide,  at  elevation  156  on  the  center 
line. 

From  the  divide  the  line  follows  the  valley  of  the  Espinal  to  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  then  continues  in  the  valley  of  the  latter  to  the  Pacific. 
From  the  mouth  of  the  Espinal  to  Lock  No.  5  the  valley  of  the  Rio 
Grande  is  narrow  and  crooked,  with  hills  on  either  side  rising  to  eleva- 
tions of  150  feet  and  upward.  Here  the  line  passes  through  several 
spurs,  with  rather  deep  but  short  cuts.  The  most  important  feature 
of  this  section  is  the  cut  through  the  west  divide.  Its  maximum  depth 
on  the  center  line  of  the  canal  is  87  feet;  for  a  distance  of  about  3 
miles  the  average  cut  is  about  75  feet.  The  rock  is  of  all  degrees  of 
hardness  from  partially  disintegrated  sandstone  to  hard  trap.  Lock 
No.  5  is  located  in  a  hill  on  the  north  side  of  the  Rio  Grande  at  Buen 
Retiro,  and  will  have  an  excellent  rock  founda- 
tion. On  the  southside  of  the  lock  a  small  dam 
will  be  required  across  the  river  to  the  adjacent  hills  to  maintain  the 
summit  level.  This  dam  is  designed  to  be  of  earth  with  a  masonry 
core  wall  extending  to  rock.  The  lock  will  have  a  variable  lift  from 
22£  to  28i  feet,  depending  on  the  height  of  the  lake.  The  section  con- 
tains four  curves  with  radii  of  17,189,  5,730,  5,209,  and  5,056  feet, 
respectively.     Three  of  these  are  between  the  divide  and  the  lock. 

The  estimates  provide  for  diverting  the  Las  Lajas  into  the  lake  and 
for  receiving  basins  at  the  points  where  the  waters 
canal!*1"8  *  en  n  °  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Chocolata  enter  the 
canal.  These  consist  simply  of  enlargements  of 
the  river  channels  sufficient  to  pass  the  estimated  maximum  floods 
with  velocities  that  will  not  interfere  with  navigation.  At  the  head 
of  each  receiving  basin  there  will  be  an  overflow  weir  to  act  as  a  sand 
catcher.  Other  small  streams  that  are  crossed  will  be  taken  into  the 
canal,  but  they  will  be  relatively  unimportant,  and  are  provided  for 
in  the  estimates  only  in  the  item  of  contingencies.  A  ferry  will  be 
needed  for  the  highway  traffic  between  Rivas  and  San  Juan  del  Sur. 
The  canal  prism  will  be  almost  wholly  in  rock,  and  will  have  a  bottom 
width  of  150  feet,  with  vertical  sides. 

The  length  of  this  section  is  9.09  miles.     The 

Length  and  cost.  .  °  .     ' ,      , . 

estimated  cost,  including  approach  wall  to  lock, 
diversion  of  the  Las  Lajas,  and  receiving  basins  for  the  Rio  Grande 
and  Chocolata,  is  $19,765,957;  lock  No.  5,  including  excavation, 
$4,913,512;  dam  near  Buen  Retiro,  $125,591. 

The  valley  or  gorge  of  the  Rio  Grande  gradu- 

Lock  No.  5  to  lock  No.  6.  .  ,  .         ,  .      S        .  .  .  , 

ally  widens  in  this  section,  opening  into  the  so- 
called  Tola  Basin.  The  soil  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  is  a  light, 
sandy  loam,  readily  acted  upon  by  currents.  The  grade  of  the  canal 
is  established  so  low  that  the  prism  will  be  almost  wholly  in  exca- 


134  EEPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

vation,  and  the  embankments  will  not  be  heavy  and  can  easily  be  pro- 
tected. This  .section  contains  a  single  curve  of  4,i>Xv2  feet  radius. 
A  by-pass  in  lock  No.  5  will  provide  water  for  this  level.  A  small 
wasteway  will  discharge  surplus  waters  into  the  Rio  Grande.  The 
excavation  will  consist  mainly  of  sandstone  much  disintegrated  near 
the  surface,  but  less  so  farther  down. 

Lock  No.  6  is  located  in  a  small  hill  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Rio  Grande  about  one-half  mile 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Tola.  The  foundation  is  on  rock.  The 
lift  is  28i  feet. 

The  length  of  this  section  is  2.04  miles.      The 

Length  and  cost.  .  .-,-,. 

estimated    cost,    including    approach    walls    and 

wasteway,  is  $3,259,283;  lock  No.  6,  including  excavation,  $4,368,667. 

In  this  section  the  line  crosses  the  bed  of  the 

Lock  No.  (i  to  lock  No.  7.        "  . 

Rio  Grande  several  times,  and  short  embankments 
20  to  30  feet  in  height  will  be  required;  elsewhere  the  embankments 
will  be  unimportant,  the  grade  line  being  low,  as  in  the  preceding  sec- 
tion. This  section  contains  a  single  short  curve  of  5,056  feet  radius. 
The  excavation  will  be  mostly  in  sandy  earth,  except  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  lock  sites.  While  the  excavation  is  sandy,  it  contains  enough 
earthy  material  to  form  water-tight  embankments.       A  new  channel 

will  have  to  be  provided  for  the  Rio  Grande  for 

New    channel    for    Bio  i       ,1  ,•  j«    ,  rrn  •  -n  •         j_i 

Grande  needed.  nearly  the  entire  distance.       lhis  will  receive  the 

drainage  from  the  north  side  of  the  valley,  includ- 
ing that  of  the  Tola.  On  the  south  side  the  drainage  will  be  received 
into  the  abandoned  bed  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  thence  discharged  into 
the  canal.  A  wasteway  located  near  the  upper  end  of  the  section  will 
discharge  surplus  water  from  the  canal  into  the  new  channel  of  the 
river. 

Lock  No.  7  is  located  in  a  hill  at  the  site  for- 

Loek.  ini  t 

merly  proposed  tor  the  south  abutment  ot  the  La 
Flor  dam.  The  lift  will  be  2S-,  feet.  The  prism  of  the  canal  will  be 
mostly  in  sandy  silt  with  side  slopes  of  1  on  3. 

The  length  of  this  section  is  1.83  miles.     The 

Length  and  cost.  .  1  .... 

estimated  cost,  including  wasteway,  river  diver- 
sion, embankments,  and  approach  walls,  is  $2,485,890;  lock  No.  7, 
including  excavation,  $4,709,502. 

The  conditions  in  this  section  are  almost  exactly 

Lock  No.  7  to  lock  No.  8.  .  • 

the  same  as  in  the  preceding  one.  the  material 
consists  chiefly  of  light  sand  mixed  with  loam,  which  can  be  dredged 
by  machines  taken   through   lock  No.  8  after  the  latter  is  built.     It 

contains  two  short  curves  of  5,730  feet  radius.  A 
lock*     * ' W*    Way' m      sn);i"  wasteway  is   located  near  the  upper  end  of 

the  section  where  the  canal  is  entirely  in  excava- 
tion. It  will  not  have  a  rock  foundation,  and  will  be  merely  a 
depressed  section  of  canal  bank  with  protected  surface. 


KKl'OKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION". 


135 


Length  and  cost. 


Lock  No.  8,  which  connects  with  tide  water,  is  located  in  a  project- 
ing spur,  and  will  have  a  rock  foundation.  Its  lift  will  vary  with  the 
tide  from  2sl  feet  at  mean  low  water  to  20£  feet  at  mean  high  water. 
The  length  of  this  section  is  2.43  miles,  and  the 
estimated  cost,  including  approach  walls,  river 
diversion,  embankments,  and  waste  way,  is  ^1,1)05,076;  lock  No.  8, 
including  excavation,  14,920,899. 

This  includes  a  short  section  of  the  canal  proper 

Lock  No.  8  to  the  Pacific.  ,  ,._    .   ,  ,       .  ,  „    .,  .     ,  .   *.     r    „ 

and  an  artificial  harbor  at  Brito.  A  description  or 
this  harbor  is  given  elsewhere.  The  excavation  in  this  section  consists 
mostly  of  sand.  Some  rock  will  be  encountered  near  the  lock  site. 
The  entrance  to  the  harbor  will  be  straight  and  have  a  width  of  500 
feet  on  the  bottom. 

The  length  of  this  section  to  the  6-fathom  curve  in  the  Pacific  is  1.15 
miles.  The  prism,  except  near  the  lock,  will  have  side  slopes  of  1  on 
3.     The  estimated  cost  is  as  follows: 

Lock  No.  8  to  Brito  Harbor,  including  approach  wall  to 

lock $553,470 

Brito  Harbor  and  entrance,  including  jetty 1,  509,  470 

The  total  distance  from  Lake  Nicaragua  to  the  6-fathom  curve  in  the 
Pacific  is  17.34  miles. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  and  length  of  curvature  for 
the  entire  line: 


Number 

Radius. 

Length. 

Total  degrees  of 

of  curves. 

curve. 

Feel. 

Miles. 

O           1 

ii 

2 

17, 1*9 

1 .  53 

26    51 

10 

8 

11.  159 

6.80 

179    31 

50 

4 

8,  '■  9 1 

4.31 

151     10 

50 

1 

v .... 

1.43 

51    41 

30 

2 

7,81  1 

1.90 

73    28 

30 

1 

7.  759 

1.73 

67    16 

50 

5 

c;  -7.; 

4.64 

204    34 

40 

2 

5,  927 

2.40 

122    41 

20 

lii 

11.08 

584    47 

40 

2 

5,  289 

2.27 

129    45 

50 

1 

5,209 

1.15 

66    38 

30 

2 

5,056 

1.22 

73    17 

40 

1 

1,982 

.82 

49    49 

00 

3 

4,911 

.  75 

169    36 

00 

1 

4,297 

.63 

44    19 

50 

1 

4,175 

.81 

58    20 

40 

4 

4,045 

3.82 

285    25 

40 

56 

49.29 

2,339    50 

30 

There  are  two  curves  of  11,459  feet  radius  Slaving  a  combined  length 
of  1.89  miles  and  a  combined  angle  of  49°  58'  50"  located  in  deep  water 
in  Lake  Nicaragua,  which  for  obvious  reasons  are  not  included  in  the 
above  table. 

As  there  is  no  natural  harbor  at  either  end  of  the 
proposed  canal  artificial  harbors  will  have  to  be 
constructed.  This  lack  of  harbor  facilities  will  be 
seriously  felt  on  the  east  side  in  the  early  stages 


Harbors. 

Lack  of  harlior  facilities. 


136  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  the  work,  as  the  difficulties  and  expense  of  landing-  material  before 
the  harbor  can  be  constructed  are  great. 

A  fine  harbor  once  existed  at  Grey  Town,  with 

Grey  Town  Harbor.  »  •  »  1  • 

about  30  feet  of  water  at  the  anchorage  and  in  the 
entrance.     This  was  not  such  as  is  often  found  at  the  outlet  of  a  large 
river  like  the  San  Juan,  where  the  current  scours  an  entrance,  but 
rather  a  bight  or  protected  area  formed  on  the  lee  side  of  a  sand  spit 
which  was  itself  built  by  the  action  of  the  waves  and  sea  currents  act- 
ing under  conditions  which  favored  such  formation. 
Destruction  or  Grey  ToW„  A  study  of  the  various  maps  of  Grey  Town  from 
Harbor  caused  by  moving  the  earliest  to  the  latest  reveals,  it  is  believed,  the 
processes   by  which  natural  forces  acting  on  the 
movable  sands  composing  the  delta  of  the  San  Juan 
River  have  formed  successively  in  ages  past  harbors  which  were  after- 
wards converted  into  lagoons  or  lakes.     The  process  seems  still  to  be 
going  on,  and  Grey  Town  lagoon   is   the  latest  development.     Ibo, 
Barco,  Sucio,  and  Shepherds  lagoons  were  probably  formed  in  the 
same  way  and  by  the  same  agencies. 

There  is  a  large  area  of  low  flat  country  lying  to  the  eastward  of  a 

north  and  south  line  through  the  westerly  end  of  Grey  Town  Lagoon, 

which,  except  for  a  fringe  of  the  coast  and  the  vari- 

Region  unexplored.  r  .        °. 

ous  outlets  of  the  river,  is  practically  unexplored. 
What  there  is  in  this  region  can  not  be  stated  with  certainty,  but  it  is 
probable  that  there  are  other  lagoons  similar  to  those  just  enumerated, 
or  to  the  Parada  and  Agua  Dulce,  which  connect  with  the  Colorado 
branch  of  the  river. 

The  sand  composing  the  delta  of  the  San  Juan  is  volcanic,  like  that 
■now  brought  down  by  the  San  Carlos  and  Serapiqui,  which  take  their 

rise  in  the  mountains  of  Costa  Rica.  This  sand 
sa^Tuan  Kivt!  *°™  *     being  deposited  in  f  ront  of  the  mouth  of  the  river 

would  form,  if  it  were  not  acted  on  by  other  agen- 
cies, a  bar  approximating  more  or  less  the  form  of  a  crescent.  The 
winds  and  waves  of  the  sea,  however,  tend  to  give  it  an  irregular  shape, 
depending  on  the  direction  from  which  they  come,  while  the  currents 
of  the  river  tend  to  cut  out  the  channels.  As  the  sand  deposit  increases 
the  bar  rises  until  finally  the  outlet  of  the  river  is  in  part  cut  off,  and 
then  it  cuts  out  other  channels.  The  San  Juan  River  has  no  less  than 
three  outlets  at  the  present  time  and  perhaps  has  had  more.  Each 
outlet  carries  its  load  of  sediment,  and  each  has  doubtless  been  an 
active  agent  in  building  up  the  existing  delta.  This  delta  forms  a  low 
area  projecting  into  the  sea  from  the  general  coast  line  between  the 
Indio  and  the  Tortuquero,  some  miles  south  of  the  Colorado. 

There  are  some  old  maps  of  Grey  Town  Harbor,  which  have  appeared 
in  publications  from  time  to  time,  that  afford  data  of  more  or  less 
value  in  studying  the  operations  of  nature  that  converted  this  once 


REPORT    OF    THE    L.STHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  137 

excellent  harbor  into  a  lagoon.  The  absence  of  definite  common 
points  and  uncertainties  as  to  compass  bearing,  however,  render  it 
impossible  to  make  accurate  comparison  of  the  maps  of  earlier  date, 
but  they  contain  much  information  tending  to  throw  light  on  the  sub- 
ject under  consideration.  The  oldest  of  these  maps  is  that  bearing-  the 
title  "Puerto  y  Boca  del  Rio  de  San  Juan  de  Nicaragua,"  and  is  pub- 
lished in  Sullivan's  "Problem  of  interoceanic  communication  by  way 
of  the  American  Isthmus."  It  is  not  known  what  value  attaches  to 
this  map.  The  onty  authority  for  it  is  given  in  a  note.  The  name  of 
the  .surveyor  is  not  given,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  a  sketch  rather 
than  a  chart  from  an  instrumental  survey.  The  map  has  no  date,  but 
the  note  referred  to  would  indicate  that  it  was  about  1809.  The 
soundings  would  seem  to  be  fairly  correct  so  far  as  they  go,  but  they 
are  few  in  number  and  cover  only  a  limited  area  at  the  anchorage  and 
the  mouth  of  the  San  Juan.  There  are  no  offshore  soundings  shown. 
This  map  shows  a  sand  spit  that  had  formed  to  the  northeast  of  Grey 
Town,  connecting  with  the  mainland  and  extending  westerly,  covering 
an  area  of  deep  water  which  was  thus  protected  from  the  sea.  The 
westerly  end  is  bent  in  toward  the  shore,  giving  a  good  anchorage 
with  deep  water  under  its  lee.  The  depth  of  water  in  the  protected 
area  is  somewhat  greater  than  is  shown  on  later  maps,  and  this  tends 
to  verify  it,  as  a  greater  depth  would  naturally  be  expected  at  first. 
The  westerly  point  of  the  spit  was  at  that  time  almost  due  north  of  the 
mouth  of  the  river. 

The  next  map  in  order  of  date  is  that  derived  from  the  Peacock 
survey,  which  was  made  in  1832  by  G.  Peacock,  master  of  H.  B.  M. 
ship  Hyacintli.  This  map  having  been  made  by  an  officer  of  the  Brit- 
ish navy,  may  be  presumed  to  be  reasonably  accurate.  Besides  the 
soundings  in  the  harbor,  it  shows  soundings  off  the  coast  a  distance  of 
2  nautical  miles  and  more.  This  map,  as  published  in  the  work  of 
Felipe  Molina,  entitled  "Bosquejo  de  la  Republica  de  Costa  Rica,"  and 
republished  in  other  works,  shows  accretions  to 

Map  of  1832.  ,  ... 

the  spit  during  the  period  from  1832  to  1848.  It 
is  not  known  on  what  data  these  indicated  accretions  are  founded; 
neither  is  it  certain  whether  the  soundings  in  the  harbor  are  those  of 
1832  or  later.  One  would  naturally  suppose  that  they  belong  to  the 
earlier  date,  but  those  inside  the  spit  would  seem  to  indicate  the  con- 
trary. This  map  was  used  by  a  committee  of  the  National  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  making  a  report,  in  1806,  on  the  restoration  of  Grey 
Town  Harbor,  and  as  that  committee  was  composed  of  the  most  emi- 
nent men  in  their  respective  professions,  it  is  believed  that  the  map 
can  be  taken  as  essentially  correct. 

Subsequent  to  1848  frequent  surveys  were  made  by  officers  of  the 
British  navy  and  published  by  the  British  hydrographic  office.  The 
accretions  to  the  sand  spit  indicated  on  the  map  of  1832  are  probably 


138  EEPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

founded  on  similar  data.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  vital  importance,  how- 
ever, whether  this  be  so  or  not,  for  a  study  of  the  subsequent  surveys 
without  reference  to  these  leads  to  the  same  conclusions.  If  they  be 
correct,  they  enable  the  progress  of  the  sand  movement  to  be  traced 
from  an  earlier  date  than  otherwise  could  be  done.  These  early  sur- 
veys were  made  with  a  view  to  giving  information 
ureat  Britain "  r 'iir  s '  to  mariners  as  to  the  depth  of  the  water  at  the 
en  trance  to  and  within  the  harbor  of  Grey  town 
and  the  protection  afforded  at  the  anchorage.  They  do  not  contain  all 
the  information  desirable  in  studying  the  problem  of  the  restoration 
of  the  harbor,  but  they  show  unmistakably  how  the  harbor  was  origi- 
nally formed  and  subsequently  destroyed. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Indio  southward  a  distance  of  about  3i 
miles,  the  shore  line  now  has  a  direction  nearly  south-southeast. 
It  then  bends  to  the  eastward  and  follows  this  course  for  a  far- 
ther distance  of  about  4  miles,  when  it  curves  gradually  toward  the 
south,  and  after  passing  the  Tauro  outlet  it  follows  a  nearly  straight 
course  for  a  distance  of  more  than  40  miles.     If  a 

Trend  of  coast.  .  . 

straight  line  be  drawn  from  a  point  a  little  north 

of  the  mouth  of  the  Indio  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tortuquero,  about 
27  miles  south  of  the  Colorado,  it  would  pass  through  the  western 
edge  of  the  Ibo  Lagoon.  It  is  probable  that  this  was  once  the  general 
trend  of  the  coast.  The  area  to  the  eastward  is  low  and  sandy,  and 
has  in  all  probability  been  formed  from  the  more  recent  deposits  from 
the  San  Juan  River. 

The  various  outlets  of  this  river  lie  to  the  eastward  of  Greytown 
Lagoon  and  all  arc  sediment  bearing.     The  quantity  of  material  car- 
ried depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  amount  of  water  being  dis- 
charged.    When  the  river  is  swollen  the  currents 
Outlets  of  San  Juan.  . »  <.  • 

are  swift  and  the  amount  of  material  is  great. 
When  the  river  is  in  its  normal  condition  the  amount  is  not  so  great, 
though  it  is  seldom  small. 

This  sediment  being  deposited  from  the  various  outlets  of  the  river 
firsl  builds  up  a  bar  or  shoal;  as  the  accretions  continue,  some  is  pushed 
out  to  sea,  some  driven  shoreward,   and  some  to  the  right  or  left, 

according  to  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds 

Sedimentary  deposits.  .  . 

and  waves.      Ihe  material   m   suspension  may    be 

wafted  far  out  to  sea,  but  the  sand  which  is  moved  along  the  bottom. 
and  not  held  in  suspension,  is  deposited  near  the  outlet.  When  the 
accretions  are  sufficient  to  raise  the  shoal  above  sea  level  the  waxes 
drive  it  up  still  higher  and  the  wind  carries  some  of  it  still  farther 
inland.  In  this  way  the  sandy  deposit  widens  out  and  in  time  is  cov- 
ered by  a  vegetable  growth  that  protects  it.  In  a  moist,  warm  climate 
like  that  at  Greytown,  the  silt  or  loam  mixed  with  the  sand,  and  that 
derived  from  decaying  vegetable  matter,  will,  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  support  the  growth  of  a  forest. 


REPOBT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    commission.  139 

The  const  line  directly  in  front  of  Greytown  has  now  nearly  an  east 
and  west  direction;  the  waves  produced  by  the  northeast  trade  winds 
break  diagonally  on  the  shore.  Even  when  the  wind  is  from  the 
north  the  breakers  come  from  an  easterly  direction.  The  longest 
fetch  of  the  sea  is  nearly  due  east.  The  breakers  are  persistent  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  as  they  roll  in  on 

J'l,,.,ff,.,-tof,vavoa(-«on     ^    ^^    ^    ^    ^    ^.^    quantitjeg    of    s.md 

and  drive  it  westward  on  a  zigzag  course  that  is 

plainly  visible  to  an  observer  on  the  shore.     This  westerly  movement 

of  the  sand  first  formed  a  spit  or  hook,  behind  which  was  an  area  of 

comparatively  still  water.     This  area  is  the  incipient  harbor  found  on 

pi.  52.     It  is  there  shown  as  comparatively  small,  but  the  spit  rising 

above  the  level  of  the  sea  acts  like  a  breakwater  and  gives  good 

anchorage  behind  it. 

PL  54  shows  a  steady  movement  of  the  sand  spit  westward  and  a 

gradual  shoaling  of  the  harbor  up  to  and  including  the  year  1848. 

The  shoaling-  in  the  harbor  is  due  doubtless  to  the  lighter  deposits  from 

the  San  Juan  that  have  been  carried  down  the  stream  in  suspension 

and  deposited  where  the  water  has  become  comparatively  quiet  and  to 

the  light  sand  that  is  blown  into  the  harbor  by  the  winds.     The  later 

charts  show  the  progressive  movement  of  the  sand 
HoTement  of  Band  spit.  .  «.  • 

spit  until  tliat  of  1865  which  shows  that  the 
entrance  was  completely  closed.  It  has  remained  practically  closed 
ever  since.  On  one  occasion  an  opening  was  made  by  cutting  a  ditch 
across  the  spit  to  release  the  pent  up  waters  of  the  river  which  had 
risen  so  as  to  flood  the  town.  When  the  jetty  was  constructed  by  the 
Maritime  Canal  Company  in  1891,  an  opening  having  a  depth  of  about 
7  feet  formed  to  the  leeward  of  the  jetty  by  natural  forces.  In  both 
cases  the  opening  was  only  temporary.  The  outlet  by  way  of  Harbor 
Head  is  the  shorter  one  and  comparatively  little  water  from  the  river 
in  its  normal  stages  finds  its  way  to  the  Greytown  Lagoon,  but  when 
it  is  in  flood,  water  comes  into  the  lagoon  by  way  of  all  the  small 
channels  connecting  with  the  river.  At  such  time  the  amount  of 
water  may  be  sufficient  to  maintain  a  small  but  temporary  outlet. 

The  surveys  made  in  1898  and  1900  show  that  the  shore  line  at  a 
point  about  1  mile  eastward  of  the  jetty  built  by  the  Maritime  Canal 
Company  has  been  eroded  to  the  extent  of  1,200  feet  from  January, 
1898,  to  July,  1900.  During  the  same  period  the  shore  line  about 
1,200  feet  west  of  the  jetty  receded  700  feet.  There  was  no  erosion 
in  close  vicinity  to  the  old  jetty.  The  erosion  on  the  east  and  west 
sides,  however,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  normal  supply  of  sand 
from  the  eastward  had  been  reduced,  or  perhaps  temporarily  cut  off, 
or  that  a  change  had  taken  place  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing 
wind  and  waves.     A  change  in  the  direction  of  the  waves  that  impinge 


140  EEPOET    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

on  the  coast,  or  a  diminution  or  increase  of  the  sand  supply,  will 
modify  the  existing  conditions  and  may   tempo- 
Erosion  or  accretion  de-    rarQy  produce  abnormal  results.      The   resultant 

pendent   on    direction    of 

waves  ami  sand  supply.  movement,  however,  ot  the  sand  between  the  angle 
west  of  the  old  jetty  and  Harbor  Head  is  westward 
and  has  been  for  years.  This  is  attested  by  a  comparison  of  the  maps. 
What  it  is  eastward  of  Harbor  Head  is  more  a  matter  of  conjecture, 
as  few  of  the  maps  cover  that  region.  The  Commission,  when  it  was 
in  Nicaragua,  inspected  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  River  and  the  beach 
at  a  point  about  4  miles  to  the  northward.  At  the  latter  place  there 
was  no  evidence  of  recent  erosion  or  accretion.  The  shore  seemed  to 
be  fairly  permanent.  A  heavy  growth  of  timber  extended  almost  to 
high  water,  but  the  usual  evidence  of  recent  erosion,  such  as  stumps 
or  trees  standing  out  in  shoal  water,  was  lacking.  There  was  a  house 
not  far  from  the  shore  which  was  occupied,  and  the  occupants,  who 
had  been  living  there  several  years,  stated  that  the  seashore  had  not 
changed  materially  since  they  had  been  there.  At  the  time  of  the 
visit  the  wind  came  from  about  east-northeast  and  the  waves  broke 
nearly  normal  to  the  shore. 

One  of  the  marked  results  shown  by  a  compari- 

Reeutrant  angle.  ......  ,.  . 

son  ot  the  charts  is  the  hi  ling  ot  the  reentrant  angle 
of  the  shore  west  of  the  old  jetty.  This  doubtless  comes  in  greater 
part  from  the  eastward,  but  there  are  also  some  indications  that  a  part 
comes  from  the  northward  and  ma}r  possibly  be  contributed  by  the 
Indio.  An  examination  of  the  chart  of  1832  shows  that  a  considerable 
reentrant  angle  once  existed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  entrance  to  the  canal 
of  the  Maritime  Canal  Company.  The  later  surveys  show  that  this 
has  tilled  out  several  hundred  feet. 

From  a  comparison  of  the  chart  of  1832  with  the 

Apparent    recession     of      „  ,  •  ,  ,1      .    .1       j-    . 

8-fathom  curve.  more  recent  surveys,  it  appears  that  the  distance 

from  the  shore  line  to  the  8-fathom  curve,  meas- 
ured from  a  point  near  the  site  of  the  buildings  of  the  Maritime  Canal 
Company,  has  changed  considerably.  In  1832  the  distance  was  about 
13,000  feet,  while  now  it  is  only  about  9,000  feet.  This  indicates  that 
the  contour  must  have  moved  in  or  the  shore  line  moved  out,  or  that 
the  change  was  due  in  a  measure  to  both.  It  is  known  that  the  shore 
line  in  the  neighborhood  [referred  to  has  moved  out,  but  it  hardly 
seems  possible  that  it  could  have  moved  out  4,000  feet;  a  part  of  the 
difference  in  distance  may  be  accounted  for  by  errors  of  sounding. 
The  old  charts  do  not  record  fractional  parts  of  fathoms  beyond  the 
6-fathom  curve. 

There  has    been  an  apparent  recession   of  the 

Apparent    recession    ot      n   «    ,\  ,  L    ,    ,1       ji«  x     ,  ,, 

o-fathom  curve.  6-fathom  curve  also,  but  the  dinerence  between  the 

relative  distances  of  the  shore  line  and  that  curve 

are  not  so  great.     The  sand  that  forms  the  beach  extends  gradually  to 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  141 

about  the  7-fathom  curve,  beyond  which  soundings  show  mud.  There 
is  an  easterly  current  in  front  of  Grey  Town  out  in  the  deep  water, 
while  that  close  to  the  shore  is  westerly;  but  enough  is  not  known  of 
the  velocity  of  the  outer  current  on  which  to  base  an  expression  of 
opinion  as  to  its  effects  on  the  bottom.  The  seaward  advance  of  the 
shore  line  is  confirmed  by  the  existence  at  the  present  time  of  wrecks 
now  visible  nearly  buried  in  the  sand;  one  near  the  Maritime  Com- 
pany's hospital,  one  about  1,800  feet  northwest,  and  one  near  the  head- 
quarter buildings. 

While,  therefore,  we  may  not  be  in  possession  of  all  the  facts  touch- 
ing the  formation  and  subsequent  destruction  of  Grey  Town  Harbor, 
sufficient  is  known  to  indicate  unmistakably  that  the  harbor  was  first 
formed  by  the  westerly  drift  of  sand  which  formed 

ofH^rtOP"eSterl,drift  the  spit or  hook  shown  on  the  maPs  as  Punta  Arena 
or  Punta  Castillo,  and  that  by  the  gradual  exten- 
sion of  this  spit  westward  the  harbor  was  shut  in  from  the  sea  and 
thereby  destroyed.  If,  then,  the  westerly  drift  of  sand  can  be  stopped 
by  interposing  some  obstacle,  such  as  a  jetty  extending  into  the  sea, 
there  need  be  no  difficulty  in  keeping  open  a  channel  on  the  lee  side  of 
it  by  dredging.  This  method  of  improving  the  entrances  to  harbors 
is  one  in  common  use,  and  is  applied  notably  to  the  Mediterranean 
entrance  of  the  Suez  Canal,  which  is  a  similar  case  in  many  respects 
to  that  under  consideration. 

The  feasibility,  moreover,  of  constructing  a  harbor  at  Grey  Town 
has  been  practically  demonstrated  by  the  work  done  by  the  Maritime 
Canal  Company.  About  1,000  linear  feet  of  jetty  was  constructed  by 
that  company  at  a  place  a  short  distance  west  of  the  location  proposed 
by  this  Commission,  and  where  the  conditions  of  sand  movement  are 
identical.  This  was  quickly  followed  by  the  scouring  out  of  a  channel 
on  the  lee  side  to  a  depth  of  about  7  feet.  This  channel  was  made 
through  the  sand  spit  which  converted  Grey  Town  Harbor  into  a 
lagoon.  The  channel  was  increased  in  depth  to  12  or  14  feet  by 
dredging.     No  difficulty  would  have  been  experi- 

Constructlon  of  harbor  *?    .  °  .  ,   .        ,  ,.,,  n    • 

feasible.  enced  in  deepening  this  channel  still  more  and  in 

maintaining  the  increased  depth  by  the  further 
extension  of  the  jetty  seaward  aided  by  dredging  and  the  possible 
construction  of  another  jetty  on  the  west  side. 

The  harbor  which  this  Commission  proposes  at  Grey  Town  will  have  a 
length  of  2,500  feet  and  a  width  of  500  feet,  widened  at  the  inner  end  to 
800  feet  in  order  to  provide  a  turning  basin.  The  depth  throughout 
the  harbor  and  entrance  will  be  35  feet.  The  entrance  will  be  located 
about  one  mile  east  of  the  old  jetty  of  the  Maritime  Canal  Company. 
A  jetty  is  proposed  on  the  east  side  of  the  entrance, 
having  a  direction  a  little  west  of  north.  It  is  to 
be  built  of  loose  stone  of  irregular  shape  and  size,  resting  on  a  suitable 


142  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

foundation,  the  hearting  of  the  jetty  to  be  composed  of  small  stone 
intermixed  with  large  so  as  to  form  a  compact  mass,  and  this  to  be 
covered  bjT  stone  not  less  than  10  to  15  tons  in  weight  irregularly 
deposited  to  break  the  force  of  the  waves.  It  is  confidently  expected 
that  the  partial  construction  of  the  east  jetty  will  be  followed  by  the 
scouring  out  of  a  channel  of  moderate  depth  on  the  lee  side  of  it,  as 
was  the  case  when  the  Maritime  Canal  Company's  jetty  was  con- 
structed; but  as  it  is  not  expected  that  the  depth  will  be  sufficient  for 
navigation,  dredging  will  be  required  to  obtain  the  desired  depth. 
The  east  jetty  should  be  extended  to  the  6-fathom  curve.  It  is  believed 
that  a  second  jetty  will  be  necessary  on  the  west  side  to  catch  the  sand 
that  may  at  certain  times  come  from  the  westward.  It  will  be  shorter 
than  the  one  on  the  east  side  and  its  cost  is  included  in  the  estimates. 
The  jetties  are  to  be  built  not  less  than  6  feet  above  high  water  with  a 
width  on  top  of  20  feet,  and,  for  purposes  of  estimate,  side  slopes  of 
1  on  2  and  2  on  3  have  been  assumed. 

After   a    navigable    entrance    has   been    made, 

dredging  will  be  required  for  its  maintenance, 
and  probably  some  extension  of  the  jetties  may  in  time  be  needed. 
The  cost  of  maintenance  is  not  susceptible  of  accurate  determination, 
as  it  is  impossible  to  predict  how  much  sand  will  accumulate  on  the 
east  side  of  the  jetty  or  pass  around  it  into  the  dredged  channel. 
Some  have  estimated  the  total  sand  drift  along  the  shore  at  750,000 
cubic  yards  per  annum,  but  reliable  data  for  an  estimate  are  not 
available.  It  is  believed  that  this  westward  drift  is  diminishing  and 
may  in  time  become  quite  small.  A  dredge  could  be  worked  on  the 
east  side  of  the  jetty  to  remove  the  sand  that  will  accumulate  there, 

but  much  time  would  be  lost  on  account  of  the 

Maintenance  of  harbor.  .       .  .  .  - 

rough  seas.  A  better  method  of  operation  would 
be  that  practiced  at  the  Mediterranean  entrance  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
where  the  shore  end  of  the  jetty  is  kept  low  for  some  distance  out,  so 
that  the  sand  is  washed  over  it  by  the  waves  and  is  easily  removed  by 
a  dredge  working  in  the  comparatively  quiet  water  under  its  lee. 
The  conditions  in  the  two  cases  are  very  similar.  The  jetty  is  given  a 
direction  a  little  west  of  north,  the  purpose  being  to  provide  an  area 
in  which  this  sand  may  be  allowed  to  accumulate. 

It  is  estimated   thai    about   two  years  will    be 
is^t of'naierl1  t0  S,',Ur<'    required  to  make  the  necessary  preparations  and 

to  construct  an  entrance  and  working  harbor  at 
Gre}r  Town  having  a  depth  of  18  feet,  which  is  regarded  as  the  least 
that  would  afford  reasonable  facilities  for  the  landing  of  material 
needed  to  construct  the  canal.  The  prompt  construction  of  this 
entrance  is  therefore  of  the  utmost  importance. 

The  estimated  cost  of  constructing  a  harbor, 

Coal  of  construeUon  and        hj    ,    {      {    fc    ft  <     f  ,,„,  j(.t|-         [g $2,198,860, 

maintenance.  ■'  '         '         ' 

and  this  sum  is  included  in  the  total  estimated  cost 


EEPOET    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CaNAt.   COMMISSION.  143 

of  the  canal  as  given.  The  cost  of  maintenance  is  estimated  at  $100,000 
annually,  which  includes  everything  needful  to  maintain  a  depth  of 
35  feet  in  the  harbor  and  entrance. 

The  Rio  Grande  empties  into  the  Pacific  Ocean 

llrlto  Harbor.  .  L 

at  Brito,  close  under  the  rocky  headland  of  that 

name.     At  low  water  in  the  dry  season  there  is  about  3  feet  depth  at 

the  entrance,  but  as  the  tide  rises  and  falls  from 

or  Rio  ttrande*.  *  ** m0Uth  ^  to  10  ^eet  tne  depth  is  much  increased  at  the 
high  stage. 
The  entrance  to  the  canal  will  be  through  a  low  sandy  beach  and  a 
harbor  excavated  in  a  swamp  extending  a  considerable  distance  inland. 
Little  is  known  of  the  physical  changes  that  have  taken  place  on  this 
part  of  the  coast,  but  the  indications  are  that  it  is  much  more  perma- 
nent in  character  than  the  coast  near  the  eastern 

How  harbor  can  be  con-  ,  T)    .,        TT       j     »  ,.  ... 

strilH(>(1  entrance.     Brito  Head  forms  a  projecting  jetty 

on  the  northerly  side.  Much  of  the  coast  in  this 
vicinity  is  of  a  rocky  character,  sand  being  found  in  the  indentations. 
As  the  Rio  Grande  and  other  rivers  which  discharge  into  the  Pacific 
along  this  part  of  the  coast  drain  only  limited  areas,  the  amount  of 
sediment  brought  down  by  them  is  insignificant.  Another  favorable 
feature  is  that  the  winds  blow  offshore  almost  invariably.  The  waves 
break  normally  on  the  beach  and  have  little  tendency  to  drive  the 
sand  along  the  coast  in  either  direction.  The  depth  of  water  offshore 
increases  rapidly,  the  10-fathom  curve  being  found  at  about  2,200  feet 
from  low-water  mark.  The  entrance  to  the  harbor  will  be  500  feet 
wide,  protected  by  a  single  jetty  on  the  southeasterly  side.  The  har- 
bor itself  will  be  2,200  feet  long  and  800  feet  wide.  From  the  easterly 
end  of  the  harbor  this  widtli  is  narrowed  gradually  to  the  approach  to 
lock  No.  8.  The  jetty  will  have  a  southwesterly  direction  and  will 
reach  the  6-fathom  curve  at  a  distance  of  1,200  feet  from  the  shore 
line.  The  difficulties  of  landing  material  on  this  side  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  work  before  a  harbor  can  be  constructed  are  less  than 
at  Grey  Town.  The  sea  is  comparatively  smooth  most  of  the  time. 
Material  for  construction  purposes  could  be  landed  on  a  pier  reaching 
to  deep  water,  similar  to  those  on  the  coast  of  California,  or  a  tempo- 
rary entrance  to  the  Rio  Grande  could  be  made  within  a  short  time 
and  at  comparatively  little  cost. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  harbor,  including  the 

Cost  of  construction  and  -.  .       . .  .    , ,  ,     ,  , 

maintenance.  entrance  and  protecting  ]etty,  as  stated  elsewhere, 

is  $1,509,470.  The  annual  cost  of  maintenance  is 
estimated  at  $50,000. 

The  summit  level  of  the  canal  is  the  surface  of 

Regulation    of   level  of      ,\  ,         .       ,,       ,    .  .     ,  ,.       n  . 

Lake  .Nicaragua.  tne  water  in  the  lake.     A  dam  across  the  ban  Juan 

River   at   Conchuda,    52.9   miles  from   the   lake, 

extends  the  summit  level  to  that  point.     In  other  words,  if  a  dam  be 


144  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

built  at  the  Conchuda  site  an  arm  of  the  lake  will  reach  to  it,  carrying 
the  lake  level  during  a  period  of  no  discharge  to  the  same  point.  The 
canal  will  leave  this  arm  of  the  lake  at  a  point  8.3  miles  up  stream 

from  the  dam.  These  arc  the  general  conditions 
iem°n     °n8  °     ie  Pr°"    which  must  be  preserved,  and  the  problem  of  the 

regulation  of  the  lake  level  involves  the  control  of 
the  latter  within  such  limits,  more  or  less  exact,  as  will  never  permit 
the  navigable  depth  of  the  summit  level  to  be  anywhere  less  than  35 
feet  on  the  one  hand,  nor  permit  the  lake  to  rise  materially  beyond  a 
determinate  elevation  on  the  other.  This  regulation  can  be  accom- 
plished by  the  construction  of  dams  across  the  Rio  Grande  west  of  the 
lake  and  across  the  San  Juan  on  the  east  side,  both  being  designed 
with  suitable  waste  ways  for  the  discharge  of  surplus  water,  or  all  the 
surplus  water  ma}'  be  wasted  through  the  San  Juan.  As  wasteweirs 
at  or  near  the  Conchuda  dam  may  be  given  sufficient  capacity  to  dis- 
charge all  the  wastage,  and  as  the  latter  may  readily  be  discharged 
through  the  lower  San  Juan,  the  entire  regulation  works  are  designed 
to  be  located  at  or  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Conchuda  dam. 

Obviously,  after  any  given  dry  season  has  begun, 
Maximum  and  minimum     wjtn  jj^g  fafce  surface  no  higher  than  the  maximum 

elevations  not  precisely  de-  .     . 

terminable.  permitted  elevation,  only  the  remaining   surplus 

run-off,  if  there  be  an}',  will  be  allowed  to  escape 
over  the  dam  or  wasteway,  the  lake  acting  as  a  reservoir  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  hold  available  at  least  all  the  water  that  may  be  needed  for 
navigation  until  the  beginning  of  the  next  season.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  wet  season  must  be  utilized  in  restoring  the  depleted  lake,  but  if 
the  amount  of  rainfall  during  that  season  is  more  than  sufficient  to 
raise  the  lake  surface  above  the  desired  maximum  level,  the  surplus 
inflow  must  be  allowed  to  waste  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  prevent  the 
lake  rising  high  enough  to  produce  serious  inconvenience  or  damage. 
The  precise  minimum  elevation  of  the  surface  of  the  depleted  lake,  and 
the  maximum  height  to  which  the  water  in  the  lake  may  be  allowed  to 
rise,  may  not  be  determinable,  but  it  is  not  difficult  to  prescribe  such 
a  control  of  the  lake  surface  by  available  means  as  to  fix  those  limits 
near  enough  for  the  certain  and  safe  operation  of  the  canal  or  for  the 
preservation  of  the  usual  industrial  operations  about  the  shores  of  the 
lake. 

The  storing  of  a  sufficient  supply  to  meet  the  demands  of  dry  seasons 
is  a  simple  matter  of  computation  of  reservoir  capacity,  and  can  readily 
be  prescribed.  The  determination  of  the  maximum  elevation  of  the 
water  surface  to  be  permitted  in  the  lake  involves 
J^15  CBpacM*  of  the  discharging  capacity  of  the  canalized  San  Juan 
River  from  Fort  San  Carlos  to  the  Conchuda  dam 
after  it  has  become  practically  an  arm  of  the  lake.     The  iirst  part  of 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  145 

the  problem  will,  therefore,  consist  of  the  determination  of  the  dis- 
charging capacity  of  the  San  Juan  River  for  52.88  miles  of  its  length 
from  the  lake  to  the  Conchuda  dam,  corresponding  to  various  eleva- 
tions of  the  lake  surface. 

The  total  available  length  of  the  wasteweir  or  dam  must  be  such 
as  to  give  the  maximum  discharge  with  a  head  on  the  crest  of  the 
weir  that  shall  not  in  general  trench  upon  the  navigable  depth  of  35 
feet  in  the  summit  level  of  the  canal.  The  minimum  elevation  of  that 
summit  level  has  been  tixed  at  104  feet  above  the  sea  level.  It  will 
be  necessary,  therefore,  so  to  proportion  ftie  regulating  facilities  at 
the  dam  as  to  attain  the  maximum  discharge  of  the  canalized  river 
with  an  elevation  of  water  surface  at  the  same  point  of  104  feet. 
Evidently  the  maximum  discharge  will  be  required  when  heavy  rain- 
falls cause  the  lake  to  be  at  or  near  its  maximum  elevation;  or  it  may 
be  desirable  to  determine  the  discharge  of  the  canalized  river  with 
the  lake  surface  at  almost  any  elevation  between  the  minimum  and  the 
maximum,  while  the  elevation  of  the  water  surface  at  the  dam  has  its 
minimum  value  of  104  feet.  It  ma}'  therefore  be  necessary  to  know 
not  onlv  the  discharge  of  the  lake  at  an}7  elevation 

Discharge  of  lake  at  any      ^^  ^  eleyation  of  8urface  at  the  dam  above 

given  stage.  J 

the  minimum,  but  also  what  will  be  of  greater 
practical  consequence — the  discharge  of  the  lake  at  an}7  given  stage 
with  prescribed  elevations  of  the  water  surface  at  the  dam. 

This  part  of  the  investigation  has  been  made  by  finding  the  contin- 
uous slopes  of  water  surface  from  the  lake  to  the  dam,  corresponding 
to  discharges  of  20,000,  30.000,  40,000,  50,000,  60,000,  and  70,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  for  each  elevation  of  the  lake 
slopes  of  canalized  river    8urface  104,  106,  108,  110,  and  112.     These  slopes 

corresponding  to  various  •/•«»»  t      tt  ,•  i        • 

discharges.  are  shown  in  fig.  3  of  Appendix  H.     After  having 

determined  these  slopes,  the  curves  shown  on  the 
right-hand  side  of  tig.  3  will  give  the  varying  discharges  for  a  given 
elevation  of  lake  surface  and  corresponding  to  different  elevations  of 
the  water  surface  at  the  Conchuda  dam.  The  curves  shown  in  rig.  4  of 
Appendix  H  are  then  at  once  so  drawn  as  to  exhibit  the  discharge  for 
a  given  elevation  of  water  surface  at  the  dam  with  any  elevation  of 
the  lake  surface.  These  results  afford  all  the  information  regarding 
the  discharge  of  the  canalized  river  required  for  the  complete  treat- 
ment of  the  regulation  of  the  lake  surface. 

Obviously,  at  the  end  of  the  dry  season  the  gates  at  the  dam  will 
always  be  found  closed,  and  there  will  be  no  water  escaping  from  the 
lake  except  by  evaporation  and  to  supply  the  needs  for  canal  uses. 
It  is  equally  evident  that  the  gates  will  also  remain  closed,  so  as 
to  permit  no  wastage  during  the  early  part  of  the  wet  season, 
starting    from    its    beginning.      As   the  wet    season    proceeds,    the 

S  D—  57-1— Vol  7 10 


146  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

surface  of  the  lake  will  rise  toward  and  generally  quite  to  its  maximum 
elevation,  and  then  the  operation  of  wasting  over 

Regulation  of  gates.  .'.,-,  r™  • 

the  weirs  will  commence,  lhe  time  of  beginning 
of  this  wastage  will  depend  upon  the  amount  and  distribution  of  the 
rainfall  during  the  wet  period.  Indeed,  no  wastage  whatever  would 
be  permitted  during-  such  a  low  water  wet  season  as  that  of  1890.  The 
rainfall  from  the  entire  drainage  basin  would  be  impounded  in  the 
lake,  and  it  would  then  fall  short  of  restoring  the  depletion  resulting 
from  evaporation  and  requirements  of  the  canal.  On  the  other  hand, 
during  such  a  wet  season  as  that  of  1897,  wastage  would  begin  at  an 
early  date.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  neither  the  rate  nor  the  law 
of  the  rise  of  water  surface  in  the  lake  ran  be  predicted.  There  may 
be  years  when  no  wastage  will  be  permitted,  but  generally  consider- 
able wastage  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  prevent  the  lake  rising- 
above  the  permissible  stage. 

An  examination  of  the  rainfall  statistics  and  diagrams  furnished  in 
the  report  of  Mr.  Arthur  P.  Davis,  hydrographer  to  the  Commission, 
and  found  in  Appendix  I.  shows,  as  would  be  anticipated,  that  even  a 
high  monthly  rainfall  in  the  early  part  of  the  wet  season  falling  on 
parched  ground  will  have  a  comparatively  small  effect  upon  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  lake  surface.  The  same  amount  of 
Jreclpltatlonlnwetsea-     precipitiltion>   on   the   othor   h;lmj,  falling   later   in 

the  wet  season,  when  the1  ground  is  saturated,  has 
a  much  more  marked  effect  upon  the  elevation  of  the  lake  surface,  both 
in  rapidity  and  amount. 

A  careful  study  of  the  results  of  Mr.  Davis's  observations  shows  thai 
the  maximum  rate  of  rise  of  the  lake  during  the  three  years.  L898  (<> 
1900.  inclusive,  is  19.5  inches  in  twenty-two  days.  This  took  place 
between  the  2d  and  21th  of  October,  in  the  year  1900.  The  total 
amount  of  rainfall  at  Granada  in  October  of  that  year  was  16.7  inches. 
The  total  rise  of  the  lake  for  the  entire  month  of  October  was  prac- 
tically 21  inches.  In  the  month  of  June.  L897,  a  year  of  maximum 
rainfall,  the  precipitation  at  Granada  was  31  inches.  Unfortunately, 
no  observations  on  lake  elevation  were  made  during  the  latter  year, 
and  hence  the  corresponding  movements  of  the  lake  surface  can  not  be 
given.  It  is  most  important  to  observe,  in  connection  with  this  matter 
of  lake  regulation,  that  the  effect  of  a  heavy  rainfall  is  not  felt  im- 
mediately, except  for  that  portion  of  the  precipitation  which  falls 
directly  upon  tin1  lake  surface.  While  no  precise  statement  can  be 
made  as  to  the  time  which  elapses  between  the  beginning  of  a  month's 
heavy  rainfall  and  the  resulting  material  effect  upon  the  elevation  of 
lake  surface,  due  to  run-off,  it  would  appear  from  the  consideration  of 
the  data  available  to  the  Commission  that  from  two  to  three  weeks 

may  be  taken  for  that  purpose.  This  is  an  im- 
imme<ii1,itfer,lnfa11  "ot  f,U    portant  feature  in  the  problem  of  lake  regulation, 

because  it  is  essentially  a  warning  given  from  two 


REPOltT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  147 

to  three  weeks  in  advance  of  a  considerable  rise  in  the  elevation  of  the 
lake  surface  This  period  may  consequently  be  utilized  for  the  maxi- 
mum discharge  over  the  waste  weir,  if  deemed  advisable,  in  anticipa- 
tion of  the  ultimate  effects  of  a  heavy  rainfall. 

During  the  early  portion  of  a  wet  season,  therefore,  while  the  gates 

are  closed,  the  lake  will  he  permitted  to  rise  until  it  reaches  nearly  its 

maximum  surface  elevation.     As  an  illustration,  this  may  occur  during 

the  month  of  August  or  September.     The  rainfall  records  show  that 

generally  there  may  be  expected  a  relatively  heavy 

October  rainfalls.  °    .  "i       .  "  l  '  * 

rainfall  during  the  month  ot  October,  lhat  month 
would  be  approached,  then,  with  the  lake  surface  elevation  at  perhaps 
109. 5, .leaving  0.5  foot  margin  below  the  desired  maximum  of  110. 
If  but  a  small  rainfall  should  occur  during  October  and  November, 
the  waste  gates  might  remain  closed,  impounding,  if  necessary,  all  the 
precipitation,  and  thus  reaching  a  full  lake.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
October  should  prove  to  yield  a  heavy  rainfall,  as  is  frequent,  the 
maximum  rate  of  wastage  could  be  at  once  afforded  at  the  beginning 
of  the  month,  or  as  near  that  time  as  might  be  deemed  advisable. 

The  discussion  of  this  part  of  the  general  problem  of  lake  regulation 
must  necessarily  be  involved  in  some  doubt  until  more  data  concerning 
concurrent  heav}^  rainfalls  and  variations  of  the  elevation  of  the  lake 
surface  are  available.  With  the  exception  of  the  year  1897,  the  year 
1900  afforded  the  greatest  total  annual  rainfall  during  the  fifteen  years 
from  the  beginning  of  1886  to  the  end  of  1900.    Fortunately,  during  the 

latter  year   observations  of   the  lake  level  were 

Satisfactory  control.  '  . 

taken,  as  well  as  rainfall  records  at  Oranada  and 
other  points.  Furthermore,  there  was  a  rather  heav}T  rainfall,  16.7 
inches,  during  the  month  of  October,  with  more  precipitation  than  usual 
during  the  four  months  preceding  October.  From  October  2,  1900,  to 
October  24,  a  period  of  twenty-two  days,  the  elevation  of  the  lake 
increased  from  105.7  to  107.32  feet,  giving  an  actual  rise  of  the  lake 
surface  of  1.62  feet.  This  was  a  net  rise  in  excess  of  the  evaporation 
and  outflow  through  the  San  Juan  River.  According  to  Mr.  Davis's 
observations  at  Fort  San  Carlos,  as  shown  in  his  rating  table  in  Appen- 
dix I,  the  discharge  out  of  the  lake  at  Fort  San  Carlos  on  the  first  day 
mentioned  was  21,815  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  on  the  latter  date, 
October  24,  29,555  cubic  feet  per  second,  giving  an  average  discharge 
per  second  out  from  the  lake  during  the  twenty-two  days  under  con- 
sideration of-  25,685  cubic  feet  per  second;  or,  again,  a  total  outflow 
for  the  twent}-two  days  of  48,822,048,000  cubic  feet.  The  total  area 
of  the  lake  surface  is  82,938,240,000  square  feet.  This  latter  area 
multiplied  by  1.62  feet  gives  a  total  storage  in  the  lake,  during  the 
period  under  consideration,  of  134,359,948,800  cubic  feet,  which,  added 
to  the  above  determined  outflow,  gives  a  total  of  183,181,996,800  cubic 
feet  as  the  total  supply  to  the  lake  during  the  twenty-two  day  period 


148  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

in  excess  of  evaporation.  While  this  total  quantity  of  water  would 
be  flowing-  into  the  lake,  were  the  dam  and  waste  way  in  operation  at 
Conchuda  in  connection  with  the  canalized  river,  a  maximum  wastage 
could  be  afforded  of  about  61,600  cubic  feet  per  second,  that  being  the 
average  discharge  over  the  waste  way  for  the  lake  surface  elevation  at 
109.75,  with  the  water  surface  at  the  dam  at  104.  That  rate  of  waste 
for  twenty-two  days  would  give  a  total  outflow  of  117,089,280,000 
cubic  feet.  The  difference  between  this  amount  of  outflow  and  the 
total  amount  of  supply,  in  excess  of  evaporation  given  above,  is 
66,092,716,800  cubic  feet,  which,  divided  by  the  area  of  the  lake  in 
square  feet,  as  stated  above,  will  give  0.797  foot.  In  other  words, 
under  the  conditions  named,  in  spite  of  the  maximum  outflow  over 
the  waste  weir,  the  surface  of  the  lake  would  rise  practically  0.8  foot, 
or  9.6  inches;  or,  finally,  3.6  inches  over  the  maximum  elevation  110 
feet  desired.  This  result  may  be  considered  essentially  a  satisfactory 
control  or  regulation  of  the  lake  surface. 

During  the  first  thirty  da}^s  of  the  same  month  of  October,  1900,  the 
surface  of  the  lake  actually  rose  1.96  feet,  which,  for  the  purposes  of 
this  computation,  will  be  taken  as  2  feet.  The  results  will,  therefore, 
be  slightly  in  error  on  the  safe  side.  The  rating  table  already  used 
for  the  discharge  of  the  San  Juan  River  at  Fort  San  Carlos  shows 
that  the  average  discharge  during  that  month  of  October  was  25,200 
cubic  feet  per  second.  Hence,  during  that  month,  except  the  last  day, 
the  total  outflow  through  the  river  was  65. 318, 400,000  cubic  feet.  To 
this  must  be  added  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  the  volume  of  the  area 
of  the  lake  surface,  multiplied  by  2,  since  the  increase  in  elevation 
was  2  feet.  As  the  lake  area  in  square  feet  is  82,938,240,000,  the  total 
volume  of  outflow  through  the  river,  added  to  the  actual  storage  in 
the  lake,  all  in  excess  of  evaporation,  will  be  231,194,880,000  cubic 
feet.  It  will  be  essentially  correct  to  take  the  discharge  of  the  canal- 
ized river,  available  for  relieving  this  supply  to  the  lake,  as  that  which 
exists  with  the  lake  surface  at  110,  and  the  surface  of  the  water  at  the 
dam  at  104.  That  discharge  is  63,200  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  a  total 
of  163,814,400,000  cubic  feet.  This  last  volume  of  wasteage,  deducted 
from  the  sum  of  the  thirty  days'  outflow  of  the  natural  river  added  to 
the  2  feet  of  storage,  gives  a  volume  remaining  in  the  lake  in  its  regu- 
lated condition  of  67,380,480,000  cubic  feet,  which,  divided  by  the  area 
of  the  lake  surface  in  square  feet,  gives  a  net  rise  of  0.813  foot,  or 
practically  10  inches;  or,  finally,  a  lake  surface  4  inches  above  the 
maximum  limit  desired.  This  also  may  be  considered  a  satisfactory 
regulation  of  the  lake.  Any  small  excess  of  net  storage  in  the  lake  at 
the  end  of  October  above  that  which  might  be  deemed  desirable, 
either  in  the  two  preceding  or  other  cases,  could  be  quickly  run  out 
after  the  end  of  the  month  by  making  use  of  the  maximum  discharge 
of  the  canalized  river  for  a  short  time  only. 


REPORT    OF    THE    [STHMIAN    <  ANAL    COMMISSION.  149 

The  preceding  results  obviously  can  not  be  considered  finally  con- 
clusive as  to  what  may  happen  in  regulating  the  lake  in  the  manner 

desired,  for  the  reason  that  a  larger  monthly  ruin- 
liSSSSS  fal1  <*»  th»fc  corresponding  to  16.7  inches  at 
fluently  extended.  Granada  may  occur  in  October  of  any  year,  or  in 

any  other  month  following  preceding  rainy  months 
which  have  left  the  ground  in  a  saturated  condition.  Concurrent  rain- 
fall and  lake  stage  records  are  not  sufficiently  extended  to  afford  a 
demonstrative  treatment  of  this  part  of  the  question. 

The  largest  monthly  rainfall  by  far  recorded  at  Granada  is  31  inches 
for  the  month  of  June,  1897,  the  wettest  year  in  all  the  rainfall  records 

available  for  the  lake  basin.     It  has  alreadv  been 

Maximum  rainfall  antic-         ■,  i    -i      .        i  •     <»   n  ,   „         . 

ipated.  observed  that  a  heavy  rainfall  so  soon  following 

the  dry  season  will  in  general  produce  a  less  varia- 
tion in  the  elevation  of  the  lake  surface  than  if  that  monthly  amount 
should  fall  at  a  time  approaching  the  end  of  the  wet  season,  as  in  the 
month  of  October.  Since,  however,  that  amount  of  rain  has  fallen  in 
one  month,  it  should  be  taken  as  a  possible  precipitation  for  the  month 
of  October.  In  that  case,  if  the  ground  were  saturated  to  the  same 
extent  as  at  the  beginning  of  October  of  1897,  a  comparison  may  be 
made  with  the  1897  conditions  in  order  to  determine  what  would  hap- 
pen under  such  phenomenally  great  precipitation.  It  might  be  inferred 
at  first  sight  that  the  amount  of  inflow  from  the  basin  to  the  lake  under 
such  conditions  would  be  proportionate  to  the  total  monthly  precipi- 
tation. Although  this  is  not  far  wrong,  it  is  not  quite  correct.  A 
certain  minimum  amount  of  rainfall,  possibly  li  inches  per  month, 
would  be  held  by  the  earth  and  would  produce  no  inflow  at  all.  Again, 
in  such  a  tropical  country  as  that  of  Nicaragua,  there  is  a  sensible 
evaporation  from  the  earth's  surface  during  a  month,  although  its 
amount  is  unknown.  If  this  latter  quantity  be  neglected,  and  if  1£ 
inches  be  deducted  from  the  monthly  rainfall,  in  order  to  determine  a 
suitable  ratio  for  the  inflow,  that  amount  should  be  deducted  from  the 
16.7  for  October,  1900,  leaving  15.2,  and  from  the  31  inches  of  1900, 
leaving  29.5  inches.  The  latter  divided  by  the  former  will  yield  a 
ratio  by  which  the  total  inflow  into  the  lake  for  1897  should  be  multi- 
plied, in  order  to  obtain  the  inflow  which  would  have  resulted  from  31 
inches  of  rainfall  at  Granada  for  the  month  of  October,  1897,  under 
the  assumed  conditions.     This  ratio  is  29.5-^15.2  =  1.94. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  total  supply  to  the 

Rise   due  to  maximum      i    i        •  ,.  , .  i       .  .  i  ,,        , 

rainfaiU  lake  in  excess  of  evaporation  during  the  month  of 

October,  1900,  was  231,194,800,000  cubic  feet.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  lake  for  that 
month  may  be  taken  at  5  inches  in  depth.  The  amount  of  discharge 
through  the  San  Juan  River  in  its  natural  condition  has  also  been  shown 
to  be  65,318,400,000  cubic   feet,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  depth  of 


150  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

0.788  foot  over  the  lake  surface.     The  elements  of  the  total  supply  for 
October,  1900,  are  therefore  as  follows: 

Evaporation 5"  =  0.  41667  feet 

Rise  of  lake  surface 21"  =  2  feet 

Discharge  of  natural  river 9. 156"  =  0.  788      feet 

Total  supply 3.  20167  feet 

Less  the  rainfall  on  lake  surface : 16.  7"  =  1.  39167  feet 

Totalinflow 1.813     feet 

This  depth  of  1.813  feet  is  to  be  multiplied  by  1.91  to  obtain  the 
corresponding  depth  of  total  inflow  (including-  that  to  be  evaporated) 
for  the  assumed  October;  and  to  that  result  must  be  added  the  31 
inches  of  precipitation  which  would  fall  directly  on  the  lake  surface. 
Finally,  from  the  quantity  thus  derived  must  be  subtracted  5  inches 
or  0.41667  feet  for  evaporation.  The  statement  will,  therefore,  stand 
as  follows: 

Feet. 
1.813X1.91=3.51722 
Rainfall  on  lake  surface —2.  58333 

Total  supply 6.10055 

Less  evaporation 11667 

Total  rise  of  lake,  all  water  impounded 5.  68388 

Discharge  of  canalized  river  for  thirty  days  at  the  rate  of 
68,000  cubic  feet  per  second  reduced  to  uniform  depth 
over  lake  surface =  2. 125 

Actual  rise  of  surface  in  thirty  days =3.  559 

The  average  rate  of  discharge  of  the  canalized  river  is  taken  at 
68,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  as  that  corresponds  closely  to  the  mean 
stage  of  the  lake  during  the  assumed  October. 

The  thirty-day  rise  of  3.559  feet,  added  to  109.5,  would  give  an 
elevation  of  lake  surface  of  practically  113  feet.  In  reality,  the  lake 
would  not  rise  so  high,  since  such  an  elevation  would  give  a  small 
increase  to  its  surface  area,  and  the  available  minimum  cross-section 
of  the  canalized  river  would  be  somewhat  greater  than  assumed.  Yet, 
under  such  conditions,  the  surface  of  the  lake  might  rise  above  the 
elevation  of  11:4.  If  this  were  liable  to  happen  frequently,  it  could  not 
be  considered  satisfactory  lake  regulation.  No  such  October  precipi- 
tation, however,  has  yet  been  observed,  and  it  may  be  said  that  the 
existing  records  do  not  afford  a  basis  of  expectation  for  such  a  rise  in 
the  lake  as  often  as  once  in  fifteen  years.     It  is  even  possible  that  such 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  151 

a  rise  may  inner  occur.  If  such  an  extraordinary  precipitation  .should 
occur  in  October,  it  docs  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  lake  surface 
would  reach  an  elevation  much  over  110,  for  the  reason  that  it  might 
be  materially  below  L09.5  at  the  beginning  of  ttie  month. 

The  possibility  of  such  a  phenomenal  rise  in  the  lake  surface  as  that 
just  considered  at  long  intervals  of  years  is  indicated  by  the  rainfall 
record  at  Masaya  in  the  year  1SST.  In  fig.  15  of  Appendix  I  it  is 
shown  that  in  October,  1887,  there  was  a  rainfall  of  23.56  inches 
following  preceding  months  of  sufficient  precipitation  to  leave  the 
soil  in  a  saturated  condition.  Mr.  Davis  shows  by  a  comparison  of 
records  for  Masaya  and  Granada  that  the  rainfall  at  Granada  may  be 
one-fifth  to  one-fourth  more  than  that  at  Masaya.  Hence  it  may  be 
assumed  that  if  there  was  a  precipitation  of  23.56  inches  at  Masaya  in 
the  month  of  October  there  may  have  been  22^  per  cent  more  than 
that  amount,  i.  e.,  28.86  inches,  at  Granada  at  the  same  time.  The 
increase  of  elevation  or  lake  surface  for  that  amount  of  rainfall  at 
Granada  may  be  compared  directly  with  the  increase  of  elevation  of 
lake  surface  for  the  same  month  at  the  same  place  for  the  year  1900, 
which  has  already  been  considered,  when  the  monthly  precipitation 
was  16.7  inches.  Subtracting,  for  the  reasons  already  stated,  1^  inches 
from  both  16.7  and  28.S6  and  dividing  the  latter  result  by  the  former 
the  ratio  of  1.8  will  be  found.  The  total  inflow  following  a  thirty-day 
rainfall  of  16.7  inches  in  October,  1900,  was  equal  to  a  depth  of  1.813 
feet  over  the  entire  lake  surface,  as  was  shown  in  the  preceding  com- 
putations.    A  statement  applicable  to  the  present  case  and  similar  to 

that  already  given  will  therefore  be  as  follows: 

Feet. 
1.813X1.8  =  3.2631 
Rainfall  on  lake  surface,  28. 86  inches =2.  405 


5.  6684 
Less  evaporat  ion  of  5  inches .4167 


2517 


Less  discharge  of  canalized  river  at  a  mean  rate  of  68,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  during  thirty  days,  reduced  to  the 
uniform  depth  over  lake  surface  of 2. 125 


Actual  rise  of  lake  surface 3. 127 

If  the  above  rise  of  3.127  feet  be  added  to  the  assumed  elevation  of 
lake  surface,  on  October  1,  of  109.5,  there  will  be  found  an  elevation 
of  112.63  feet.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  for  the  reasons  already  stated, 
the  lake  surface  would  probably  not  reach  112  feet  in  elevation,  but 
the  results  of  both  these  latter  computations  show  that,  since  the 
month  of  October  must  be  approached  by  a  nearly  full  lake,  there  is 
a  possibility  at  long  intervals  of  probably  more  than  fifteen  years  of 
reaching  a  high  lake  surface  elevation  between  111  and  112.     As  the 


152  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

thirty-day  discharge  of  the  canalized  river,  at  an  elevation  of  about 
111,  is  but  little  less  than  180,000,000,000  cubic  feet,  it  is  further  seen 
that  the  elevation  of  .the  lake  surface  under  these  phenomenal  condi- 
tions would  remain  above  110  for  possibly  a  little  more  than  one 
month. 

The  preceding  results  are  based  essentially  on 

Results  based  on  assump- 

tion  that  rainfaii  in  basin  the  assumption  that  the  raintall  on  the  entire  lake 
is  proportioned  to  that  at  basm  js  m  direct  proportion  to  that  at  Granada, 
while  in  fact  the  average  rainfall  over  the  whole 
basin  should  be  used.  There  are  not  sufficient  data  of  observation  to 
establish  such  a  relation,  and  the  assumption  is  provisional  only.  It 
leads  to  the  best  method  of  procedure  available,  but  the  conclusions 
reached  may  obviously  need  modification  in  either  direction  as  the  rain- 
fall record  and  observations  of  the  lake  elevations  are  extended.  It  is 
a  generally  recognized  feature  of  rainfall  conditions  that  an  extremely 
high  local  precipitation  for  a  short  period,  as  one  month,  in  any  large 
basin,  is  almost  invariably  considerably  higher  than  the  simultaneous 
average  for  the  entire  basin;  and  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  this  is 
particularly  true  of  the  watershed  of  Lake  Nicaragua. 

The  use  of  the  rainfall  record  for  one  point,  or  possibly  two,  instead 
of  the  average  for  the  whole  basin,  is  liable  to  lead  to  conclusions 
extreme  or  possibly  erratic  in  character.  It  is  believed  in  this  case 
that  this  unavoidable  feature  of  treatment  has  created  conditions  too 
severe,  and  hence  the  resulting  estimated  extreme  lake  elevations  are 
probably  too  high. 

It  is  not  believed  to  be  necessary  to  include  in  the  estimates  of  cost 
any  items  covering  additional  regulating  facilities  of  such  magnitude 
as  to  meet  these  phenomenal  conditions.  It  is  not  probable  that  such 
facilities  will  ever  be  needed. 

The  preceding  considerations  indicate  the  salient  features  of  the  con- 
templated control  of  the  greatest  lake  elevations  in  seasons  of  maxi- 
mum precipitation.  At  the  other  extreme  there  must  be  considered 
such  provisions  as  are  necessary  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  dryest 
years  on  record.     Of  all  the  observations  at  the 

Salient  features.  . 

present  time  available,  those  which  show  the  lowest 
annual  rainfall  belong  to  the  year  1890,  and  are  found  in  the  Masaya 
record  in  Appendix  I.  That  year  was  immediately  preceded  and  fol- 
lowed by  years  of  at  least  the  average  precipitation,  the  records  show- 
ing 78.78  inches  for  1889,  20.52  inches  for  1890,  and  49.98  inches  for 
1891.  It  will  be  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  two  dry  seasons,  with 
the  exceedingly  low  rainfall  between,  make  the  nineteen  months  from 
November,  1889,  to  June,  1891,  a  period  of  unusually  small  precipita- 
tion, the  lowest  indeed  so  far  known,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the 
lake  would  be  full  at  the  end  of  the  wet  season  immediately  preceding 
such  a  dry  period  of  nineteen  months.     The  elevation  of  that  full  lake 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  153 

has  been  taken  by  Mr.  Davis  in  Appendix  1  at  110.2,  which  is  essen- 
tially what  it  should  be.  It  then  becomes  necessary  to  know  what 
should  be  the  movement  of  the  lake  surface  during  the  period  in  ques- 
tion. Evidently  the  sluices  at  the  wasteway  would  remain  closed  and 
no  outflow  of  the  lake  would  be  permitted  during  the  first  dry  season, 
or  from  November  until  the  succeeding  May.  Indeed  the  sluices 
would  be  closed  during  the  succeeding-  wet  season,  as  there  would  not 
be  sufficient  rainfall  to  restore  fully  the  depletion  already  accomplished. 
In  considering  the  movement  of  the  lake  surface  from  the  end  of 
May  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  view  the  concurrent  rainfall.  The 
record  available  is  for  Masa}^a,  hence  it  is  necessary  to  compare  the 
rainfall  record  at  that  place  for  some  years,  covering  observations  on 
the  variation  of  lake-surface  elevations  with  that  for  1890.  Observa- 
tions for  1809  and  1900  are  available  for  the  purpose,  but  as  shown  in 
Appendix  I  those  for  the  latter  year  are  preferable.  The  observed 
precipitations  for  the  months  of  1900  are  compared  directly  with  those 
for  the  same  months  of  1890,  and  the  variations  of  lake  surface  pro- 
duced by  the  corresponding  rainfalls  for  the  latter  year  are  made  pro- 
tional  to  those  of  the  former  year,  which  were  actually  observed. 
As  indicated  by  Mr.  Davis,  this  method  is  not  free 

Method  of  discussion  not       ,«  i      ,    ,1  ± j. ±.    „ 

tree  from  error  from  error,  but  these  errors  to  some  extent  com- 

pensate each  other,  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
believe  that  they  are  great  enough  seriously  to  militate  against  the 
conclusions  reached.  The  portion  A  K,  of  the  line  in  fig.  6,  of  Appen- 
dix H,  shows  the  result  of  these  operations.  Starting  from  elevation 
110.2  at  H  on  the  1st  day  of  November,  a  full  lake  is  assumed  to  be 
maintained,  as  would  be  the  case,  up  to  the  1st  of  December,  when 
the  wet  season  closes,  and  consequently  the  sluices  at  the  wasteway 
are  also  closed.  Evaporation  and  consumption  of  1,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  for  the  use  of  the  canal  operate  to  deplete  the  lake  until  on 
the  1st  day  of  June  the  point  A  is  reached,  at  elevation  107.03.  At 
that  point  the  dry -wet  season,  so  to  call  it,  begins.  The  sluices  at  the 
wasteway  still  remain  closed  and  the  consumption  of  water  in  the 
canal  continues,  as  well  as  evaporation  from  the  lake  surface.  The 
small  rainfall  only  partially  restores  this  depletion,  so  that  at  the  end 
of  November  the  water  surface  in  the  lake  has  fallen  to  K,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  106.9.  No  further  supply  is  available  until  the  beginning  of 
the  next  wet  season.  The  sluices  are  therefore  kept  closed  and  the 
lake  surface  at  the  end  of  the  second  dry  season,  on  the  1st  day  of 
June,  has  fallen  to  the  point  L,  at  an  elevation  of  104.  In  other 
words,  in  spite  of  all  storage  of  available  water  during  the  nineteen 
months,  evaporation  from  the  lake  and  the  use  of  the  canal  have  run 
the  elevation  of  the  lake  surface  down  from  110.2  to  104,  representing 
the  net  depletion  of  6.2  feet  in  depth  of  lake  water.  At  the  point  L 
the  supphT  from  the  next  wet  season  would  be  available  to  relieve  the 
situation  and  cause  the  lake  surface  to  rise. 


15-i  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

These  computations  show  that  the  net  available  storage  in  the  lake 
must  be  6.2  feet,  if  the  requirements  for  evaporation  and  navigation 
for  two  dry  seasons  and  an  intermediate  dry-wet  season  are  to  be  met. 
The  line  H  A  K  L  is  a  minimum  line  of  lake  sur- 
face elevations,  below  which  it  should  never  fall 
at  the  dates  indicated.  In  no  dry  season  following  an  ordinary  rainy 
season  should  it  fall  below  H  A,  because  there  would  then  be  a  short- 
age, and  possibly  a  serious  one,  if  a  dry-wet  season  should  follow  it. 
Nor  should  the  lake  surface,  under  any  circumstances  whatever,  fall 
below  the  line  K  L  for  the  dry  months  indicated,  for  in  that  event  at 
the  end  of  the  dry  season  there  would  not  be  the  desired  navigable 
depth  in  the  summit  level. 

The  complete  consideration  of  the  effect  of  years  of  low  rainfall  on 
the  regulation  of  the  lake  requires  an  examination  into  their  possible 
frequency  so  far  as  existing  data  will  permit.  The  entire  record  for 
fifteen  years,  from  1886  to  1900,  at  Granada  and  Masaya,  shows  but 
one  year,  1890,  with  insufficient  precipitation  during  the  rainy  season 
to  fill  the  lake  and  restore  the  amount  evaporated.  Had  the  proposed 
regulating  works  been  in  existence  there  would  have  been  a  full  lake 
on  the  1st  of  every  December,  except  for  1890,  of  the  fifteen-year 
period.  So  far  as  the  existing  records  indicate,  therefore,  there  is  no 
reason  to  expect  the  continued  depletion  of  the  water  supply  to  an 
elevation  below  101  by  a  succession  of  low  rainfall  years,  each  with  an 
insufficient  precipitation  to  fill  the  lake  during  the  wet  season. 

As  has  already  been  indicated  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of 
months  of  maixmum  rainfall,  it  is  not  possible  to  predict  elevations 
of  the  lake  surface  during  the  early  months  of  the  rainy  season,  such 
as  June  and  September.  Knowing  the  discharging 
capacity  of  the  canalized  river,  it  is  quite  simple, 
after  knowing  the  rainfall  record  of  a  season,  so  to 
layout  a  programme  of  wasteway  discharge  as  to' control  the  lake  sur- 
face in  any  desired  manner  within  a  considerable  range  of  limits.  It  is 
quite  another  matter,  however,  to  predict  what  lake  elevation  must  be 
reached  on  a  given  date  within  those  months  in  advance  of  the  rainfall. 
Indeed  it  is  not  possible  to  make  such  a  prediction  as  will  agree  with 
a  season's  development.  It  has  been  shown,  however,  within  what 
limits  the  elevations  of  lake  surface  may  be  controlled  for  certain 
maximum  monthly  precipitations  and  for  what  less  monthly  rainfalls 
closer  approximations  to  the  desired  maximum  elevation  of  110  may 
be  reached. 

Although  a  definite  line  showing  the  elevations  of  lake  surface  for 
a  specified  period  may  be  drawn  for  a  given  season  of  known  supply 
to  the  hike,  like  H  A  K  L  of  fig.  6 of  Appendix  H  for  the  nineteen 
low  water  months,  such  a  line  can  not  be  continuously  drawn  for  an 
ordinary  year.     The  portion  H  A  may   be  prescribed,  and  perhaps 


Not  possible   to    predict 
•elevation  of  lake. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  155 

A.  O,  but  the  part  O  P  Q  M,  shown  as  a  broken  line,  can  not  be  laid 
down  for  the  reason  that  it  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  record  of 
rainfall  which  is  not  completely  known  until  the  season  is  past.  It 
can  only  be  stated  that  the  line  of  lake  surface  elevations  for  the  wet 
season  will  probably  be  similar  in  general  character  to  O  P  Q  M,  tig. 
6  of  Appendix  II,  M  being  at  the  elevation  of  110.2,  which  is  shown 
as  a  broken  line  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  attached  to  its  location. 
Ordinarily  the  line  for  the  succeeding  dry  season  would  be  M  S,  which 
is  the  same  as  H  A. 

Certain  general  principles  of  control  procedure  may  be  set  forth  in 
view  of  the  results  of  the  preceding  computations.  In  general,  it  may 
be  stated  that  at  the  end  of  the  dry  season,  on  the  1st  day  of  June, 
the  elevation  of  lake  surface  will  be  at  107.3,  or  at  about  that  eleva- 
tion. The  sluices  at  the  wasteway  having  been  closed  during  the  dry 
season  are  still  maintained  in  that  condition,  so  that  during  the  tirst 
part  of  the  wet  season  all  supply  to  the  lake  will  be  impounded.  If 
there  be  a  phenomenally  heavy  rainfall,  as  in  June,  1897,  it  will  be 
necessary,  as  soon  as  the  amount  of  precipitation  is  realized,  to  open 
the  sluices  to  their  full  capacity.  Even  under  such  circumstances  the 
rise  which  would  take  place  in  the  lake  surface  is  shown  by  the  line 
A  D,  in  fig.  6  of  Appendix  H,  and  thev  would 

Principles  of  control.  &      .  .-,  ,»*" 

have  to  remain  open  until  the  1st  of  August  in 
order  to  bring  the  elevation  of  the  lake  surface  down  to  110,  as  shown 
at  B,  the  maximum  elevation  of  lake  surface  at  D  having  been  110.6. 
From  that  time  on  the  manipulation  of  the  sluices  would  necessarily 
depend  upon  the  subsequent  rainfall,  the  effort  being  to  keep  the  lake 
level  at,  or  a  little  below,  110  until  October. 

Instead  of  the  phenomenal  rainfall  of  June,  1897,  should  there  be  a 
moderate  or  ordinary  precipitation,  the  sluices  at  the  waterwa}7  might 
be  maintained  closed  for  a  number  of  weeks,  or  until  some  date  in 
August  or  September,  depending  upon  the  amount  of  rainfall,  it  being 
in  this  case  as  in  all  others  the  effort  during  „this  period  of  the  year  to 
keep  the  lake  surface  elevation  as  near  to  110  as  practicable,  or  possi- 
bly a  little  below  it. 

The  rainfall  records  show  that  ordinarily  the 
rainfau. '  m0"  °  ****  month  of  October  may  be  expected  to  be  one  of 
comparatively  heavy  precipitation,  and  there 
would  seldom  be  years  when  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  dis- 
charge considerable  water  over  the  waste  ways  during  that  month. 
In  the  years  of  specially  heavy  rainfall,  or  possibly  in  others  of 
ordinary  rainfall,  it  would  be  necessary  to  open  the  sluices  to  their 
full  capacity  for  the  entire  month,  or  a  little  longer.  The  month 
of  October  is  practically  the  last  opportunity  of  the  wet  season  to 
secure  a  full  lake,  and  that  should  certainly  be  attained,  even  if  the 
effort  to  do  it  should  run  the  lake  somewhat  above  the  maximum 


150)  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

desired  limit  of  110  feet,  so  that  on  the  1st  of  December  a  full  lake 

would  exist  as  a  necessary  preparation  for  the  succeeding  dry  season. 

While,  therefore,  no  detailed  instructions  can  be 

Instructions  for  resula-  ,  j>      n  -.•  ,1  v.  •  <.    ,1  -,     • 

tion  set  forth  regarding  the  condition  or  the  sluices  at 

the  waste  wa}T  on  specified  dates,  the  general  lines 
of  their  operations  should  be  as  stated  below,  viz: 

1.  A  full  lake  with  surface  probabby  a  little  above  110  on  December  1. 

2.  Waste-way  sluices  closed  at  least  from  about  December  1  to  some 
date  in  the  early  portion  of  the  succeeding  rainy  season,  or  throughout 
that  season  if  it  be  one  of  unusually  low  precipitation. 

3.  A  variable  opening  of  waste-way  sluices,  if  necessary,  during  the 
intermediate  portion  of  the  rainy  season,  so  as  to  maintain  the  lake- 
surface  elevation  but  little,  if  any,  below  110  at  the  beginning  of 
October. 

4.  The  operation  of  waste-wa}7  sluices  during  October  and  November 
so  as  to  reach  the  1st  of  December  with  a  full  lake,  or  lake  elevation 
probably  a  little  above  110. 

The  mean  velocities  in  the  minimum  sections  of  the  canalized  river 
corresponding  to  the  greatest  discharges  required  in  the  regulation  of 
the  lake  are  as  follows: 


Elevation  of  lake. 


Elevation  of  water  at  dam. 


103  feet.  104  feet. 


110  feet. 

111  feci. 

112  feet. 


Ft.  per  sec.  Mi.perhr.  FLperse.c.  MLperhr. 
4.16  j  2.8  3.9  2.7 


4.51  j  3.1  4.2 

4.85  3.3  4.5 


2.9 
3.1 


The  discharge  of  the  river  corresponding  to  the 

Velocities.  .  "  . 

velocity  or  2.7  miles  per  hour  is  53, 21  Hi  cubic  tect 
per  second;  while  that  corresponding  to  3.3  miles  per  hour  is  77,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  These  estimated  high  velocities  will  occur  but 
rarely,  and  they  will  not  sensibly  inconvenience  navigation.  In  reality 
they  are  too  high,  for  the  reason  that  while  the  overflow  at  the  mini- 
mum river  section  materially  increases  the  areas  of  those  sections,  it 
has  been  neglected  in  this  discussion. 

It  is  probable  that  at  some  periods  of  heavy  rainfall  when  the  lake 
is  at  or  near  its  maximum  elevation,  the  Sabalos  and  other  smaller 
rivers  tributary  to  the  San  Juan  between  Fort  San  Carlos  and  the 
Conchuda  dam  may  be  discharging  at  their  greatest  capacity  also 
under  the  influence  of  heavy  rainfalls  on  their  respective  drainage 
areas.  It  is  even  possible  that  the  concurrent  flood  inflow  of  these 
streams  may  reach  as  high  as  50,000  cubic  feet  per 

Effort  of  tributaries  of      g^    d        ^         ff      fc       f    ^  ^  discnargeg 

San  Juan.  "te       °  _  ° 

on  the  elevation  of  the  lake  surface  has  been  ignored 
for  two  reasons.    In  the  first  place,  their  points  of  discharge  are  mostly 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  157 

far  removed  from  the  lake  and  Largely  below  the  steepest  portion  of 
the  river  slope.  Hence  their  effect  upon  the  lake  elevation  would  not 
be  great  even  if  these  tributary  flood  discharges  continued  for  a  con- 
siderable period  of  time.  In  the  second  place,  these  tributary  flood 
discharges  continue  for  a  short  time  only;  in  fact,  in  nearly  or  quite 
all  eases  for  less  than  twenty-four  hours.  Under  such  circumstances 
they  can  have  no  material  influence  upon  the  maximum  elevations 
reached  by  the  lake.  The  drainage  areas  from  which  they  flow  are  all 
small  and  the  total  flood  volume  contributed  by  tliem  for  short  periods 
of  a  few  hours  only  is  insignificant  when  compared  with  the  volume 
required  to  raise  to  any  sensible  extent  the  surface  of  the  lake. 

Again,  in  all  the  preceding  computations  the  volume  of  water 
required  for  the  uses  of  the  canal  has  been  ignored.  Should  this  vol- 
ume be  equal  to  a  rate  of  consumption  of  1.0(H)  cubic  feet  per  second, 
a  depth  of  only  0.4  inch  per  month  would  be  required  to  supply  it,  and 
that  is  an  amount  too  small  for  consideration  in  connection  with  the 
question  of  lake  control. 

The  regulation  will  be  effected  by  wastewa3Ts  at 

wLteTOy."  "am  ""*  the  east  end  of  the  summit  level,  'it  being  neces- 
sary to  have  control  of  the  discharge,  a  movable 

dam  of  some  form  is  essential.  The  form  adopted  consists  of  vertically 
moving  gates  of  the  Stonev  type,  each  giving  an 

Sfcmey  gates.  .  ,  ,  .        ,  '  „  \ 

opening  of  30  feet  in  the  crest  of  the  wasteway. 
The  discharge  through  the  upper  section  of  the  canalized  San  Juan 
will  be  63,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  with  the  lake  at  110  and  the 
pool  immediately  above  the  dam  at  104.  This  will  be  reached  nearly 
every  year,  but.  as  before  shown,  the  lakes  may  rise,  in  exceptional 
circumstances,  possibly  to  112,  increasing  the  discharge  of  the  river 
to  76,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  with  the  water  at  the  dam  at  104. 

To  produce  such  a  discharge  from  the  lake  the  rainfall  would  have 
to  be  extremely  heavy  over  the  entire  basin  draining  into  it.  There 
would  probably  be  a  simultaneous  heavy  rainfall  over  the  San  Juan 
basin  from  the  lake  to  the  dam,  most  of  which  would  reach  the  river 
below  the  constricted  section  which  limits  the  discharging  capacity 
from  the  lake,  and  would  increase  considerably  the  required  discharg- 
ing capacity  of  the  waterway.  This  structure  is 
feet'per'J^old!'000  "*"  therefore  designed  to  discharge  100,000  cubic  feet 
per  second,  with  the  water  in  the  pool  immedi- 
ately above  it  at  104. 

It  is  deemed  judicious  to  limit  the  depth  of  water  on  the  crest,  under 
normal  conditions,  to  7  feet,  fixing  the  crest  of  the  wasteway  at  eleva- 
tion 97.     With  a  high  lake  and  heav}T  rainfall  in  the  district  near  the 
dam  the  pool  might,  for  a  short  time,  rise  a  little  above  104.     The 
discharge  of  100,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  with 

Depth  on  crest,  7  feet.  °  .  l 

i  feet  on  the  crest,  requires  a  weir  1,590  feet  long. 


158  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION 

This  is  provided  by  placing  on  the  dam  21  sluice  gates,  each  of  30  feet 
opening,  and  32  similar  ones  at  a  site  about  2,500  feet  from  the  dam 
in  Costa  Rica. 

The  latter  structure  is  designated  "Conchuda 

Plan. 

wasteway"  on  the  map.  Its  sluices  will  be  placed 
on  a  concrete  structure,  which  will  have  a  foundation  on  hard  rock. 
Small  ravines  head  near  the  site  on  both  sides,  and  will  require  enlarge- 
ment to  permit  the  water  to  reach  the  wasteway  and  flow  away  from 
it  with  moderate  velocities.  The  plan  of  the  wasteway  and  approaches 
is  shown  on  pi.  Q8. 

The  most  important  structure  on  the  route  is  the 
Conchuda  dam.  Before  deciding  on  its  location 
a  large  number  of  borings  were  made  to  ascertain  the  depth  to  suitable 
hard  rock  for  the  foundation,  both  at  the  Conchuda  site  and  at  the  one 
near  Boca  San  Carlos  suggested  by  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Commission. 
At  the  latter  site  the  greatest  depth  to  hard  rock  is  120  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  river  at  low  stage.  At  the  Conchuda  site  the  greatest 
depth  to  hard  rock  is  82  feet,  which  is  very  important,  because  the 
foundations  will  probably  have  to  be  placed  by  the  compressed-air 
process,  and  the  depth  is  well  within  that  at  which  the  foundations  of 
many  bridge  piers  have  been  built  by  the  same  method. 

A  plan  of  the  Conchuda  dam  is  shown  on  pi.  69. 

The  portion  of  the  dam  across  the  river  and  the  swamp  on  the  Costa 
Rica  side,  for  a  total  distance  of  731  feet,  will  consist,  below  low  water, 
of  caissons  placed  close  together  with  the  joints  between  them  scaled. 
Upon  the  platform  thus  made  the  part  above  low  water  will  be  built 
as  a  continuous  monolithic  structure  and  will  support  the  sluices  already 
mentioned.  From  each  end  of  this  portion  the  dam  will  be  built  for  a 
further  distance  of  100  feet  into  the  hillsides  in  open  excavations  and 
with  cross  section  designed  to  sustain  the  full  head  of  water.  Core 
walls  extend  100  feet  farther  on  the  Costa  Rica  side  and  210  feet  on 
the  Nicaragua  side.  The  total  length  of  the  dam.  including  core  walls. 
will  be  1,271  feet.  The  foundation  is  on  hard  rock  for  the  entire 
length. 

]n  its  preliminary  report  this  Commission  estimated  the  time  for 
completing  the  entire  work  on  the  Nicaragua  route  at  about  ten  years. 
This  was  based  on  the  expectation  that  two  years  would  be  required 
for  preparatory  work  and  eight  years  to  construct  the  dam  at  Boca 
San  Carlos,  which  would  be  begun  only  after  a  temporary  harbor  at 
Grey  Town  was  constructed  and  other  work  done.  A  more  favorable 
site  for  the  dam  having  been  found  at  Conchuda,  its  construction  is  no 
longer  the  controlling  feature.  It  is  estimated  that  this  dam  can  be 
built  in  four  years. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  159 

The  estimated  cost  of   the  dam  and  auxiliary 

Cosfc  . 

wasteway  is  as  follows: 

Dam  at  Conchuda,  including  sluices  and  machinery $4,017,650 

Auxiliary   wasteway,   including  sluices,   machinery,  and 
approach  channels 2f  045,  322 

Total  for  dam  and  wasteway 6,  062,  972 

The  wasteways  for  the  disposal  of  floods  in  the 

VYastewnys    for    reiriila-  1    1         1       '  1         £    ^.1  1   /^i  •_•. 

tion  of  levels  in  pools.         several  levels  or  pools  ot  the  canal  (the  summit 

level  excepted)  are  simple  overfall  weirs,  with  the 

crests  at  the  elevation  of  lowest  water  surface  in  the  pool.     The  areas 

of  the  watersheds  which  drain   into  the   several 
Overflow  weirs. 

pools,  and  the  areas  permanently  submerged,  are 
for  the  eastern  division  approximately  as  follows: 


Level. 

Area  to  be 
submerged. 

Total  area 
of  water- 
shed. 

Lock  No.  1  to  lock  No.  2 

Sq.  miles. 
13.  1 
7.5 
1.1 

Sq.  miles. 
24  'i 

Lock  No.  2  to  loci  No.  3 

7;;  i 

Lock  No.  3  to  lock  No.  4 

9  3 

The  areas  for  the  division  west  of  the  lake,  while  not  accurately 
determined,  are  known  to  be  small. 

The  eastern  division  is  the  region  of  heaviest  rainfall.  The  ground 
is  generally  saturated,  the  slopes  steep,  and  the  basins  small  in  area, 
so  that  the  run-off  is  rapid  and  its  ratio  to  rainfall  unusually  large. 
The  greatest  observed  rainfall  in  twenty-four  hours,  as  already  stated, 
occurred  at  Grey  Town  in  November,  1899,  and  amounted  to  12.48 
inches,  of  which  8  inches  fell  in  six  hours.  During  the  same  storm  at 
Lake  Silico  10.50  inches  fell  in  six  hours.  The  wasteways  provide 
for  a  rainfall  of  12  inches  in  twelve  hours,  the  total  amount  falling  on 
the  areas  not  submerged  reaching  the  pool  within  twenty-four  hours. 
„    ,      ,  The  embankments  are  given  a  freeboard  of  5  feet 

Freeboard.  a 

above  the  level  to  which  the  assumed  floods  would 
rise,  increased  where  the  floods  in  the  San  Juan  rise  above  the  flood 
levels  in  the  canal. 

The  data  concerning  the  flood  levels  of  the  San  Juan  are  necessarily 
not  exact. 

These  assumed  rainfalls  and  run-offs  are  greater  than  are  likely  to 
occur;  but  if  they  should  be  exceeded  the  works  would  not  be  endan- 
gered. If,  for  example,  there  should  be  a  continuous  rainfall  of  1  inch 
per  hour,  extending  indefinitely,  the  freeboard  would  be  reduced  in 
the  lower  end  of  the  pool  between  lock  No.  1  and  lock  No.  2  to  3.5 
feet.     Such  a  rainfall  continued   for  twenty-four  hours   is  without 


160  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

precedent  on  this  continent,  so  far  as  known.  Plans  of  wasteways 
for  the  eastern  division  are  shown  on  pi.  67. 

A  small  wasteway  is  provided  in  each  of  the  levels  between  the 
summit  level  and  the  Pacific.  Each  of  these  is  to  be  100  feet  in  length. 
In  the  level  between  lock  No.  5  and  lock  No.  6  the  wasteway  and 
channel  lending  therefrom  will  consist  simply  of  a  cut  through  sound 
rock  to  the  Rio  Grande,  the  bed  being  at  the  minimum  canal  level  at 
the  canal  bank,  and  sloping  thence  toward  the  river.  The  wasteway 
in  the  level  between  lock  No.  t>  and  lock  No.  7  is 

Wasteways     on    Pacific      ,       i  •      -i  t       ±i  ±    1         1 

glde  to   be  similar  in  every  way.     In  the  next   level 

toward  the  Pacific,  which  ends  at  the  tide  lock, 
there  is  no  site  for  a  wastewa}r  with  a  rock  foundation,  but  the  water 
in  the  canal  will  be  12  or  15  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  valley  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  level,  and  but  little  below  it  at  the  lower  end.  It 
is  proposed  here  to  form  a  wasteway  by  excavating  a  channel  in  the 
earth  from  the  canal  to  the  river  and  to  pave  this  for  a  distance  of 
about  500  feet  from  the  canal.  The  amount  of  water  to  be  discharged 
here  is  small,  and  as  the  canal  will  be  below  valley  level,  a  break  in 
the  canal  bank  will  be  impossible. 

Some  of  the  rock  which  will  be  found  in  the 

Retaining  walls.  .  .  n  . 

cuts  is  much  disintegrated.     Kock  from  which  no 

core,  or  only  small  pieces,  can  be  obtained  by  the  diamond  drill  is 
classified  in  the  estimates  as  soft  rock.  The  rock  thus  classified  is 
usually  very  soft  on  top,  gradually  becoming  harder  farther  down 
and  passing  into  the  material  classified  as  hard  rock,  where  cores 
nearly  continuous  are  obtained.  For  the  purpose  of  making  the  esti- 
mate, it  is  assumed  that  the  soft  rock  for  half  its  depth  will  require 
lacing  with  a  retaining  wall.  The  top  of  the  wall,  5  feet  above  the 
water  surface  in  the  canal,  will  be  5  feet  wide.  The  face  will  be  ver- 
tical. The  back  will  also  be  vertical  for  10  feet  from  the  top  and 
below  that  point  will  have  a  batter  of  2  on  1. 

The  project  now  presented  is  based  upon  a  care- 
Mtematlve  surveys.  ,  x       J  A  .  . 

tul  and  detailed  examination  ot  the  physical  con- 
ditions of  the  entire  route.  The  line  has  been  marked  out  on  the 
ground,  improvements  have  been  made  in  location,  and  the  subsurface 
materials  have  been  explored  by  means  of  borings,  many  of  which 
have  been  made  with  diamond  drills.  Samples  of  all  materials  have 
been   obtained,  and  the  classification    is   based  on   a   careful   study  of* 

them.     The  completeness  of  the  system  of  borings 

Examinations  and  borings.      ....  .,  .     ,  '    , 

will  be  evident  on  an  examination  of  the  maps  and 
profiles.  The  alternative  dam  sites  at  Boca  San  Carlos  and  Conchuda 
have  received  special  attention.  At  each  place  three  lines  of  borings, 
LOO  feet  apart,  were  made  from  bluff  to  bluff,  the  borings  generally 
being  LOO  feet  apart  on  each  line,  reduced  to  50  feet  where  marked 
depressions  in  the  rock  surface  had  been  revealed  or  indicated  by  the 
earlier  borings. 


EEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  161 

With  these  data  at  hand,  it  is  believed  the  difficulties  of  the  route 
are  fully  disclosed.  Should  construction  be  decided  on,  doubtless 
minor  improvements  in  location  could  be  made,  particularly  in  the 
section  between  the  Conchuda  dam  and  Grey  Town  where,  on  account 
of  the  dense  vegetation,  one  can  see  but  a  short  distance  from  any 
point. 

A  few  explorations  of  considerable  magnitude  were  made  to  avoid 

special  difficulties  on  this  section.     The  first  one  to  be  made  was  to 

ascertain  whether  there  existed  a  practicable  route 

Route   from   I'pper  San  -      .         _  _       * 

Jum  to  headwaters  of  the  from  the  valley  of  the  ban  Juan  to  that  01  the 
Indl°-  Indio.     For  years  vague  but  persistent  rumors  of 

the  existence  of  a  low  pass  in  the  divide  between  the  headwaters  of 
the  Machuca  River  and  the  Indio  have  been  current.  These  reports 
were  made  chiefly  by  rubber  hunters,  the  pioneers  of  this  region,  and 
considerable  credence  was  given  to  them  by  many  persons.  If  such  a 
pass  could  be  found,  and  the  canal  tea  into  another  valley,  avoiding 
the  difficulties  of  the  Lower  San  Juan,  the  change  would  be  of  great 
importance.  A  dam  across  the  San  Juan  River  at  Machuca  Rapids 
could  be  built  more  quickly,  and  would  cost  much  less  than  at  Con- 
chuda or  any  other  point  below  Machuca;  but  a  canal  in  the  San  Juan 
Valle}7  between  Conchuda  and  Machuca  would  be  very  expensive  on 
account  of  the  hilly  character  of  the  country. 

Under  the  direction  of  this  Commission  a  search 

Explorations. 

for  such  a  route,  extending  over  several  months, 
was  made  by  a  well-equipped  party.  Surveys  were  made  up  the 
Bartola  and  Machuca  rivers,  with  a  view  of  utilizing  the  Machuca 
site  for  the  San  Juan  River  dam.  The  survey  was  carried  up  the 
Bartola  to  a  point  638  feet  above  sea  level  without  reaching  the  sum- 
mit, and  the  route  being  manifestly  impracticable,  the  survey  was 
stopped.  A  survey  was  also  made  up  the  Machuca  River,  connecting 
with  a  survey  of  the  Indio  and  its  tributary,  the  Negro.  The  divide 
is  544  feet  above  sea  level,  and  it  would  require  a  summit  cut  24i 
miles  long  and  475  feet  deep  at  the  maximum  to  carry  Lake  Nicaragua 
level  across  it.  The  cost  of  this  work  alone  would  be  greater  than 
that  of  the  entire  canal  fiom  Machuca  to  the  sea  by  the  adopted  route. 

It  was  decided  also  to  examine  the  La  Cruz  del  Norte,  which  dis- 
charges into  the  San  Juan  between  Machuca  Rapids  and  Conchuda. 
If  this  route  had  proved  practicable,  the  Conchuda  dam  would  still  be 
required.  The  survey  was  carried  over  the  divide  to  the  Salvador,  a 
branch  of  the  Negro.  The  summit  was  469  feet  above  sea  level,  and 
a  summit  cut  15£  miles  long  would  have  to  be  made.  The  cost  of  the 
canal  by  this  route  would  be  much  greater  than  by  the  one  adopted. 

In  the  district  between  the  San  Francisco  hills  and  lock  No.  2  borings 
along  the  center  line  of  the  canal  revealed  two  sand  deposits — one  west 
of  Tambor  Grande  ridge,  extending  about  a  mile  along  the  canal  line, 
with  sand  a  little  below  the  grade  of  canal  bottom,  and  the  other  east 

S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 11 


162  EEPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  Tamborcito  ridge,  where  the  prism  of  the  canal  would  be  partly  in 

sand.  Borings  were  made  to  ascertain  the  limits 
route.*  deP°SUS  °n  C3nal    of  the  sand  deposits,  as  well  as  surveys  for  a  location 

farther  inland.  It  was  ascertained  that  such  a  loca- 
tion, avoiding  the  sand  deposits,  was  practicable,  but  the  cost  of  the 
canal  would  be  greater  than  by  the  adopted  route. 

A  survey  was  also  made  of  a  line  which  leaves 

the  adopted  one  15i  miles  from  the  Caribbean, 
passes  through  Lake  Silico,  and  continues  to  Grey  Town.  The  line 
would  be  more  direct,  and  the  existing  navigation  from  Grey  Town  to 
Lake  Silico,  which  could  easily  be  improved,  and  the  narrow-gauge 
railroad  recently  built  from  Lake  Silico  to  the  San  Juan  River  might 
be  useful  in  the  earlier  period  of  construction.  Lock  No.  1  was 
located  in  the  hills  on  the  west  side  of  Lake  Silico,  and  the  site  was 
bored.  The  surface  material,  which  was  clay,  was  over  the  greater 
part  underlaid  by  rock.  This  proved  to  be  a  volcanic  overflow, 
underlaid  by  mud  and  sand.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  lock  site  the 
lock  foundation  would  have  been  in  the  sand.  A  good  lock  site  hav- 
ing been  found  on  the  adopted  line,  the  one  through  Lake  Silico  was 
abandoned.  It  is  still  possible  that  a  better  location  may  be  found  in 
this  vicinity. 

As  already  stated,  the  movement  of  the  sand  along  the  coast,  which 
at  Grey  Town  seems  to  be  at  the  maximum,  decreases  as  the  mouth  of 
the  Indio  is  approached.  This  stream  doubtless  brings  down  some 
sand  and  silt  during  floods.  The  amount  is  unknown,  but  is  probably 
small.  Immediatel}T  north  of  its  mouth  a  forest  growth,  fringing  the 
ocean  front,  indicates  that  the  shore  line  is  not  now  being  subjected  to 
much  change.  In  view  of  the  small  sand  movement  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  mouth  of  the  Indio  and  the  apparent  stability  of  the  shore 

line  there,  it  was  thought  advisable  to  locate  an 

Indio  route.  .  .  .  ,  -T  .        . 

alternative  route  from  iock  JNo.  1  to  a  harbor  site 
at  that  place.  The  line  was  a  continuation  of  the  tangent  through 
lock  No.  1  to  a  point  near  the  sea,  Avhere  it  curved  slightly  to  the 
harbor  and  entered  the  sea  on  another  tangent.  It  crosses  the  San 
Juanillo  and  Deseado  near  their  junction.  These  streams  would  be 
diverted  through  a  channel  northwest  of  and  practically  parallel  to  the 
canal  line  and  at  a  safe  distance  from  it,  and  discharged  into  the  sea 
to  the  northward  of  the  harbor. 

This  alternative  route  is  of  about  the  same  length  as  the  adopted 
one  to  Grey  Town,  but  has  a  little  less  curvature.  The  fore  shore  of 
the  coast  is  flatter  thaD  in  the  vicinity  of  Grey  Town,  requiring  longer 
jetties  to  secure  a  harbor.  The  jetties  should  converge  seaward  to 
give  a  large  area  outside  the  shore  line  in  which  the  force  of  the  waves 
may  expend  themselves,  as  at  Ymuiden.     The  first  cost  of  this  alter- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  163 

native  route,  both  for  excavation  and  harbor  jetties,  would  be  greater 
than  that  of  the  adopted  one.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  however, 
that  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  harbor  would  be  less,  and  possibly 
the  saving  in  this  respect  would  be  sufficient  to  warrant  the  greater 
expenditure  for  construction. 

The  harbor  site  at  Grey  Town,  on  the  other  hand,  has  one  important 
advantage,  that  a  harbor  for  light-draft  vessels  can  be  formed  in  less 
time.  Protection  to  the  entrance  to  such  a  harbor  would  be  afforded 
by  the  east  jetty  before  its  construction  was  far  advanced.  An 
entrance  with  about  18  feet  of  water,  opening  into  Grey  Town  lagoon, 
would  be  of  great  value  for  the  landing  of  materials  to  be  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  railroad  and  canal.  Moreover,  an  entrance  at 
Gre}T  Town  would  make  it  practicable  to  transfer  materials  to  the 
river  steamers,  which  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  work  would  be  of 
considerable  value.  The  Commission  estimates  that  such  a  harbor 
could  be  opened  at  Grey  Town  in  about  two  years. 

A  working  harbor  could  also  be  constructed  at  the  Indio  site,  but  as 
the  entrance  there  opens  more  directly  seaward,  both  jetties  would  have 
to  be  commenced  and  built  farther  out  to  give  adequate  protection  and 
would  require  considerable  more  time.  Since  the  formation  of  the 
working  harbor  is  preliminary  to  the  beginning  of  canal  construction 
proper,  this  additional  period  required  at  the  Indio  site  would  delay 
by  a  like    mount  the  opening  of  the  canal  itself. 

The  data  concerning  the  Indio  route  are  not  so  well  ascertained  as 
those  relating  to  the  adopted  route  terminating  at  Grey  Town, but  its 
advantage  in  respect  to  maintenance  of  the  harbor  can  hardly  be 
doubted.  The  Commission  believes,  however,  that  it  is  practicable  to 
maintain  a  harbor  at  Grey  Town  which  will  be  fully  as  serviceable  in 
every  way,  and  regards  its  advantages  as  a  working  harbor  as  of  such 
importance  that  its  estimates  are  based  on  that  location. 

Mean  sea  levels  of  the  Pacific  at  Brito  and  of  the  Atlantic  at  Grey 
Town  were  determined  by  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Commission  in  1898 
and  1899  by  a  series  of  tide  observations  at  each 
place  and  b}?-  a  line  of  precise  levels  from  Grey 
Town  to  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  from  Lake  Nicaragua  to  Brito.  The 
levels  across  the  lake  were  transferred  by  water  level  in  the  lake,  a 
series  of  observations  extending  over  a  period  of  twent3'-nine  days 
being  taken  for  this  purpose.  As  thus  determined,  mean  sea  level  in 
the  Caribbean  Sea  at  Grey  Town  was  apparently  0.99  of  a  foot  above 
that  at  Brito  in  the  Pacific,  but  during  this  period  the  Pacific  Ocean  at 
Panama,  as  determined  by  the  tide  tables  of  the  United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey,  was  one  foot  below  the  normal.  Assuming  this 
to  be  true  at  Brito,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  doubting  it, 
the  mean  level  of  the  two  oceans  would  be  the  same. 

Gopd  sand  for  construction  purposes  can  be  had  in  large  quantities 
in  the  bed  of  the  lower  San  Juan,  as  well  as  on  the  seashores.     There 


164 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Railroad. 


are  ample  quantities  of  good  stone  for  rubble  and  concrete.  Cement 
is  not  now  manufactured  in  Nicaragua,  and  it  will  probably  be  nec- 
essaiy  to  import  it.  There  are  now  in  Nicaragua  small  dams,  cisterns, 
indigo  vats,  and  other  constructions  built  of  concrete,  which  are  quite 
old  and  in  excellent  state  of  preservation.  Concrete  ought  to  last 
indefinitely  in  the  mild  climate  of  Central  America.  There  is  an  ample 
supply  of  stone  on  both  sides  of  the  lake  suitable  for  jetty  construction. 

A  railroad  for  construction  purposes  will  be  necessary,  and  provision 
has  been  made  for  building  one  from  Grey  Town  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Sabalos  River,  and  from  the 
west  shore  of  the  lake  to  Brito.  The  intervening  space  can  be  trav- 
ersed by  boats,  the  river  between  Fort  San  Carlos  and  the  Sabalos 
being  deep  enough  to  accommodate,  without  improvement,  such  vessels 
as  can  reach  the  deep  water  of  the  lake  from  the  San  Juan.  It  is 
possible  that  the  portion  of  the  railroad  between  the  Conchuda  dam 
and  Sabalos  might  be  dispensed  with,  as  the  work  between  those 
points  is  almost  entirety  in  the  river,  but  it  was  thought  best  to  pro- 
vide convenient  communication  between  the  two  oceans,  as  a  transfer 
of  material  and  men  from  the  east  to  the  west  side  of  the  lake,  or  from 
the  west  to  the  east  side,  might  become  important.  The  portion  of 
the  river  between  the  dam  and  Sabalos  is  navigable  only  for  small 
steamers. 

The  railroad  has  been  located  on  the  south  side  of  the  canal,  with 
the  grade  not  exceeding  0.5  per  cent.  It  is  to  be  of  standard  gauge, 
supplied  with  sidings,  stations,  and  water  tanks,  and  fully  equipped 
with  the  necessary  rolling  stock.  The  estimate  is  made  on  the  basis 
of  $75,000  per  mile  for  the  railroad  completed  and  ready  for  operation. 

Summing  up  the  various  items,  the  total  estimated  cost  of  construct- 
ing the  Nicaragua  Canal  is  as  follows: 


Miles. 


Cost. 


Grey  Town  Harbor  and  entrance 

Section  from  Grey  Town  Harbor  to  lock  No.  1,  including  approach  wall  to  lock.. 

Diversion  of  Lower  San  Juan 

Diversion  of  San  Juanillo 

Lock  No.  1,  including  excavation 

Section  from  lock  No.  1  to  lock  No.  2,  including  approach  walls,  embankments, 

and  waste  way 

Lock  No.  2,  including  excavation 

Section  from  lock  No.  2  to  lock  No.  3,  including  approach  walls,  embankments, 

and  wasteway  

Lock  No.  3,  including  excavation 

Section  from  lock  No.  3  to  lock  No.  4,  including  approach  walls,  embankments, 

and  waste wa y  

Lock  No.  4,  including  excavation , 

Section  from  lock  No.  4  to  San  Juan  River,  including  approach  wall  and  em  bank- 
its 


Conchuda  dam,  Including  sluices  and  machinery 

Auxiliary  wasteway,  including  sluices,  machinery,  and  approach  channels 

San  Juan  River  section 

Lake  Nicaragua  section 

Lake  Nicaragua  to  lock  5,  including  approach  wall  to  lock  and  receiving  basins 

for  the  Rio  Grande  and  Chocolata 

Diversion  of  the  Las  Laj  as 

Lock  5,  including  excavation 

Dam  near  Huen  Retiro 

Section  from  lock  No.  6  to  lock  No.  6,  including  approach  walls  and  wasteway  .. 
Lock  6,  including  excavation 


2.15 
7.44 


.20 


10.96 
.20 


16.76 
.20 


2.77 
.20 


6.30 


49.64 
70.51 


9.09 


2.04 
.20 


$2, 198, 860 

4, 899, 887 

40,100 

116,760 

5, 719, 686 

6, 296, 632 
4,050,270 

19,330,654 
3, 832, 745 

4, 310, 580 
5, 655, 871 

8, 579, 431 
4,017,650 
2,045,322 
23, 155, 670 
7,877,611 

19, 566, 675 
199, 382 
4, 913, 512 
125, 591 
3,259,283 
4,368,667 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


165 


Miles. 


Cost. 


Section  from  lock  No.  6  to  lock  No.  7,  including  approach  walls,  embankments, 

ami  wasteway 1. 83 

Diversion  of  Rio  Grande 


Lock  No.  7,  including  excavation 

Section  from  lock  No.  7  to  lock  No.  8,  including  approach  walls,  embankments, 

and  wasteway 

Diversion  of  Rio  Grande 

Lock  No.  8,  including  excavation 

Section  from  lock  No.  8  to  Brito  Harbor,  including  approach  wall 

Brito  Harbor  and  entrance,  including  jetty 

Railroad,  including  branch  line  to  Conehuda  dam  site,  at  875,000  per  mile 

Total 

Engineering,  police,  sanitation,  and  general  contingencies,  20  per  cent 


Aggregate 


2.43 


.20 
.23 
.92 


82, 309, 710 

176, 180 

4,709,502 

1,787,498 
117,580 

4, 920, 899 
553, 476 

1,509,470 

7,575,000 


183.66 


158,220,052 
31,644,010 


189,864,062 


An  estimate  has  been  made  of  the  time  required  to  pass  through  the 
canal  by  ships  of  several  t}rpes,  the  details  of  which  are  given  in 
Appendix  G.  The  estimated  time  is  thirty  hours  for  a  ship  of  aver- 
age size,  400  feet  long,  50  feet  beam,  and  24.5  feet  draft,  and  thirty- 
seven  and  six-tenths  hours  for  a  ship  650  feet  long,  70  feet  beam,  and 
32  feet  draft,  which  corresponds  closely  with  the  largest  ships  afloat. 

The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  work 
££££££££  that  has  been  done  by  the  corporation  known  as 
the  Maritime  Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua  in 
the  construction  of  a  canal  on  the  Nicaragua  route: 

The  annual  reports  of  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  for  the  year  1889 
and  subsequent  thereto,  made  in  pursuance  of  the  requirements  of  the  act 
of  Congress  incorporating  the  company,  show  that  actual  work  of  con- 
struction was  begun  October  8,  1889,  and  was  suspended  some  time  in 
1893.  During  this  period  of  over  three  }Tears  comparatively  little 
work  was  accomplished.  In  1893  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Construction 
Company,  with  which  a  contract  was  made  by  the  Maritime  Canal 
Company  for  construction,  suspended  payments  and  work  ceased. 

The  reports  of  the  company  show  that  during  this  period  a  telegraph 
line  was  built  from  Grey  Town  to  Castillo,  where  it  connected  with  the 
lines  belonging  to  the  Nicaraguan  Government.  Other  telegraph  and 
telephone  lines  were  established  to  connect  headquarters  with  some  of 
the  camps  or  stations. 

A  single-track  standard-guage  railroad  was  built,  11^  miles  in  length, 
from  Grey  Town  to  a  point  between  the  sites  of  the  first  two  locks,  and 
is  reported  to  have  been  equipped  with  4  locomotives,  50  cars,  and 
other  requisites.  Much  of  this  railroad  was  built  across  a  swamp, 
requiring  timber  cribbing,  on  which  a  temporary  track  was  laid,  and 
the  permanent  embankment  was  formed  of  sand  hauled  by  trains  from 
the  canal  spoil  banks  near  Grey  Town.  A  number  of  buildings,  work- 
shops, quarters,  hospitals,  and  storehouses  were  also  constructed.  In 
all,  39  buildings,  having  a  floor  space  of  75,902  square  feet,  sheds, 
water  tanks,  and  other  smaller  structures  are  reported  as  having  been 
constructed,  in  addition  to  wharves  equipped  for  unloading  heavy 
freight. 


166  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

A  jett}"  or  pier  was  constructed  for  securing-  an  entrance  into  Grey 
Town  Lagoon  from  the  sea.  It  was  built  42  feet  wide,  of  creosoted 
piles  and  timber,  and  filled  with  brush,  stone,  and  concrete  blocks. 
It  extended  about  937  feet  into  the  sea.  The  pier  was  intended  to 
intercept  the  westward  drift  of  the  beach  sand  and  cause  an  opening 
to  be  formed  into  the  lagoon,  which  it  did.  The  current  soon  deep- 
ened it  to  about  7  feet,  permitting  the  dredges  which  Imd  been  pur- 
chased by  the  canal  company  to  be  floated  in.  Afterwards  the  entrance 
was  still  further  deepened  by  dredging  to  a  depth  reported  as  about 
15  feet.  The  channel  has  since  been  closed  by  sand,  the  jetty  is  much 
decayed,  and  some  of  it  washed  into  the  sea. 

The  company  brought  to  Grey  Town  six  dredges  which  had  previously 
worked  on  the  Panama  Canal.  In  the  reports  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  it  is  stated  that  seven  were  purchased.  One  was  said  to  have 
been  lost  at  sea  between  Colon  and  Grey  Town.  Besides  the  dredging 
done  in  the  sea  entrance  to  the  lagoon,  some  was  done  to  provide 
anchorage  and  access  to  the  company's  buildings  and  shops  and  also 
on  the  canal  proper.  This  latter  work  was  done  b}7  an  elevator  dredge, 
making  a  single  cut  for  a  distance  inland  of  about  4,350  feet,  with  a 
width  of  167  feet  and  depth  of  16i  feet.  This  was  followed  by  another 
cut  of  about  3,000  feet  in  length,  the  width  of  the  double  cut  being 
279  feet.  There  has  been  no  apparent  deterioration  in  this  excavated 
portion  of  the  canal. 

The  canal  company's  reports  state  that  important  work  had  been 
done  on  the  Machuca  Rapids  and  quantities  of  rock  removed  from 
the  bed  of  the  San  Juan  at  that  point.  The  canal  line  was  reported 
cleared  of  timber  for  a  distance  of  20  miles  from  the  Atlantic  coast. 
The  company  also  reported  that  8  miles  of  the  route  of  the  canal  on 
the  west  side  of  the  lake  was  cleared  of  timber  and  undergrowth  and 
that  the  line  of  the  railroad  which  was  to  extend  from  the  lake  to  the 
Pacific  was  caref ully  surveyed  and  located. 

Nearly  all  the  property  of  the  Maritime  Canal  Company,  including 
dredges,  boats,  tugs,  etc.,  has  gone  to  ruin,  except  the  railroad  and 
the  4,350  feet  of  partially  constructed  canal.  The  buildings  now 
standing  are  in  bad  condition.  Some  of  them  in  1897  were  capable  of 
being  repaired  and  were  used  by  the  employees  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal 
Commission  and  later  by  the  employees  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 
mission. 

Practically  none  of  the  property  would  have  any  value  to-day  in 
the  construction  of  the  canal,  except,  possibly,  the  canal  excavation 
made  from  Grey  Town  Lagoon  inland,  and  this  would  be  of  value  only 
as  part  of  a  channel  for  the  diversion  of  the  San  Juanillo  River.  It 
is  now  understood  that  the  failure  of  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  to 
complete  the  canal  within  the  time  required  by  the  concession  has 
worked  the  forfeiture  of  the  latter,  and  that  all  the  property  of  the 
company  in  Nicaragua  has  been  taken  possession  of  by  the  Nicaraguan 
Government. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

EARTHQUAKES,  VOLCANOES,  CLIMATE,  HEALTH. 

So  much  has  been  written  upon  the  liability  of 

Earthquakes.  ...  .     .  ,  . 

an  isthmian  canal  to  injury  or  destruction  by  earth- 
quakes, that  a  brief  discussion  of  the  subject  seems  desirable. 

The  cause  of  earthquakes  is  not  well  understood, 

Obscurity  of  subject.  •  ->      ,  ,  • 

but  amid  the  obscurity  surrounding  the  subject 
there  are  a  few  salient  facts  which  seem  to  be  generally  accepted. 

The  first  is  that  the  geographical  distribution  of  volcanoes  corre- 
sponds with  the  areas  most  subject  to  earthquakes.     One  of  the  most 
celebrated   and   destructive   earthquakes  known  to  history — that  of 
Lisbon  in  1755 — occurred  far  from  any  volcano; 

Su!,1""lfea1rir'irkf",0S<  and  so  with  that  of  New  Madrid,  Mo.,  in  1812, 
and  that  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1886;  but  the 
general  statement  is  correct,  that  they  are  more  frequent  in  volcanic 
countries  than  elsewhere,  though  there  is  probably  no  part  of  the 
earth's  surface  which  is  entirely  exempt  from  these  disturbances.  It 
does  not  follow  that  volcanoes  and  earthquakes  bear  to  each  other  the 
relation  of  cause  and  effect,  but  it  is  highly  probable  that  they  repre- 
sent different  manifestations  of  the  same  subterranean  forces.1 

The  doctrine  that  volcanoes  are  safety  valves 

Yolcanoes  safety  Yalves.  1  •    1        t      •     •    i         i  •    i  ,. 

which  diminish  the  violence  of  earthquakes  in 
their  vicinity  is  accepted  by  such  writers  as  Baron  von  Humboldt, 
Sir  Charles  Lyell,  Prof.  Charles  Daubeny,  and  J.  Le  Conte.2 

In  general  terms,  then,  the  region  of  volcanoes  is  the  region  of 
earthquakes,  but  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  volcanoes  is  not  neces- 
sarily the  most  dangerous  part  of  the  region. 

The  location  of  the  principal  volcanoes  in  the 
can"c  region. m"  Part  °^  the  world  where  lies  the  isthmus  is  shown 

on  plate  70.  From  a  glance  at  this  map  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  entire  isthmus  between  North  and  South  America  is  a 
volcanic  region.  Humboldt  thus  speaks  of  it :  "  The  grandest  example 
of  a  continental  volcanic  '  chain '  is  offered  by  the  great  rampart  of 

^'Earthquakes,"  by  John  Milne.     D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1899. 

2  Humboldt's  "Cosmos,"  Sabine's  translation,  eighth  edition,  Vol.  I,  p.  202; 
"Principles  of  Geology,"  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  first  American  edition,  Vol.  I,  p. 
32;  "Volcanoes,"  by  Charles  Daubeny,  second  edition,  p.  691;  "Elements  of 
Geology,"  by  J.  Le  Conte,  fourth  edition,  p.  105.     , 

167 


168  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  Andes  extending  from  the  southern  part  of  Chile  to  the  northwest 
coast  of  America."1     No  portion  of  it  is  exempt  from  earthquakes. 

The  record  of  those  which  have  occurred  is  meager,  being  as  a  rule 

confined   to   those  severe  enough  to  inflict  damage  upon  buildings  or 

otherwise  attract  general  attention.      The  most  complete  catalogue 

to  which  the  Commission  has  had  access  is  that 

Records  available.  •  *        -n      -i       ■»  *■  i-r.ii  « 

prepared  by  Mr.  p.   de   Montessus  de   Ballore, 
published  in  1888.     It  covers  the  entire  period  from  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  conquest  to  the  year  1886.     No  very  important  earthquake 
has  occurred  upon  either  the  Nicaragua  or  Panama  lines  since  the 
latter  date. 

The  record  for  points  upon  the  line  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  shows 
14  earthquakes.  Two  of  these  were  felt  at  Grey  Town,  which  has 
been  supposed  b}T  some  writers  to  be  exempt.  The  only  one  which  is 
reported  to  have  caused  serious  injury  was  that  of  1844 — Rivas  was 

almost  destroyed,  and  great  damage  was  done  at 

Earthquakes   on  Klcara-    Q  T()wn        Riyas  y  4  m[}^  from  ^  ^^  ^ 

gua  liue.  * 

and  is  the  only  town  of  consequence  in  that  part 
of  Nicaragua.  It  has  had  a  continuous  existence  since  a  period  ante- 
dating the  conquest,  when  it  was  known  as  Nicarao.  It  was  subse- 
quently known  as  Nicaragua. 

For  Panama  the  records  show  28  earthquakes.  Of  these,  12  occurred 
in  the  three  years  1882,  1883,  and  1884,  which  illustrates  the  incom- 
pleteness of  the  record  as  a  whole.  The  only  one  that  could  be  called 
destructive  was  that  of  1621,  which  destroyed  nearly  all  the  houses  in 

Panama.     The  next  most  severe  was  that  of  Sep- 

^Earthqnakes  on  Panama    ^^  ^   jgg^       During  fchig  earthquake  a  part  of 

the  front  of  the  cathedral  in  Panama  was  thrown 
down  and  the  headquarters  building  of  the  canal  company  was  cracked; 
the  railroad  had  its  track  and  roadbed  in  places  thrown  out  of  line, 
and  the  masonry  of  three  or  four  bridges  and  culverts  was  damaged; 
at  Las  Cruces  the  church  was  thrown  down;  at  Colon  some  lives  were 
lost  and  crevasses  were  opened,  and  the  Jamaica  telegraph  cable  was 
broken. 

It  is  evident  that  this  list  is  not  complete  enough  to  justify  a  com- 
parison between  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  routes  as  to  either  the 

number  of  earthquakes  or  their  severity.  They 
twNo°nneff8e.renCebetWee,,t!,e  are  on  precisely  the  same  footing  historically  as 

the}7  are  geographically.  In  neither  case  is  there 
recorded  any  great  disasters  such  as  have  occurred  in  neighboring 
countries.     The  earthquake  of  Caracas  to  the  eastward  in  1812,  and 

1  Cosmos,  Vol.  I,  p.  228. 

J  Tremblemente  de  Terre  et  Eruptions.  Volcaniques  au  Centre-Amerique,  by  F. 
de  Montessus  de  Ballore,  p.  61.  Societe  des  Sciences  Naturelles  de  Saone-et-Loire, 
Dijon,  1888. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  169 

that  of  Jamaica  to  the  northward  in  1092,  are  well  known  as  among 
the  most  destructive  in  history.  To  the  northwestward  the  town  of 
San  Salvador  has  been  ruined  ten  times  and  that  of  Guatemala  seven 
times.  To  the  southward,  the  earthquake  of  Riobamba,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Quito,  in  1779,  was  one  of  the  most  terrible  phenomena  in  the 
history  of  the  globe.1  With  the  exception  of  the  injury  to  Panama 
in  1621  and  to  Rivas  in  1844,  the  worst  that  has  ever  happened  at  the 
isthmus  upon  either  line  was  to  throw  down  or  crack  a  few  walls;  and 
even  in  those  cases  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  comparatively  few  of 
the  houses  were  substantially  built. 

The  internal  disturbance  which  results  in  an  earthquake  is  trans- 
mitted to  any  given  point  of  the  earth's  surface  in  the  form  of  an 
elastic  wave  of  compression,  and  its  effects  may  be  of  infinite  variety, 
depending  upon  the  varying  elasticity  of  the  different  media  through 
which  it  passes,  and  their  shape,  as  well  as  the 
eaX.Tkes!  aCtl<m  "  strength  and  distance  of  the  original  impulse. 
The  resulting  motion  may  be  vertical,  horizontal, 
or  oblique,  and  a  circular  or  twisting  effect  may  be  produced  if  the 
direction  of  the  force  be  not  in  a  vertical  plane  passing  through  the 
center  of  gravity  of  the  object  acted  upon.  Twisting  motion  would 
also  be  produced  by  two  waves  crossing  each  other.  The  ground  may 
be  elevated  or  depressed,  and  fissures  may  be  opened,  these  effects 
being  sometimes  temporary  and  sometimes  permanent.  The  effect  of 
the  undulations  of  the  earth's  surface  upon  an}*-  structure  increases 
with  the  height  of  the  structure  above  the  ground.  A  force  which 
would  leave  the  foundation  intact  might  throw  down  a  high  wall. 

The  works  of  the  canal  will  nearly  all  of  them  be  underground. 
Even  the  dams  are  low  compared  with  the  general  surface  of  the 
country  and  with  their  broad  and  massive  foundations  may  be  said  to 
form  part  of  the  ground  itself  as  they  are  intended 
Pefi°srr0fCanalWOrk8t0  to  do-  The  locks  will  all  be  founded  upon  rock. 
It  does  not  seem  probable  that  works  of  this  kind 
are  in  any  serious  danger  of  destruction  by  earthquakes  in  a  country 
where  lofty  churches  of  masonry  have  escaped  with  a  few  minor 
injuries. 

When  an  earthquake  originates  beneath  the  sea,  one  of  its  attendant 

phenomena  is  often  a  tidal  wave,  and  this  is  sometimes  of  enormous 

height  and  destructive  character.     At  Lisbon  the 

Tidal  wave.  °  . 

sea  rose  to  a  height  ot  50  ieet  above  its  ordinary 
level.2  With  a  given  force  of  impulse,  the  dimensions  of  such  a  wave 
must  bear  some  relation  to  the  depth  and  area  of  the  water  disturbed. 
A  lake  like  that  of  Nicaragua  is  insignificant  compared  with  the  ocean. 
It  is  not  probable  that  a  tidal  wave  of  great  proportions  could  be  gen- 
erated therein.     The  probability  is  still  less  for  Lake  Bohio. 

'Cosmos,  Vol.  1,  p.  194.  'Keith  Johnston's  Physical  Atlas,  p.  40. 


170  BEPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

It  is  possible  and  even  probable  that  the  more  accurately  fitting 

portions  of  the  canal,  such  as  the  lock  gates,  may  at  times  be  distorted 

by  earth  quakes,  and  some  inconvenience  may  result 

Injury  to  be  expected.  ,.  .  '    ,      .  , 

therefrom,  that  contingency  may  be  classed  with 
the  accidental  collision  of  ships  with  the  gates,  and  is  to  be  provided 
for  in  the  same  way,  by  duplicate  gates. 

It  is  possible  also  that  a  fissure  might  open  which  would  drain  the 
canal,  and  if  it  remained  open,  might  destroy  it.     This   possibility 

should  not  be  erected  by  the  fancy  into  a  threaten- 

Dangcr  from  a  fissure.         .  _.         .  *  .         .  .         . 

mg  danger.  It  a  timorous  imagination  is  to  be  the 
guide,  no  great  work  can  be  undertaken  anywhere.  This  risk  may  be 
classed  with  that  of  a  great  conflagration  in  a  city  like  that  of  Chicago 
in  1871,  or  Boston  in  1872. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  the  Commission  that  such  danger  as  exists  from 
earthquakes  is  essentially  the  same  for  both  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama 
routes,  and  that  in  neither  case  is  it  sufficient  to  prevent  the  construc- 
tion of  the  canal. 

The  climate  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  regions  is 

Climate. 

generally  damp  and  enervating,  lhe  temperature 
is  not  extreme,  rarety  rising  as  high  as  95°  or  falling  below  70°,  but 
the  excessive  humidity  greatly  restricts  the  capacity  for  physical  exer- 
tion. The  lowlands  near  the  coast  have  long  been  known  as  insalu- 
brious, and  the  seaports  are  subject  to  fevers. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  difficulty  to  be  encountered 
in  the  construction  of  the  canal  will  be  the  procurement  of  an  adequate 
force  of  laborers  and  the  preservation  of  their  health  and  efficiency. 

In  this  respect  the  Panama  route  has  a  lugubrious  history  from 
which  the  Nicaragua  route  is  free.     The  notorious  mortality  which 
attended  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Railroad  and  later  the  opera- 
tions of  the  Panama  Canal  Company  has  taught  a 

Kxperien,-,    at    Panama      j  faj   fa       jj,  fc  })Q   forgotten    for   that 

and  Nicaragua.  " 

route.  Among  the  white  employees  of  this  Com- 
mission sent  to  Nicaragua  there  were  fewer  cases  of  sickness  than 
there  would  probably  have  been  among  the  same  number  of  men 
employed  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States.  Among  those  sent  to 
Panama  the  proportion  of  sick  was  greater.  On  the  Nicaragua  line 
during  the  operations  of  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  the  health  of 
the  force  was  reported  to  be  good.  These  operations,  however,  were 
of  a  preliminary  character,  employing  but  a  limited  number  of  men. 
It  is  probable  that  when  ten  or  twenty  thousand  men  are  assembled 
and  the  rank  soil  is  being  turned  up  over  a  widely  developed  line  of 
works  the  experience  will  be  different. 

There  are  some  slight  differences  of  climate.  In  Nicaragua  the 
trade  winds  are  more  regular  than  at  Panama,  tempering  the  heat  and 
removing  miasma  more  effectively;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  rainfall 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  171 

is  greater  at  Nicaragua,  at  least  for  the  east  side,  and  the  resulting 
humidity  is  greater.  Both  are  covered  with  the  rank  vegetation  pecu- 
liar to  the  Tropics,  and  swamps  abound  in  both.  The  lessons  taught 
at  Panama  should  be  heeded  for  Nicaragua  also. 

It  is  stated  bv  Mr.  Bunau-Varilla,  at  one  time 

Lessons  from  Panama.  .  .  , 

chief  engineer  of  the  old  Panama  Canal  Company, 
that  out  of  one  hundred  individuals  sent  to  the  Isthmus  not  more  than 
twenty,  as  an  average,  could  remain  there,  and  even  these  lost  a  part 
of  their  value.  The  negro  alone  could  perform  manual  labor;  the 
white  man  must  supervise  and  direct.  After  costly  and  fatal  experi- 
ments with  other  races  the  company  ceased  sending  to  the  Isthmus  as 
laborers  any  but  native  Colombians  and  negroes  from  the  British 
Antilles,  particularly  Jamaica.  The  Panama  Railroad  Company  grants 
to  its  white  employees  from  the  United  States  two  months'  leave  of 
absence  each  year,  with  transportation  to  their  homes. 

Careful  selection,  including  physical  examination,  of  persons  sent 
to  the  Isthmus,  a  well-organized  hospital  service,  an  efficient  sanitary 

supervision  of  camps  and  barracks,  a  rigid  q  nar- 
ration™" heaitL.°r  preser"    antine  service,  a  liberal  water  supply  and  sewerage 

system,  with  the  authority  and  the  police  force 
necessary  to  enforce  the  rules,  and  regular  leaves  of  absence  to  white 
emplo}'ees,  are  among  the  requirements  for  a  successful  prosecution 
of  the  work,  and  will  probably  be  found  necessary  at  either  place*. 


Chapter  VIII. 

BIGHTS,  PRIVILEGES,  AND  FRANCHISES, 

The  act  of  Congress  under  which  the  Commis- 
toinTesu^uon.0' laWa8  s*on  was  appointed  and  the  instructions  of  the 
Chief  Executive  thereunder  require  a  full  and 
complete  investigation  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  with  a  view  to  deter- 
mining the  most  feasible  and  practicable  route  across  said  Isthmus  for 
a  canal,  together  with  the  cost  of  constructing  and  placing  the  same 
under  the  control,  management,  and  ownership  of  the  United  States. 

The  right  to  own  and  manage  the  canal  when  constructed  can  not  be 
exercised  without  control  of  the  territory  through  which  its  line  actu- 
ally passes  and  that  immediately  contiguous  thereto  and  the  ports  or 
harbors  at  either  end,  also  that  occupied  by  the  auxiliary  works;  and 
in  order  that  the  duties  of  the  Commission  may  be  clearly  understood, 
it  is  important  to  consider  and  determine  how  far  it  was  contemplated 
by  the  law-making  power  that  this  control  should  extend. 

The  proposition  before  Congress  up  1  which  this  legislation  was 
based  was  that  the  United  States  should,  in  a  governmental  capacity, 
construct,  maintain,  and  operate  a  navigable  waterway  through  the 
territory  of  foreign  states. 

This  can  not  be  done  under  the  laws  of  nations  without  their  con- 
sent, and  no  treaties  then  existed  or  have  since  been  concluded  giving 
such  consent. 

Treaties  have  been  heretofore  made  by  the  United  States  and  by  the 
Governments  through  whose  territory  the  different  canal  routes  men- 
tioned in  the  law  extend  relating  to  this  subject  of  an  interoceanic 
communication,  and  in  all  of  them  these  States  have  expressly  reserved 
the  right  of  sovereignty  and  it  has  been  respected  by  our  Government. 
Thev  have  made  a  like  reservation  in  all  the  contracts  made  with  cor- 
porations, associations,  and  individuals  granting  privileges  to  enable 
them  to  construct  a  canal  by  these  different  routes. 

The  organic  laws  that  the  people  of  these  different  States  have  made 
for  themselves  give  no  authority  to  relinquish  sovereignty  over  any 
part  of  their  territory  to  a  foreign  power  for  this  or  any  other  pur- 
pose. If  the  government  and  people  were  willing  to  make  such 
changes  in  them  as  would  authorize  the  cession  of  any  part  of  their 
territory,  these  changes  could  be  effected  only  after  long  delays,  that 
would  seriously  hinder  and  delay  the  inauguration  of  this  great  under- 
taking. 
172 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  173 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  this  subject  of  constructing  a  mari- 
time canal  had  been  before  Congress  many  times  before  the  law  under 
consideration  was  enacted,  and  that  no  proposition  to  obtain  the  entire 
and  absolute  control  that  sovereignty  gives  was  ever  adopted  by  either 
House.  If  a  departure  from  the  line  of  action  which  had  been  fol- 
lowed up  to  that  time  was  intended,  it  would  doubtless  have  been 
clearly  expressed. 

The  acquisition  of  the  territory  to  be  occupied 
Sovereign^  or   united    and  the  extension  over  it  of  the  sovereignty  of 

states    over     canal    route  .  .  a       J 

not  requisite.  the  United  States,  desirable  and  advantageous  as  it 

might  be,  is  not  essential  to  the  success  of  such  a 
project  as  the  statute  contemplates.  The  Republics  owning  the  pro- 
posed routes  are  all  friendly  to  an  interoceanic  communication,  and 
there  are  no  constitutional  or  other  legal  obstructions  in  the  way  of  an 
agreement,  in  harmony  with  existing  treaty  obligations  between  any 
of  them  and  the  United  States,  authorizing  the  latter  to  enter  its  terri- 
tory and  excavate  a  canal  there  with  such  additional  authority  as  may 
be  necessary  to  make  and  enforce  police  and  quarantine  regulations, 
establish  and  collect  tolls  and  other  proper  charges,  and  protect  the 
canal  and  those  engaged  in  its  construction  and  operation  and  the  per- 
sons and  property  using  and  passing  through  it  when  completed,  such 
powers  and  privileges  to  be  exercised  subject  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Republics  in  which  the  property  is  situated. 

In  order  to  exercise  these  rights  and  perform 
quired!  °  "  0ry  ™"  these  functions  the  United  States  will  require  the 
control  of  a  strip  of  territory  from  sea  to  sea, 
including  the  canal  and  auxiliary  works,  with  sufficient  space  at  each 
terminus  for  all  port  and  harbor  accommodations,  including  offices, 
warehouses,  residences  for  officials  and  workmen,  docks,  light-houses, 
and  quarantine  stations.  Within  this  area  those  charged  with  the 
direction  of  the  canal  project  during  the  period  of  construction,  and 
with  the  management  and  operation  of  the  work  and  its  auxiliaries 
after  completion,  should  have  power  to  protect  the  entire  line  from 
intrusion  by  evil-disposed  persons,  prevent  smuggling,  regulate  the 
kinds  of  business  that  ordinarily  require  control,  and  enforce  police, 
sanitary,  and  other  appropriate  rules  and  regulations,  as  well  as  con- 
tracts relating  to  the  construction  and  operation  of  the  canal. 
_     ...    .  M  The  strip  should  be  of  sufficient  width  to  pre- 

Breadth  of  strip.  r  i 

vent  wrongdoers  from  easily  withdrawing  beyond 
the  limits  of  police  jurisdiction  and  thus  avoid  arrest  and  escape  pun- 
ishment. It  should  be  not  less  than  10  miles  in  width;  that  is,  5  miles 
on  each  side  of  the  center  line  of  the  canal  throughout  its  entire 
length  and  including  its  terminal  harbors. 

ifrights,  privileges,  and        Any  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises  still  in 
franchises  exist,  they    force  which  may  have  been  granted  by  the  States 

should  be  removed.  .i  .,  ,  .. 

owning    the    territory  to   corporations,   associa- 


174  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

tions,  or  individuals  at  any  of  these  canal  routes  are  in  the  wa}T  of 
negotiations  to  secure  the  desired  privileges  and  powers,  and  the 
Commission  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  ascertaining  what  rights  of 
this  nature  exist  and  upon  what  terms  they  can  be  purchased  and 
removed. 

Such  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises  depend 

Treaties  to  be  examined.  °  ,        .  .  .  ,      ,  -. 

largely  upon  the  international  relations  and  obli- 
gations which  exist  between  the  Governments  whose  territory  is  to  be 
occupied  and  the  United  States  and  other  Governments  claiming  an 
interest  in  the  subject  of  an  interoceanic  communication;  so  this 
investigation  property  begins  with  an  examination  of  the  treaties 
between  these  different  Governments  in  order  to  ascertain  upon  what 
basis  such  grants  and  concessions  have  rested,  and  also  to  determine 
whether  any  definite  policy  has  been  developed  by  the  negotiations 
which  have  resulted  in  these  conventions  with  reference  to  opening  a 
communication  for  the  commerce  of  the  world  across  the  American 
isthmus  and  its  future  control  and  ownership.  If  airy  other  obstacles 
exist  in  the  way  of  obtaining  the  necessary  authority  to  occupy  and 
use  the  territory  required,  such  an  investigation  will  develop  them, 
and  this  is  the  first  step  toward  their  removal. 

The  treaties  relating  to  the  Nicaragua  route  will 
arS™Ie!at,ngt°KJC"  first  be  considered,  and  these  include  not  only 
those  concluded  with  the  Republic  of  Nicaragua, 
but  also  those  in  which  the  Republic  of  Costa  Rica  was  one  of  the 
contracting  parties,  as  the  geographical  situation  requires  the  consent 
of  both  these  Governments  before  a  canal  can  be  constructed  on  this 
route,  for  though  but  little  of  the  territory  of  the  latter  will  be  used 
in  any  of  the  proposed  plans,  much  of  it  will  be  affected  therein'. 

Whatever  doubt  may  have  existed  upon  this 
estedh. th's^oute!  '"  point  was  removed  by  the  award  made  by  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  on  the  22d  day  of  March,  1888, 
in  the  arbitration  for  the  settlement  of  the  differences  which  had  arisen 
between  the  two  Republics  as  to  their  respective  boundary  rights,  in 
which  it  was  expressly  determined  that  in  cases  where  the  construc- 
tion of  an  interoceanic  canal  across  Nicaragua  will  involve  an  injury 
to  the  natural  rights  of  Costa  Rica,  her  consent  to  its  construction  is 
necessary,  and  she  may  demand  compensation  for  the  concessions  she 
is  asked  to  make. 

On  the  21st  day  of  June,  1867,  a  treaty  was 
Treaty  between  Dnited    negotiated    between    the    United    States   and   the 

States     and      Nicaragua,  " 

18G7.  Republic  or  Nicaragua  for  the  purpose  or  main- 

taining and  improving  the  friendly  relations  then 
existing  between  them,  of  promoting  the  commerce  of  their  citizens, 
and,  last  and  chiefly,  of  making  some  mutual  arrangement  with  respect 
to  a  communication  between  the  two  oceans  by  the  river  San  Juan  and 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  175 

cither  or  both  the  lakes  of  Nicaragua  and  Managua,  or  by  any  other 
route  through  the  territories  of  Nicaragua. 

The  two  Republics  agreed  upon  a  reciprocal  freedom  of  commerce, 
opened  their  ports,  rivers,  and  harbors  to  the  ships  and  cargoes  of  each 
other,  and  assured  to  the  merchants  and  traders  of  each  nation,  respec- 
tively, complete  protection  and  security  to  their  commerce,  subject 
always  to  the  laws  of  the  two  countries.  The  respective  ships  of  war 
and  post-office  packets  of  each  Government  were  granted  the  same 
liberty  to  enter  the  ports  of  the  other,  anchor  and  refit  there,  as  the 
war  ships  and  packets  of  other  nations  enjoyed.  And  generally  they 
declared  their  intention  to  treat  each  other  on  the  footing  of  the  most 
favored  nations  and  any  favor,  privilege,  or  immunity  in  matters  of 
commerce  and  navigation  already  granted,  or  that  might  thereaftei 
be  granted,  to  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  other  State  was  extended 
on  equal  terms  to  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  the  other  contracting 
part}7. 

The  Republic  of  Nicaragua  also  granted  to  the  United  States  and  to 
their  citizens  and  property  the  right  of  transit  between  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans  through  its  territory  on  any  route  of  communica- 
tion, natural  or  artificial,  by  land  or  water,  then  existing  or  to  be 
thereafter  constructed  under  the  authority  of  Nicaragua,  the  same  to 
be  used  on  equal  terms  by  both  Republics  and  their  citizens,  Nicara- 
gua, however,  reserving  its  sovereignty  over  the  same. 

The  United  States  agreed  to  protect  all  such  routes  of  communica- 
tion and  to  guarantee  their  neutrality  and  innocent  use;  also  to  influ- 
ence other  nations,  as  far  as  possible,  to  guarantee  such  neutrality 
and  protection. 

Liberty  was  granted  to  the  United  States,  on  giving  notice  to  the 
authorities  of  Nicaragua,  to  carry  troops  and  munitions  of  war  from 
one  free  port  to  the  other  to  be  established  at  each  extremity  of  the 
line  of  communication  between  the  two  oceans  without  charges  or 
tolls  for  their  transportation,  provided  such  troops  and  munitions  were 
not  to  be  employed  against  Central  American  nations  friendly  to 
Nicaragua. 

Nicaragua  agreed  to  employ  military  forces  when  necessary  for  the 
security  and  protection  of  persons  and  property  passing  over  any  such 
route  of  communication.  But  upon  failure  to  do  so  authority  was 
given  to  the  United  States,  in  certain  specified  contingencies,  to  employ 
such  force,  but  onty  for  the  purpose  of  protection,  the  force  to  be 
immediately  withdrawn  when  the  necessity  should  cease. 

Nicaragua  agreed  to  protect  and  preserve  the  rights  and  privileges, 
with  reference  to  the  establishment  of  an  interoceanic  communication, 
granted  to  the  United  States  by  this  treaty  in  any  grants  or  contracts 
thereafter  entered  into  by  the  Government.  And  the  assurance  of 
protection  to  such  routes,  given  by  the  United  States,  was  declared 


176  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

inoperative,  so  far  as  prior  grants  were  concerned,  unless  their  holders 
should  agree  to  observe  the  concessions  granted  by  the  treaty  as  fully 
as  if  they  had  been  embraced  in  the  original  grants  or  contracts. 

This  treaty  was  ratified  in  June,  1868,  and  was  to  remain  in  force 
for  fifteen  years  thereafter,  or  longer,  unless  one  of  the  parties  should 
give  notice  to  the  other  of  its  intention  to  terminate  it  at  least  twelve 
months  before  the  expiration  of  that  time.  If  such  notice  were  not 
given,  it  could  at  any  time  thereafter  be  terminated,  in  twelve  months, 
in  the  same  way. 

The  Government  of  Nicaragua  exercised  this  privilege  on  the  27th 
of  September  last,  and  the  notice  was  received  by  the  Secretary  of 
State  on  the  24th  day  of  October,  so  that  in  twelve  months  from  that 
date  the  treat}7  will  be  abrogated. 

It  is  thoroughly  understood  that  this  action  has  been  taken  in  a 
friendly  spirit  and  with  a  desire  to  remove  all  obstructions  in  the  way 
of  a  new  treaty,  in  harmony  with  the  cordial  relations  of  friendship 
which  happily  exist  between  the  two  Governments. 

A  copy  of  this  treaty  is  attached  to  this  report  marked  Appendix  K. 

Subsequently,  on  the  1st  day  of   December,  1884,  another  treaty 
was   negotiated   between   the   United   States  and 
treat  JNicaragua.      It   is   generally  known  as  the  rre- 

linghuysen-Zavala  treaty  and  its  purpose  was  to 
provide  for  the  construction  of  a  navigable  canal  across  the  territory 
of  Nicaragua  by  the  United  States,  to  be  owned  by  the  two  contracting 
Republics. 

It  provided  for  a  perpetual  alliance  between  the  United  States  and 
Nicaragua,  and  the  former  agreed  to  protect  the  integrity  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  latter  and  disavowed  any  intention  to  seek  in  any  wa}T  to 
impair  its  independent  sovereignty. 

The  canal  was  to  be  constructed  by  the  United  States  upon  the  most 
available  route  from  ocean  to  ocean  and  was  to  be  commenced  within 
two  years  from  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  and  completed  within  ten 
years,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  circumstances  would  permit.  It  was 
to  be  large  enough  to  accommodate  vessels  of  the  greatest  size  in  use 
and  when  completed  was  to  be  managed  by  a  board  of  six  directors; 
three  of  these  were  to  be  appointed  by  Nicaragua,  the  other  three, 
including  the  chairman,  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  chairman  was  to  have  a  casting  vote,  in  addi- 
tion to  his  vote  as  a  member  of  the  board,  whenever  the  members 
were  equally  divided.  Costa  Rica  was  not  a  party  to  this  arrange- 
ment and  the  treaty  included  no  provision  for  the  protection  of  any 
rights  that  Republic  might  have  upon  or  near  the  line  of  the  canal. 

Nicaragua  permitted  the  free  use  of  its  territory,  so  far  as  might  be 
necessary,  for  the  construction,   maintenance,  and  operation  of  the 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    (ANAL    COMMISSION.  177 

canal,  and  granted  valuable  concessions  and  privileges  in  aid  of  the 
enterprise,  but  all  the  money  needed  for  the  construction  was  to  be 
furnished  by  the  United  States.  A  strip  of  territory  2$  miles  in  width, 
the  center  line  to  coincide  with  the  center  line  of  the  canal,  and  a  strip 
of  the  same  width  around  the  south  end  of  the  lake  and  along  the  river, 
where  used  a  part  of  the  canal,  were  t'>  be  set  apart  for  the  work. 
This  was  to  be  owned  by  the  contracting  parlies,  but  Nicaragua  was  to 
exercise  civil  jurisdiction  within  it,  and  was  to  provide  a  police  system 
to  keep  the  peace  and  prevent  smuggling  into  her  territory;  the  cost 
of  this  service  was  to  be  a  charge  upon  the  revenues  of  the  canal. 

The  net  earnings  of  the  work  when  in  operation  were  to  be  divided 
quarterly  between  the  twTo  contracting  parties,  one-third  to  belong  to 
Nicaragua,  two-thirds  to  the  United  States. 

The  United  States  agreed  also  to  advance  to  Nicaragua  $4,000,000,  to 
be  repaid  with  3  per  cent  interest  from  its  share  of  the  dividends  or 
from  the  general  revenues  of  the  Republic,  as  might  be  most  conven- 
ient, but  the  repayment  was  not  to  be  exacted  till  ten  years  after  the 
opening  of  the  canal  to  commerce. 

If  the  terms  of  the  treaty  were  not  compatible  with  other  treaties 
made  by  the  Republic  with  other  Governments,  Nicaragua  agreed  to 
terminate  such  incompatible  treaties  without  unnecessary  delay. 

Each  party  agreed  not  to  dispose  or  suffer  itself  to  be  deprived  of 
its  interest  in  the  canal  property  without  the  consent  of  the  other 
manifested  by  legislative  enactment. 

This  treaty  was  submitted  to  the  Senate  and  was  there  rejected,  but 
a  motion  was  made  to  reconsider  the  rejection,  and  Congress  adjourned 
before  final  action  was  taken  upon  this  motion.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  next  Congress  and  before  any  further  action  had  been  taken  the 
treaty  was  withdrawn  by  President  Cleveland  for  the  reason,  given  in 
his  message  of  December,  1885,  that  the  engagement  to  form  a  per- 
petual alliance  with  Nicaragua  and  protect  the  territorial  integrity  of 
that  State  was  inconsistent  with  the  declared  policy  of  the  United 
States. 

A  copy  of  this  treaty  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  L. 

Prior  to  these  treaties  with  the  United  States 

Treaty  between  Nicaragua  Nicaragua,   on   the   11th   day  of  February,  1860, 

and  Ureal  Britain,  Febru-  T  •  •"  ' 

ary,  1SG0.  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  very  simi- 

lar in  its  terms  to  the  first-named  treaty  with  the 
United  States.  It,  however,  gave  either  party  the  right  to  terminate 
it  after  the  expiration  of  twenty  years,  upon  giving  due  notice  to  the 
other,  and  Nicaragua  exercised  this  right  by  giving  such  notice  on  the 
7th  day  of  May,  1887,  in  response  to  which  Great  Britain  announced 

Terminated.                  tnat  the  treaty  would  expire  on  the  11th  day  of 
June,  1888. 
S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 12 


178  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

A  copy  of  this  treaty  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  M. 

Another  treaty  had  been  made  by  these  powers 

Treat, i.ehvcen Nicaragua  with  one  another  on  the  28th  day  of   January. 

and  Great  Britain,  January,    <___  .  .  _  «  .  .    . 

i860.  1860,  which  is  still  in  force.     In  one  or  its  articles 

Nicaragua  agreed  to  declare  the  port  of  Grey  Town 
a  free  port  under  its  own  sovereignty.  It  was  agreed  that  no  dues  or 
charges  should  be  imposed  upon  vessels  using  this  port  other  than 
such  as  should  be  sufficient  for  the  maintenance  and  safety  of  naviga- 
tion and  providing  the  expense  of  police,  and  no  charges  or  duties 
were  to  be  levied  upon  goods  in  transit  through  this  port  from  sea 
to  sea. 

A  copy  of  this  treaty  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  X. 
A  treaty  was  also  made  by  Nicaragua  with 
an?Fr?nbce!78T9MCara?Uil  France  on  the  11th  day  of  April,  1850,  and  it 
was  confirmed  early  in  the  following  year.  It 
extended  to  France  the  right  of  transit  across  the  territory  of  the 
Republic  by  all  natural  or  artificial  routes  on  land  or  sea  then  existing 
or  thereafter  constructed,  to  be  used  and  enjoyed  in  the  same  manner 
and  on  equal  terms  by  both  of  the  contracting  parties  and  their  citizens 
and  subjects.  France  consented  to  extend  protection  to  all  such  routes 
of  communication,  to  guarantee  .their  neutrality  and  inoffensive  use. 
and  to  use  whatever  influence  the  Government  might  have  with  other 
nations  to  persuade  them  also  to  guarantee  this  neutrality  and  pro- 
tection. It  contains  a  like  agreement  on  the  part  of  Nicaragua  to 
employ  military  force  when  necessary  for  the  security  and  protection 
of  persons  and  property  passing  over  any  such  route  of  communication, 
and  to  permit  the  other  contracting  party  to  employ  its  own  military 
force  for  such  protection  under  certain  circumstances  to  that  found 
in  the  treaties  alread}T  referred  to  with  the  United  States  and  Gnat 
Britain. 

A  copy  of  this  treaty  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  O. 

After  this  treaty  had  been  in  force  for  twenty  years,  either  party 
was  by  its  terms  authorized,  by  giving  twelve  months'  notice  to  the 
other,  to  terminate  its  provisions  relating  to  commerce  and  navigation; 
but  if  such  action  were  taken,  the  articles  concerning  the  relations  of 
peace  and  amity  were  to  remain  binding  on  the  two  powers. 

Nicaragua  gave  such  notice  on  the  9th  day  of  May,  1897,  and  France 
accepted  the  action  in  the  following  year. 

Other  treaties  were   made   by  Nicaragua     with 

Other   treaties   made  liy      o        •        •        -,  otn\  'xl      t>    i     •  •        -io~o  *aI      it    l 

Nicaragua.  opain  in  18o0,  with   Belgium   in  18;>S,  with   Italy 

in  18(58,  two  with  Costa  Rica  in  L869,  and  one 
with  Germany  in  1896.  Some  of  these  mention  the  canal  project  and 
grant  the  privilege  of  transit,  and  the  contracting  parties  generally 
treat  with  each  other  on  the  footing  of  the  most  favored  nations. 
They  all  aid  in  ascertaining  the  views  which  the  commercial  nations 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    (ANAL    COMMISSION.  179 

and  people  of  the  world  have  hold,  and  .still  hold,  with  reference  to 
the  establishment  of  an  interoceanic  waterway,  and  the  policy  that 
should  be  maintained  in  its  management.  A  list  of  these  treaties 
made  by  Nicaragua,  and  the  publication  in  which  each  can  be  found,  is 
attached  to  this  report,  marked  "Appendix  P." 

ciayton-Buhver  treaty.  rhe     Clayton-Bulwer    treaty,    made     between 

Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  on  the  19th 
day  of  June,  1S50,  also  has  an  important  bearing-  upon  this  subject, 
although  neither  Nicaragua  nor  Costa  Rica  was  a  party  to  it;  for  in 
its  preamble  it  is  stated  that  it  was  entered  into  for  the  purpose  of 
setting 'forth  and  fixing  the  views  and  intentions  of  the  two  contract- 
ing parties  with  reference  to  any  means  of  communication  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  by  the  way  of  the  river  San  Juan 
'and  either  or  both  of  the  lakes  of  Nicaragua  and  Managua  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

In  this  treaty  the  two  Governments  declared  that  neither  would  ever 
obtain  or  maintain  for  itself  any  exclusive  control  over  the  proposed 
communication  by  canal;  that  neither  would  ever  erect  or  maintain 
any  fortifications  commanding  the  same  or  in  the  vicinity  thereof,  or 
occupy,  fortify,  or  exercise  any  dominion  over  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica, 
or  any  part  of  Central  America;  and  that  neither  would  use  any  alli- 
ance or  influence  it  might  possess  with  any  state  or  government 
through  whose  territory  the  said  canal  might  pass  for  the  purpose  of 
acquiring  for  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  the  one  any  rights  or  advan- 
tages in  regard  to  commerce  or  navigation  through  the  said  canal 
which  should  not  be  offered  on  the  same  terms  to  the  citizens  or  sub- 
jects of  the  other. 

In  case  of  war  between  the  contracting  parties,  it  was  agreed  that 
the  vessels  of  each  country  should  be  exempt  from  blockade  or  capture 
by  either  of  the  belligerents  while  traversing  the  canal  or  near  either 
of  its  ends. 

The  contracting  parties  further  engaged  to  protect  the  canal  when 
completed  and  guarantee  its  neutrality,  so  that  it  might  be  forever 
open  and  free  and  the  capital  invested  in  it  be  secure;  and  they  agreed 
to  invite  every  State  to  enter  into  similar  stipulations,  so  that  all 
might  share  in  the  honor  and  advantage  of  having  contributed  to  a 
work  of  such  general  interest  and  importance. 

They  also  declared  that  they  entered  into  this  convention  not  only 
to  accomplish  a  particular  object,  but  also  to  establish  a  general  prin 
ciple,  and  agreed  that  they  would,  by  further  treaty  stipulations,  extend 
their  protection  to  any  other  practicable  communications  across  the 
isthmus,  whether  by  canal  or  railway,  particularly  to  the  interoceanic 
communications  by  the  way  of  Tehauntepec  or  Panama. 

A  copy  of  this  treaty  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  "Appen- 
dix Q."  LF 


180  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

A  subsequent  treaty  was  negotiated  between  the 
Treaty  between   cmted  contracting  parties  at  Washington  on  the  5th  day 

States  and  Great  Britain  of       .  _.  ,  ™       „         ^  ,.  ,.„    . 

February 6, 1900.  of  February,  190v0,  tor  the  purpose  or  modifying 

the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty,  which  was  amended  by 
the  Senate  before  ratification,  but  the  amendments  were  not  accepted 
by  Great  Britain. 

An  examination  of  all  these  treaties  shows  that 
i.Je°ro!ea»uheanlre,,Ce  *°  Nicaragua  has  for  a  long-  period  favored  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  communication  for  commerce  and 
travel  and  governmental  operations  through  its  territory  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  with  a  free  port  at  each  extremity,  and  that 
the  contracting  Governments  are  in  harmony  upon  the  following 
points  with  reference  to  the  construction  and  operation  of  any  such 
route  through  Nicaraguan  territory,  if  a  maritime  canal  is  there  located. 
These  points  of  agreement  indicate  a  well-defined  policy  with  reference 
to  this  subject,  which  is  acceptable  to  the  nations  and  people  of  the 
world  that  have  manifested  an  interest  in  an  interoceanic  communi- 
cation. 

1.  The  recognition  of  the  right  of  sovereignty  of  Nicaragua  over 
the  territor}^  of  the  Republic  to  be  occupied  in  making  and  maintain- 
ing the  proposed  communication  between  the  two  oceans. 

2.  The  right  of  transit  by  this  route  and  its  innocent  use  to  be 
enjoyed  upon  equal  terms  by  other  governments,  their  citizens  and 
subjects. 

3.  The  neutrality  of  the  route  guarantied  by  the  contracting  parties, 
with  an  agreement  to  use  their  influence  to  induce  other  nations  to 
make  a  like  guaranty. 

4.  Military  force  to  be  supplied  by  Nicaragua  when  needed  for  the 
security  and  protection  of  the  canal  and  auxiliary  works,  the  officers 
and  workmen  engaged  in  its  construction  and  operation,  and  the  ves- 
sels passing  through  it,  with  their  officers,  crews,  passengers,  and 
cargoes. 

5.  If  Nicaragua  fails  at  any  time  to  employ  a  force  adequate  for  this 
purpose,  other  contracting  parties  may  furnish  such  force  with  the 
consent  of  Nicaragua,  and,  in  exceptional  cases  of  imminent  danger, 
without  such  consent. 

6.  Grants  relating  to  interoceanic  communications  are  to  be  subject 
to  the  privileges  conceded  by  these  treaties. 

7.  Each  contracting  party  in  these  treaties  stands  toward  the  other 
on  the  footing  of  the  most  favored  nation. 

These  treaties  relate  to  projects  to  be  undertaken  by  companies  or 
individuals,  with  the  exception  of  the  Frelinghuysen-Zavala  treaty, 
negotiated  between  Nicaragua  and  the  United  States  in  December. 
1884;  this  is  the  only  one  in  which  the  consent  of  any  of  these  Gov- 
ernments has  been  given  for  the  construction  and  operation  of  a  canal 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  181 

through  its  territory,  to  be  owned  and  operated  in  whole  or  in  part  by 
the  United  Slates. 
The  withdrawal  of  the  Frelinghuysen-Zavala  treaty  was  followed 

by  negotiations  between  AnieetoG.  Menocal,  a  member  and  represent- 
ative of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Association  of  New  York,  and  the  Gov- 
concession  to  Nicaragua  ernment  of  Nicaragua,  which  resulted  in  a  certain 
Canal  Association.  concession   from   the   Republic,  granting   to  the 

association  the  exclusive  privilege  of  excavating  and  operating  a 
maritime  canal  across  the  territory  of  Nicaragua  between  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans,  with  grants  of  lands,  exemption  from  taxation, 
and  other  valuable  rights  and  franchises,  to  aid  in  the  construction, 
maintenance,  and  operation  of  the  work. 

The  concession  was  to  be  exercised  by  a  company  of  execution  to 
be  called  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua,  and  was  to  con- 
tinue for  ninety-nine  years  from  the  day  the  canal  should  be  opened 
to  universal  traffic.  The  association  was  allowed  two  and  a  half 
years  from  the  date  of  the  ratification  of  the  contract,  on  the  21th 
day  of  April,  1887,  to  make  the  preliminary  arrangements  and  com- 
mence the  work  of  construction,  and  the  company  of  execution  was 
required  to  complete  the  canal  and  open  it  for  maritime  navigation 
within  ten  years  thereafter;  but  it  was  agreed  that  in  case  of  unavoid- 
able delays  impeding  the  progress  of  the  work  the  time  should  be 
extended. 

In  case  of  failure  to  complete  the  canal  within  the  time  designated 
in  the  contract  or  within  the  period  of  extension,  if  an  extension 
should  be  granted,  the  concession  was  to  be  forfeited;  and  at  the  close 
of  the  term  of  ninety-nine  years,  or  in  the  event  of  a  forfeiture,  the 
Republic  was  to  enter  upon  possession  of  the  entire  work  and  all 
the  establishments  used  in  its  administration  in  perpetuity,  but  the 
grantees  were  to  have  the  right  to  lease  the  property  for  another 
period  of  ninety-nine  years,  on  the  condition  of  paying  to  the  Republic 
25  per  cent  of  the  annual  net  profits,  in  addition  to  the  dividends  due 
upon  its  shares  in  the  capital  stock.  At  the  close  of  this  second  term 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  were  to 
expire  and  the  canal  was  to  belong  to  the  Republic  in  perpetuit}*. 

In  consideration  of  the  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises  conceded 
to  the  company  the  Republic  was  to  receive  in  shares,  bonds,  certifi- 
cates, or  other  securities  issued  to  raise  the  corporate  capital  6  percent 
of  the  total  amount  of  the  issue,  such  amount  in  no  event  to  be  less 
than  $4,000,000— that  is,  40,000  shares  or  obligations  of  $100,000  each— 
the  same  to  be  subject  to  no  charges,  assessments,  or  payments.  The 
interest  of  the  Republic  was  to  be  represented  in  the  board  of  directors 
of  the  company  by  one  member  to  be  appointed  by  the  Government 
with  the  same  powers,  privileges,  and  rights  that  other  members  might 
be  entitled  to  under  the  act  of  incorporation  and  the  rules  made  there- 


182  REPORT    OF    THP:    ISTHMIAN"    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

under.  As  a  further  compensation  it  was  stipulated  that  no  tolls  or 
charges  should  be  exacted  from  Nicaragua!)  ships  of  war,  and  that 
merchant  vessels  belonging  wholly  to  citizens  of  the  Republic  and 
sailing  under  the  Nicaraguan  flag  should  pay  only  one-half  of  the 
usual  tolls  for  the  use  of  the  canal  while  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade 
or  in  reciprocal  trade  with  other  Republics  of  Central  America  or 
when  beginning  a  foreign  voyage  with  a  cargo  composed  wholhT  of 
home  products.  Under  certain  circumstances  like  privileges  were  to 
be  extended  to  the  other  Republics  of  Central  America. 

A  copy  of  this  contract  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  "Appen- 
dix R." 

In  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  concession 

Maritime  Canal  Company    £  >!•  j  £   -\m\       i.  jz  /~i      ± 

of  Nicaragua  incorporated.  from  Nicaragua  and  one  of  like  terms  from  Costa 
Rica,  which  will  be  referred  to  more  at  length  later 
on  in  this  report,  a  compan}T  of  execution  was  organized  under  the 
name  of  "The  Maritime  Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua"  and  was  incor- 
porated by  an  act  of  Congress  approved  on  the  20th  day  of  February, 
1SS9. 

A  copy  of  this  act  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  "Appen- 
dix S." 

The  company  was  required  by  this  act  to  make  an  annual  report  on 
the  rirst  Monday  of  December  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  giving 
under  oath  a  detailed  statement  of  its  affairs,  its  assets  and  liabilities. 
This  requirement  has  been-  complied  with,  and  the  report  has  been 
printed  as  a  Senate  executive  document  each  year  since  1889. 

From  these  reports  it  appears  that  the  surveys  and  plans  for  the 
canal  were  completed  within  the  time  required  by  the  concession  and 
duly  approved  by  the  Nicaraguan  Government,  and  that  the  work  of 
actual  construction  had  been  begun  within  this  limit  and  officially 
recognized  on  the  8th  day  of  October,  1889.  The  work  proceeded 
under  a  contract  with  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Construction  Company, 
and  some  progress  was  made,  but  the  construction  company  met 
with  financial  embarrassment,  the  work  was  stopped,  and  the  company 
was  obliged  to  suspend  payment.  This  resulted  in  the  appointment 
of  a  receiver  for  the  companj7  on  the  30th  day  of  August,  1893,  hy 
the  circuit  court  of  the  United  States  for  the  southern  district  of 
New  York,  and  the  work  of  construction  has  not  been  since  resumed. 
The  President  of  Nicaragua,  in  a  message  to  the 

Concession   of     Maritime  ° 

tanai    Company   declared   Congress  or  tlie  Republic  dated  on  the  2<tn  day 

forfeited.  ox  ^ 

of  October,  1898,  announced  that  the  contract  had 
become  null  and  void,  owing  to  the  lack  of  fulfillment  of  its  most 
essential  clauses  and  the  abandonment  of  the  work;  but  an  official 
declaration  of  forfeiture  was  delayed  until  after  the  time  fixed  for  the 
completion  of  the  work,  the  8th  day  of  October,  1899.  Since  then 
such  declaration  has  been  made,  and  by  the  terms  of  the  contract  a 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION".  183 

forfeiture  authorizes  Nicaragua  to  enter  upon  possession  in  perpe- 
tuity of  all  the  property  oi'  the  company  within  the  territory  of  the 
Republic  without  being  required  to  pay  any  indemnity. 

Before  the  time  limited  for  the  construction  and 
conm»Biontoiiiteroceanic  completion  of  the  canal  the  Government  of  Nica- 

Canal  Company.  i 

ragua,  on  the  31st  day  of  August,  1898,  entered 

into  another  contract,  or  "promise  of  contract,"  as  it  was  officially 

designated,  for  the  construction  of  an  interoceanic  canal  through  the 

territory  of  the  Republic.     The  other  contracting-  parties  were  Edward 

Eyre  and  Edward  F.  Cragin,  who  agreed  to  organize  a  company  of 

execution  to  be  called   "The  Interoceanic   Canal  Company,"  which 

should  perform  the  obligations  entered  into  with  the  State. 

It  was  declared  that  the  concession  to  the  Maritime  Company  would 
expire  by  its  terms  on  the  9th  day  of  October,  1899,  and  that  the 
new  concession  to  Messrs.  Eyre  and  Cragin  should  take  effect  on  the 
following  day  without  further  action.  Messrs.  Eyre  and  Cragin  were, 
however,  permitted  to  negotiate  wTith  the  Maritime  Company,  so  as  to 
secure  the  recision  of  its  contract  at  an  earlier  da}7,  in  which  event  the 
Interoceanic  Canal  Compan}7  was  to  be  permitted  to  enter  upon  its 
privileges  from  the  date  of  the  recision. 

This  contract  gave  to  the  Interoceanic  Canal  Company  many  valuable 
prerogatives  and  franchises,  in  addition  to  the  grants,  exemptions,  and 
other  privileges  connected  with  the  canal  project,  authorizing  the 
corporation  to  embark  in  business  enterprises  of  many  different  kinds 
throughout  the  entire  Republic. 

Messrs.  Eyre  and  Cragin  obligated  themselves  to  effect  the  organi- 
zation of  the  company  of  execution  within  six  months  from  the 
recision  of  the  Maritime  Canal  Company's  contract,  or  from  the  day 
when  the  Government  declared  it  would  cease  to  have  legal  existence. 
The  Maritime  Company  did  not  consent  to  a  recision,  so  the  six  months 
commenced  at  the  latter  date,  which  was  declared  to  be  the  9th  day 
of  October,  1899. 

The  Interoceanic  Canal  Company  when  organized  was  obligated  to 
commence  the  excavation  of  the  canal  within  two  years  from  the  date 
of  its  organization  and  to  complete  the  work  during  the  ten  years  fol- 
lowing. At  the  end  of  this  period  it  was  to  be  open  to  universal 
traffic. 

In  consideration  of  the  privileges  granted,  the  Government  of 
Nicaragua  was  to  receive  8  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  of  the  stock 
issued  b}r  the  company,  to  be  considered  as  full  paid  and  nonassessable, 
and  in  no  event  to  be  less  in  par  value  than  $8,000,000  in  American 
gold. 

This  stock  was  to  be  represented  in  the  management  and  control  of 
the  property  by  one  member  of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  company, 
to  be  named  by  the  Government  of  Nicaragua. 


18-1  KEPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

During  a  first  period  of  one  hundred  and  ninety-nine  years  after 
the  opening'  of  the  canal  to  universal  traffic  the  net  profits  were  to 
belong  to  the  stockholders.  During-  a  second  period  of  ninety-nine 
years  the  stockholders  were  to  receive  an  annual  dividend  of  10  per 
cent  from  the  net  profits  and  if  any  balance  of  profits  should  remain 
one-half  thereof  was  to  be  paid  to  the  Government  of  Nicaragua 
and  one-balf  to  the  stockholders  of  the  company;  After  this  second 
period  one-half  of  the  net  annual  profits  were  to  belong  to  the  Gov- 
ernment and  one-half  to  the  stockholders. 

As  a  guarant}7  that  the  company  would  be  organized  in  accordance 
with  the  contract,  Messrs.  Eyre  and  Cragin  agreed  to  deposit  in  the 
treasury  of  the  Republic  the  sum  of  $100,000  in  American  gold  within 
three  days  following  the  ratification  of  the  contract,  and  this  condition 
was  complied  with.  They  also  agreed  to  deposit  the  further  sum  of 
$■±00,000  in  American  gold  within  four  months  after  the  organization 
of  the  company.  These  sums  were  to  be  held  by  the  Government  to 
respond  for  any  fines  the  company  might  incur  according  to  the 
agreement. 

It  was  declared  that  the  rights  of  the  Maritime  Canal  Company 
would  expire  on  the  9th  day  of  October,  1899,  and  the  limit  of  time 
for  the  organization  of  the  Interoceanic  Canal  Company  was  six  months 
thereafter,  that  is,  on  the  9th  da}7  of  April,  1900.  The  second  pay- 
ment was  therefore  due  by  the  9th  day  of  August,  1900,  but  the 
company  failed  to  meet  it  or  to  secure  an  extension  of  time,  and  the 
contract  was   declared  annulled  according  to  its 

^Concession  declared  for-    ^^  Rg    ^    ^^   gg    ^   ^^    t()    mafee    ^^ 

deposits  was  one  of  the  causes  of  forfeiture. 
A  copy  of  this  contract  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  T. 
During  the  long  period  that  the  subject  of  establishing  an  inter- 
oceanic communication  [across  the  territory  of   Nicaragua   has   been 

before  the  commercial  nations  of  the  world  that 

Previous  concessions.  it 

Republic  has  made  other  and  earlier  grants  and 
concessions  than  those  mentioned  to  individuals  and  companies  propos- 
ing to  undertake  the  work;  but  none  of  these  projects  thus  authorized 
was  ever  actually  commenced,  and  these  contracts  have  long  since 
expired.  It  has  not,  therefore,  been  deemed  necessary  to  mention  them 
specially  in  this  connection,  and  this  investigation  has  been  limited  to 
concessions  under  which  the  contracting  persons  or  companies  have 
commenced  actual  work  and  those  in  which  it  is  claimed,  or  has  within 
a  recent  period  been  claimed,  that  the  concessionaires  have  rights, 
privileges,  or  franchises  still  in  force  and  entitled  to  recognition. 

There  have,  however,  been  other  contracts  made  by  the  Govern- 
mentof  Nicaragua  with  different  companies,  giving  them  privileges  on 
some  of  the  navigable  waters  of  the  Republic  which  will  necessarily 
be  used  in  the  construction  and  operation  of  a  canal  along  this  route, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  185 

and  it  is  proper  that  attention  should  be  directed  to  them,  so  that  it 
may  be  determined  whether  these  privileges  will  give  to  the  conces- 
sionaires the  power  to  obstruct  or  hinder  in  any  way  the  successful 
prosecution  of  the  canal  enterprise. 

It  appears  that  the  Government  of  Nicaragua 
contract  *ith  P.  a.  Pel-   fa    i       .      to  ^    concession  to  the  Nicaragua  Canal 

Association,  granted  the  exclusive  privilege  for  the 
navigation  of  Lake  Nicaragua  and  San  Juan  River  by  steam.  This 
privilege  was  transferred  to  Mr.  F.  A.  Pellas,  and  a  contract  with  him 
was  ratified  on  the  16th  day  of  March,  1877.  In  the  concession 
to  the  association  the  company  was  given  the  right  of  expropriation 
against  Mr.  Pellas  on  just  assessments  by  experts,  after  making  a 
corresponding  compensation  according  to  the  laws  of  the  Republic. 

A  company  organized  under  the  name  of  the  Nica- 
contraet  with  sicwagua  ragua  Mail  Steam  Navigation  and  Trading  Com- 

Mail  Steam  Navigation  and  .  .    *"  -.     .      , 

Trading  company.  pany  had  acquired  this  contract,  and  it  became 

necessary  for  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  to 
control  it,  so  that  it  might  have  the  right  to  navigate  the  lake  and 
river  for  transporting  materials  and  carrying  workmen  and  supplies 
from  point  to  point  while  the  canal  was  being  constructed.  The 
Maritime  Canal  Company  stated  that  this  was 
M^rrklC;-.,.'0  accomplished  by  purchasing  the  concession  and 
plant  for  $300,000,  and  the  purchase  is  mentioned 
in  its  annual  report  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  of  December, 
1891.  Scon  after  this,  owing  to  the  failure  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal 
Construction  Company  in  August,  1893,  the  Maritime  Canal  Com- 
pany was  unable  to  continue  its  operations.  A  new  arrangement 
became  necessary,  and  as  the  contract  was  about  to  expire  the  Nica- 
ragua Mail  Steam  Navigation  and  Trading  Company  was  reorganized 
and  obtained  an  extension  from  the  Republic  for  ten  years  from 
November  3,  1891.  It  was,  however,  stipulated  that  the  new  contract 
should  not  interfere  with  the  rights  of  the  canal  company. 

Subsequently  the  Atlas  Steamship  CompamT,  a 

sh^!n!plnv.AnaSSteinU'   British  company  then  running  a  line  of  steamers 
from  New  York  to  Gre}T  Town  and  other  ports  in 
the  Caribbean  Sea.  bought  the  steamers,  plant,  and  concession  of  the 
Nicaragua  Mail  Steam  Navigation  and  Trading  Company  and  applied 
for  an  extension  and  enlargement  of  the  contract.     This  was  granted 
by  Nicaragua  in  June,  1897,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  improve- 
ment of  the  lower  San  Juan,  facilitating  the  communication  between 
the  lake  and  the  ocean,  and  thus  promoting  the 
Tran^company^      **  '  internal  commerce  of  the  country.     Both  of  these 
contracts  were  transferred  to  the  Caribbean  and 
Pacific  Transit  Company,  an  auxiliary  of  the  Atlas  Company. 


186  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  contract  gave  to  the  Atlas  Steamship  Com- 

Contract  of   Atlas   Com-  ;i  i       •  ■    i  i       «      .  .       ..  . 

pany  the  exclusive  right  or  steam  navigation  in 
the  Silico  Lagoon  for  thirty  years,  dating  from 
the  approval  of  the  contract  on  the  30th  day  of  September,  1897,  and 
the  exclusive  right  for  the  same  time  of  constructing  tramways  and 
railways  along  the  line  to  avoid  the  obstacles  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
San  Juan  River,  making  the  transit  to  San  Juan  del  Norte  or  Grey 
Town  more  rapid  dining  the  dry  season.  The  company  obligated  itself 
within  three  years  to  construct  a  narrow-gauge  railroad,  about  5  miles 
long,  from  a  point  on  the  Silico  Lagoon  to  a  point  on  the  San  Juan 
River  near  the  Colorado  junction,  and  suitable  warehouses  and 
wharves  at  the  terminals  for  passenger,  freight,  and  other  service. 
This  road  was  subsequently  constructed  and  is  now  in  operation. 

The  company  is  required  by  the  terms  of  the  contract  to  make  with 
its  steamers  at  least  three  trips  a  month  each  way  between  Granada,  on 
Lake  Nicaragua,  and  Grey  Town,  and  has  the  right  to  cut  in  the  natural 
forests  on  the  lake  and  river  all  the  wood  required  for  the  use  of  its 
steamers,  tramways,  railroads,  wharves,  and  shops;  also  to  occupy  in 
the  ports  and  places  of  transit  the  national  lots  of  land  necessary  for 
the  establishment  of  warehouses,  offices,  and  other  buildings. 

It  is,  however,  provided  that  the  concession  shall  not  be  an  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  the  contracts  which  the  Government  of  Nicaragua  then 
had,  or  might  thereafter  make,  relative  to  the  opening  of  the  inter- 
oceanic  canal  along  the  same  line. 

A  copy  of  this  contract  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appen- 
dix U. 

As  was  stated  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  chapter, 
ra"::t„rcorBu:.Mta"  the  consent  of  Costa  Rica,  as  well  as  that  of  Nica- 
ragua,  is  necessary  in  order  to  place  a  navigable 
canal  b}r  this  route  under  the  control,  management,  and  ownership  of 
the  United  States.  The  award  of  1888,  already  referred  to,  settled 
the  disputed  boundary  and  was  accepted  by  the  two  Republics,  and  the 
line  between  them  has  since  been  actually  located  and  marked.  Along 
the  route  of  the  canal  it  follows  the  right  bank  of  the  San  Juan  River 
from  near  its  mouth  to  a  point  3  English  miles  from  the  outer  fortifi- 
cations of  Castillo  Viejo;  thence  in  a  curve,  of  which  the  said  fortifica- 
tions are  the  center,  from  which  it  is  3  English  miles  distant  throughout 
its  course,  until  it  reaches  a  point  2  English  miles  from  the  river  bank 
above  Castillo  Viejo;  thence  it  continues  in  a  direction  toward  the 
River  Sapoa,  which  falls  into  Lake  Nicaragua,  always  2  English  miles 
from  the  right  bank  of  the  river  with  its  circumvolutions  and  from 
the  south  shore  of  the  lake  until  it  reaches  the  River  Sapoa.  Though 
the  line  of  the  canal,  according  to  the  latest  approved  project,  does 
not  actually  pass  through  Costa  Rican  soil,  it  is  manifest  that  it  affects 
the  natural  lights  of  that  State,  for  it  includes  a  part  of  the  San  Juan 


KEPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  187 

River  below  Castillo  Viejo,  in  which  the  Republic  has,  according  to 
this  award,  the  right  of  navigation,  and  the  construction  of  the  pro- 
posed waterway  will  necessarily  submerge  portions  of  its  lowlands  con- 
tiguous to  it  and  to  the  lake  and  diminish  the  flow  of  water  in  the  Lower 
San  Juan  and  Colorado  rivers.  Hence  the  attitude  and  policy  of  this 
Government,  as  far  as  they  have  been  developed  by  its  diplomatic  nego- 
tiations and  contracts,  also  require  examination  and  consideration. 

The  United  States  and  Costa  Rica  have  never 
Treaty  between   United  entered  into  a  convention  relating  directly  to  an 

St'itf's     nnd     Cost *i     II I  <■  ii 

is.y_>.  '   interoceanic  communication  or  to  a  transit  through 

the  territory  of  the  latter.  The  only  treaty  affect- 
ing the  friendly  and  commercial  relations  between  the  two  countries 
was  concluded  on  the  10th  day  of  July,  1851,  and  the  ratifications  were 
exchanged  on  the  26th  day  of  May,  1852. 

It  was  agreed  that  there  should  be  perpetual  amity  between  the  two 
Governments  and  their  citizens  and  a  reciprocal  freedom  of  commerce 
between  the  territories  of  each.  Their  ships  of  war  and  post-office 
packets  were  to  have  liberty  freely  and  securely  to  enter  all  harbors, 
rivers,  and  places  in  the  country  of  the  other  to  which  other  foreign 
ships  of  war  and  packets  were  or  should  be  permitted  to  come,  and 
to  anchor,  remain,  and  refit  there  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  country. 

The  intention  of  the  high  contracting  parties  being  to  treat  each 
other  on  the  footing  of  the  most  favored  nation,  it  was  agreed  that 
any  favor,  privilege,  or  immunity  in  matters  of  commerce  and  navi- 
gation which  either  party  had  granted  or  might  thereafter  grant  to 
the  subjects  or  citizens  of  any  other  state  should  be  extended  to  the 
citizens  of  the  other  contracting  party  upon  like  terms. 

A  copy  of  tiiis  treaty  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  V. 
In  May,  1850,  a  treaty  was  entered  into  between 

Treaty   between    Costa     /-ij.-t>'  j    c       •       •  ^j_i  j_-i  <? 

Bica  and  Spain,  1850.         Costa  Kica  and  Spain  in  one  of   the  articles  or 

which  it  was  agreed  that  in  case  of  either  the  total 

or  partial  accomplishment  through  the  territory  of  the  former  of  the 

proposed  interoceanic  communication,  whether  by  means  of  canals  or 

railroads  or  by  a  combination  of  these  or  of  other  means,  the  Spanish 

flag  and  Spanish  merchandise  should  enjoy  free  transit  upon  the  same 

terms  as  other  nations,  and  without  other  or  greater  dues  than  those 

levied  upon  the  vessels,  merchandise,  and  citizens  of  Costa  Rica. 

A  copy  of  this  treaty  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  W. 

There  was  also  diplomatic  negotiation  between 

Treaty  between  Costa  Kica    r\      a      r>'  j   \t-  ,i  ■>  •  mi 

and  Nicaragua,  1869.  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua  upon  the  subject,  as  will 

be  seen  by  reference  to  a  treaty  made  by  them  in 
June,  1869.  By  the  terms  of  this  treaty  Costa  Rica  agreed,  on  due 
notice  from  and  in  conjunction  with  Nicaragua,  to  take  the  neces- 
sary steps  with  the  Governments  of  France,  England,  and  the  United 
States,  in  order  that  the  neutrality  of  the  proposed  communication, 


188  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

individually  guaranteed  by  those  powers,  might  become  the  subject 
of  a  general  convention  on  the  basis  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty, 
in  accordance  with  the  promises  made  by  them  in  the  former  treaties 
referred  to.  The  treaty  in  which  this  agreement  appears  was  entered 
into  to  authorize  the  construction  of  an  interoceanic  canal  through 
the  territory  of  the  two  Republics  in  accordance  with  a  contract  made 
on  the  6th  day  of  October,  1868,  by  the  Government  of  Nicaragua 
with  M.  Michel  Chevalier,  a  citizen  of  France.  The  project  was 
never  carried  out,  and  the  treaty  failed  in  its  purpose,  but  its  engage- 
ments are  important  because  they  indicate  the  attitude  of  the  two 
Governments  with  reference  to  the  establishment  of  a  transisthmian 
communication,  and  the  policy  that  should  be  pursued  with  reference 
to  its  management. 

A  copy  of  the  articles  of  the  treaty  relating  to  this  subject  is  attached 
to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  X. 

Other  treaties  were  made  with  the  Hanse  Towns 

Other  treaties.  .  .      _  . 

and  1  ranee,  both  in  1848,  with  Great  Britain  in 
1849,  with  Netherlands  in  1852.  with  Belgium  in  1858,  with  Italy  in 
L863,  with  Germany  in  1875,  with  Guatemala  in  1895,  and  with  Hon- 
duras in  1896.  The  purpose  of  the  contracting  parties  was  to  strengthen 
their  friendly  relations  and  to  place  their  international  intercourse 
upon  a  liberal  basis,  but  they  contain  no  direct  mention  of  the  proposed 
interoceanic  communication. 

An  examination  and  consideration  of  all  these 

Policy  with  reference  to      ,  .•  j       i        s><       ,       t>*  u  *.i   • 

interoceanic  canal.  treaties  made  by  Costa  Kica  show  nothing  incon- 

sistent with  the  general  policy  that  was  dc\  eloped 
in  the  case  of  Nicaragua,  and  it  is  manifest  that  Costa  Rica  stands  fully 
committed  to  the  establishment  of  a  communication  from  ocean  to 
ocean,  partly  or  wholly  through  its  territory,  and  the  Republic  and 
the  Governments  it  has  contracted  with,  so  far  as  they  have  given 
expression  to  their  views,  are  in  harmony  with  the  policy  already 
outlined. 

A  list  of  these  treaties  made  by  Costa  Rica  and  the  publication  in 

rv'hich  each  can  be  found  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  V. 

On  the  31st  day  of  July,  1888,  the  Government 

Concession  (o  Nicaragua        <•    •»  t-»-  i     i     i  i 

(anai  Association.  °*  Costa  Kica  concluded  an  agreement  and   con- 

tract with  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Association,  grant- 
ing to  it  the  exclusive  privilege  of  excavating  and  operating  a  maritime 
canal  between  the  Atlantic  and  Paciiic  oceans  for  a  period  of  ninety- 
nine  years,  wholly  or  in  part  through  the  territory  of  the  Republicor 
along  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  border  lint1  between  it  and  the  territory 
of  Nicaragua,  and  it  was  duly  ratified  by  the  Costa  Rican  Congress  on 
ihr  9th  day  of  August.  L888. 

This  contract  was  negotiated  to  supplement  the  one  already  obtained 
from  Nicaragua,  hereinbefore  mentioned  and  designated  as  Appendix  R, 
it  being  manifest  that  the  project  generally  known  as  the  Nicaragua 


EEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  189 

Canal  could  not  be  carried  into  execution  without  the  consent  and 
authority  of  Costa  Rica,  It  conferred  upon  the  association  and  a 
company  to  be  organized  to  construct  and  operate  the  proposed  canal 
substantially  the  same  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises  in  Costa  Rican 
territory  a^  had  already  been  conferred  upon  them  in  Nicaragua. 

A  period  of  two  years  and  a  half  from  the  ratification  of  the  con- 
tract was  granted  to  make  the  final  surveys,  organize  the  company  of 
execution,  and  begin  the  work  of  construction.  A  further  term  of  ten 
years  was  granted  for  the  construction  and  completion  of  the  canal 
and  opening  it  for  maritime  navigation.  This  required  the  work  to  be 
commenced  by  the  10th  day  of  February,  1891,  and  to  be  completed 
by  the  9th  day  of  February,  1901.  It  was,  however,  provided  that 
in  case  the  company  should  fail  to  complete  the  work  within  the  pre- 
scribed time,  because  of  unavoidable  delays  or  unforeseen  difficulties, 
extensions  should  be  granted  according  to  the  length  of  the  necessary 
delays. 

It  was  agreed  that  the  failure  to  begin  or  to  complete  the  work 
within  and  by  the  time  specified  should  each  be  a  cause  of  forfeiture 
of  the'  concession  and  in  case  of  such  forfeiture  that  the  Republic 
should  take  possession  of  the  canal  property  within  its  jurisdiction 
and  hold  it  in  perpetuity. 

In  consideration  of  the  privileges  granted,  it  was  agreed  that  the 
Republic  should  receive  in  shares,  certificates,  or  other  values,  repre- 
senting the  capital  stock  of  the  company,  an  amount  equal  to  1^  per 
cent  of  such  capital  stock  in  shares  or  certificates  of  $100  each,  the 
same  to  be  regarded  as  full  paid  and  nonassessable.  The  amount 
of  such  shares  was  in  no  event  to  be  less  than  $1, 500,000;  they  entitled 
the  Republic  to  all  the  benefits  and  privileges  to  which  other  share- 
holders should  be  entitled,  and  the  same  privilege  of  appointing  a 
member  of  the  board  of  directors  that  had  been  granted  to  Nicaragua. 

In  further  compensation  for  the  privileges  granted,  the  company 
consented  that  Costa  Rican  ships  of  war  and  merchant  vessels  under 
the  flag  of  the  Republic  should  be  entitled  to  use  the  canal  upon  like 
terms  as  were  agreed  to  in  the  contract  with  Nicaragua  with  reference 
to  the  vessels  of  that  Republic. 

A  copy  of  this  contract  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appen- 
dix Z. 

The  time  for  the  completion  of  the  canal  under  this  contract  ex- 
pired in  February,  1901,  and  it  has  not  been  extended,  and  the  con 
tract  of  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  with  Nicaragua  having  been 
declared  forfeited  by  that  Government,  as  already 

No    obligations    now    in  .       „  , .         .  « 

force  to  prevent  an  .l^ree-  stated,  there  are  now  in  force  no  obligations  of 
m.-nt niti.  the  i  nite.i  states  either  Republic  with  anv  Government,  corpora- 

relative  to  a  canal.  .  .,..,,  *  .  . 

tion,  or  individual  to  prevent  either  of  them  from 
entering  into  an  agreement  with  the  United  States  that  will  authorize 
our  Government  to  construct,  control,  and  manage  a  maritime  canal 


190  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

along  this  route  and  exercise  all  the  privileges  of  OAvnership  over  it, 
provided  the  negotiations  and  action  proceed  upon  the  lines  indicated 
b}*  the  treaty  relations  by  which  the  different  Governments  are  bound. 

The  contracts  made  by  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  giving  special  priv- 
ileges to  individuals,  associations,  or  companies  for  the  use  of  their  ter 
ritory  and  navigable  waters  for  the  construction  of  a  canal  or  for 
other  purposes  contain  no  authority  to  transfer  these  rights  to  foreign 
Governments,  and  in  most  of  them  such  transfer  is  absolutely  prohib- 
ited. This  indicates  that  each  of  these  Governments  at  one  time  was 
unwilling  to  have  its  territory  occupied  by  another  nationality  even 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  commercial  and  industrial  develop- 
ment of  the  State. 

The  Commission  has  reason,  however,  to  believe  that  this  feeling 
does  not  now  exist.  The  sentiment  in  both  countries  is  strongly  in 
favor  of  opening  a  navigable  connection  between  the  two  oceans,  and 
the  failure  of  every  private  effort  to  construct  such  a  work  has 
brought  thinking  men  to  the  conclusion  that  it  can  only  be  success- 
fully accomplished  with  the  large  resources  and  abundant  means  of  a 
willing  Government. 

During  the  visit  the  Commission  made  to  Central  America  early  in 
the  year  1900,  its  members  had  favorable  opportunities  to  meet  and 
confer  with  the  Chief  Executive  and  other  leading  and  influential  men 
in  public  life  at  the  capital  of  each  of  the  two  Republics.  They  received 
a  most  cordial  welcome  both  at  Managua  and  San  Jose,  and  were 
assured  at  each  place  that  the  Government  and  people  were  ready  to 
listen  favorably  to  propositions  that  might  be  made  by  the  United 
States  for  the  arrangement  of  terms  upon  which  our  Government  might 
occupy  their  territory  for  the  construction  of  a  canal  along  this  route 
and  control,  manage,  and  own  it  when  completed,  with  the  understand- 
ing, however,  that  the  rights  of  sovereignty  of  the  present  Government 
must  be  maintained. 

This  sentiment  has  since  been  expressed  officially  by  both  of  these 
Governments  in  agreements  made  with  the  United  States  in  December, 
1900.  The  protocols  of  these  agreements  provide 
JESS?™""*"  fchat  when  fche  President  of  the  United  States  is 
authorized  by  law  to  acquire  control  of  such  terri- 
tory of  these  Republics  as  may  bedesirable  and  necessary,  on  which  to 
construct  a  navigable  canal  for  vessels  of  the  largest  size  from  a  point 
near  San  Juan  del  Norte  or  GreytoVn,  by  Lake  Nicaragua  to  Brito  on 
the  Pacific,  they  will  enter  into  negotiations  with  each  other  to  settle 
the  plan  and  the  agreements  in  detail,  which  may  be  found  necessary 
to  accomplish  the  construction  and  to  provide  for  the  ownership  and 
control  of  the  proposed  canal. 

It  was  also  agreed  that  the  course  and  terminals  of  such  canal  should 
be  the  same  as  those  stated  in  the  treat}*  of  February  5,  1900,  negoti- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  191 

ated  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  which  has  already 
been  mentioned.  The  failure  of  this  treaty  terminated  the  negotiations 
for  the  time,  but  they  clearly  indicate  the  willingness  of  these  Repub- 
lics to  permit  the  United  States  to  use  their  territory  for  canal  pur- 
poses on  such  terms  as  may  be  agreed  upon.  A  copy  of  the  protocol 
entered  into  with  Costa  Rica  is  attached  to  this  report  marked  Appen- 
dix AA.     The  one  entered  into  with  Nicaragua  is  substantially  in  the 

same  language. 

The  legislation  and  instructions  under  which  the 
Treaties  with  Colombia  Qommission  is  acting  require  also  an  examination 

or  New  Chrannda.  ,  °,         ,       _,         ,,.        »  /-«  i        u* 

of  the  treaties  made  by  the  Republic  of  Colombia 
or  New  Grenada,  as  it  was  designated  prior  to  1862  with  other  govern- 
ments affecting  the  Panama  route  and  any  contracts  made  with  cor- 
porations, associations,  or  individuals  authorizing  them  to  open  a  com- 
munication there  for  travel  and  commerce. 

The  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacitic  oceans  are  only  about  30 
miles  apart  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  isthmus  which  connects  North 
and  South  America,  and  this  advantage  has  naturally  attracted  the 
attention  of  those  who  have  interested  themselves  in  the  subject  of  an 
interoceanic  communication  during  the  centuries  that  have  elapsed 
since  the  first  conception  of  such  an  undertaking.  But  no  action  was 
taken  by  the  United  States  to  secure  any  special  advantages  or  privi- 
leges there  until  1816,  during  the  controversy  with  Great  Britain  over 
the  Oregon  boundary,  which  was  settled  by  the  Buchanan-Pake n ham 
treaty  of  that  year,  and  while  the  country  was  engaged  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  when,  as  one  of  its  results,  an  extension  of  our  territory  on 
the  Pacific  coast  seemed  probable. 

During  this  period  a  treaty  was  negotiated  with 

Treatj  ne?otiate,i  in  1-S46  N       Granada  by  which,  among  other  things,  the 

securing  transit  rights.  -  '  .    ,   .       «■  ., 

United  States  secured  the  right  ol  way  or  transit 
across  the  Isthmus  upon  any  modes  of  communication  then  existing 
or  that  might  thereafter  be  constructed.  This  transit  was  to  be  open 
and  free  to  the  Government  and  its  citizens,  and  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  any  articles  of  produce,  manufactures,  or  merchandise  of  law- 
ful commerce,  subject  to  no  other  tolls  or  charges  than  those  levied 
or  collected,  under  like  circumstances,  from  citizens  of  New  Granada. 

In  return  for  the  advantages  and  favors  acquired,  and  in  order  to 
secure  their  tranquil  enjoyment,  the  United  States  guaranteed  to  New 
Granada  the  perfect  neutrality  of  the  Isthmus,  so  that  the  free  transit 
from  the  one  to  the  other  sea  might  not  be  interrupted  during  the 
existence  of  the  treaty;  the  United  States  further  guaranteed  the 
rights  of  sovereignty  and  property  which  New  Granada  had  and  pos- 
sessed over  the  said  territory.    • 

In  addition  to  these  stipulations,  the  two  Republics  engaged  wdth 
each  other  not  to  grant  to  other  nations  any  particular  favor  in  respect 


192  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

to  commerce  and  navigation  which  should  not  immediately  become 
common  to  the  other  party  and  on  like  terms.  They  also  agreed  that 
whatever  favors,  immunities,  or  privileges  either  Republic  might  find 
it  proper  to  give  to  the  ministers  and  public  agents  of  any  other  power, 
should  by  the  same  act  be  extended  to  those  of  the  other  contra: 'ting 
party. 

This  treaty  was  concluded  on  the  12th  day  of 

Ratified  in  1848.  J 

December,  1846,  but  the  ratifications  were  not 
exchanged  until  the  10th  day  of  June,  1848,  and  it  was  proclaimed  two 
days  later. 

A  copy  of  the  treaty  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  BB. 
During  President  Johnson's  Administration,  in  180!),  and  again 
during-  the  first  Administration  of  President  Grant,  in  1870,  other 
treaties  were  negotiated  between  the  two  Governments  to  promote  the 
construction  of  a  ship  canal  across  the  isthmus,  but  none  of  them  was 
ever  ratified,  and  the  relations  between  the  United  States  and  the 
Kepublie  of  Colombia  upon  the  subject  are  still  defined  by  this  con- 
vention. 

Colombia  has  entered  into  treaties  with  other  governments  1  tearing 

upon  this  subject.     One  with  France  in  1856  per- 

is.-,'<r' '     "'  '       r""e'   m^s  ner  snips  t°  enter  all  places,  harbors,  or  ri\  ers 

open  to  foreign  commerce.     A  copy  of  this  treaty 

and   a    later   one,   negotiated   in    1S!>2,  are    hereto  attached,   marked 

Appendix  CC. 

A  treaty  was  made  with  Spain  in  1881  providing 
iic.i  j«i  i.  i>a  u,        .   ^a{.  £naf.  Government  should  enjoy  the  canals  and 

ports  of  the  Republic  and  all  advantages  given  to  the  most  favored 
nations.  A  cop}7  of  this  treaty  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked 
Appendix  DD. 

Conventions,  with  the   Hanse  Towns    in    ixr>4. 

Other  trca1i*s.  ...     ,^  ,    .       -,OK^  •,!     tx  ,    T>    "j     •       •      Hon  • 

with  Portugal  in  1857,  with  Great  Britain  in  LSoo, 
with  Italy  in  1802,  and  with  other  governments  are  upon  the  footing 
of  the  most  favored  nations,  but  none  of  them  contains  the  obligations 
of  neutrality  which  were  assumed  by  the  United  Slates.  A  list  of  the 
treaties  made  by  New  Granada  or  Colombia  and  the  publication  in 
which  each  can  be  found  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix 
EE. 

Before  the  treaty  concluded  in  1846  had  been  ratified  the  increasing 
value  of  the  communication  across  the  isthmus  of  Panama  attracted 
the  attention  of  enterprising  men  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  our  own 
land. 

The  first  movement  to  establish  such  a  communication  was  made 

by  a  number  of  individuals  in   Paris,  who  formed 

r::;::::;;;:i,:r »» ^<^o„,  m,u-r  ti>,  name  of  ti„  Panamas 

panv  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  the  two  oceans 
by  a  railroad  across  the  isthmus.     Through  their  agent  and  attorney. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  193 

Mateo  Klein,  they  negotiated  a  contract  with  the  Government  of  New 
Granada,  which  secured  to  the  company,  for  a  period  of  ninety-nine 
years,  the  exclusive  privilege  of  constructing  and  maintaining  a  rail- 
road at  Panama,  to  be  completed  within  six  years,  to  be  counted  from 
the  expiration  of  four  months  after  the  approval  of  the  concession  by 
the  Congress  of  the  Republic.  The  agreement  was  executed  at  Bogota 
on  the  10th  day  of  May,  1S47,  and  was  approved  on  the  8th  day  of  the 
following  month. 

The  French  company  was  unable  to  control  the 
Transferred  to  Panama  eapital  necessary  for  the  proposed  enterprise,  and 

Kailroad  Company  of  New     .  .  .  L 

York.  in  June,  1848,  its  privileges  lapsed.     Subsequently, 

on  the  28th  day  of  December,  1848,  the  grant  was 
revived  in  a  modified  form  in  favor  of  William  Heniy  Aspinwall,  John 
Lloyd  Stephens,  Henry  Chauncey,  and  their  associates,  under  the 
name  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  an  organization  which  was 
afterwards,  in  1849,  incorporated  by  the  legislature  of  New  York. 
All  former  concessions  of  a  like  character  were  declared  null  and  void 
and  the  grant  as  modified  gave  the  company  the  same  exclusive  privi- 
lege of  establishing  a  railroad  between  the  two  oceans  across  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama  as  was  contained  in  the  contract  with  Klein,  to  continue 
for  forty-nine  years  from  the  day  of  its  completion  and  its  being- 
opened  to  public  use.  Six  }Tears  were  allowed  for  the  construction  of 
the  road,  with  the  assurance  that  an  extension  of  two  years  would  be 
granted,  without  the  enforcement  of  any  penalty,  if  it  were  found 
impracticable  to  finish  it  within  the  required  time. 

Under  this  grant  the  company  constructed  the 

pirteaainai850.llroa(1  com"   road  and  on  the  27th  day  of  January,  1855,  it  was 
completed  and  the  first  passenger  train  passed  over 

the  track,  and  ever  since  then  it  has  continued  in  operation. 

On  the  16th  day  of  April,  1850,  the  contract  was  put  in  a  new  form, 

so  as  to  render  it  unnecessary  to  refer  to  the  original  contract  with  Klein 
in  order  to  understand  the  rights  of  the  contracting 

Present  form  of  contract.  °  ° 

parties.  Subsequently  there  were  other  modifica- 
tions and  changes.  In  its  present  amended  form  the  company  is  entitled 
to  the  use  and  possession  of  the  railroad,  the  telegraph  between  Colon  and 
Panama,  the  buildings,  warehouses,  and  wharves  belonging  to  the  road, 
and  in  general  all  the  dependencies  and  other  works  now  in  its  posses- 
sion necessaiy  to  the  service  and  development  of  the  enterprise  for  a 
period  of  ninety-nine  years  from  the  16th  day  of  August,  1867.  At 
the  expiration  of  this  term  the  Government  is  to  be  substituted  in  all 
the  rights  of  the  company  and  is  entitled  to  the  immediate  possession 
of  the  entire  property.  The  Republic  is  bound  to  grant  no  privilege, 
during  this  term,  to  any  other  company  or  person  to  open  any  other 
railroad  on  the  isthmus,  nor  without  the  consent  of  the  company  to 
open  or  work  any  maritime  canal  there  to  the  west  of  a  line  drawn 
S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 13 


194  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

from  Cape  Tiburon  on  the  Atlantic  to  Point  Garachine  on  the  Pacific, 
nor  to  establish  any  such  communication  itself.  But  the  company  can 
not  oppose  the  construction  of  a  canal  except  directly  along  the  route 
of  its  road,  and  the  consent  required  is  onl}T  to  enable  it  to  exact  an 
equitable  price  for  the  privilege  and  as  indemnification  for  the  damages 
it  may  suffer  by  the  competition  of  the  canal.  It  is  also  stipulated 
that  the  company  shall  forfeit  its  privilege  should  it  cede  or  transfer 
its  rights  to  any  foreign  government. 

A  copy  of  this  agreement  in  its  latest  amended  form  is  attached  to 
this  report,  marked  Appendix  F  F. 

But  this  communication  by  rail  was  inadequate  to  supply  the  grow- 
ing demands  of  commerce  and  the  subject  of  connecting  the  two  oceans 
at  the  isthmus  by  a  navigable  waterway  still  engaged  the  public  mind. 
From  time  to  time  it  was  considered  by  Congress,  and  explorations 
and  surveys  were  authorized  and  made  under  governmental  authority. 
But  the  reports  with  reference  to  the  routes  across  the  Panama  and 
Darien  isthmus  were  unfavorable  and  no  further  concessions  or  grants 
were  obtained  by  American  companies  or  citizens  with  a  view  to 
construct  a  canal  there. 

contract  with  Wyse  for       Meanwhile,  in  May,  1876,  Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse 
canal-  obtained  from  th"e  Government  of  Colombia  a  right 

of  way  for  this  purpose  across  the  isthmus,  south  and  east  of  an 
imaginary  straight  line  drawn  from  Cape  Tiburon  on  the  Atlantic 
side  to  Garachine  Point,  on  the  Pacific.  This  restriction  was  to  avoid 
Modification  of  Wyse  con-  any  conflict  with  the  privileges  of  the  Panama 
tract  m  1878.  Railroad   Company.     In   1878,  in  behalf  of   the 

International  Interoceanic  Canal  Association  of  France,  he  sought  an 
enlargement  of  the  privileges  granted  in  1876  and  a  new  contract  was 
entered  into  on  the  20th  of  March,  1878,  which  gave  the  association 
authority  to  locate  a  canal  across  the  territory,  in  which  the  Panama 
Railroad  Company  had  exclusive  privileges,  provided  the  grantees 
could  make  some  amicable  arrangement  with  the  last-named  company. 
This  new  contract,  with  some  modifications  introduced  by  a  decree  of 
the  Colombian  Congress,  became  a  law  of  the  Republic  on  the  18th 
day  of  May,  1878,  and  in  its  modified  form  was  on  the  same  day 
accepted  by  Mr.  Wyse. 

The  amended  contract  thus  accepted  gave  to  the  association  repre- 
sented by  the  negotiator  the  exclusive  privilege  of  constructing  and 
operating  a  maritime  canal  across  the  territory  of  the  United  States  of 
Colombia  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  for  ninety-nine 
years,  to  be  computed  from  the  day  on  which  it  should  be  wholly  or 
partly  opened  to  public  service  or  when  the  grantees  should  commence 
to  collect  tolls  or  dues  on  transit  and  navigation. 

The  general  route  of  the  canal  was  to  be  determined  by  an  inter- 
national commission  of  individuals  and  competent  engineers  not  later 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  195 

than  1881,  unless  unavoidable  circumstances  should  prevent  their 
doing  so  by  that  time.  After  the  settlement  of  the  route  the  grantees 
were  allowed  two  years  to  organize  a  joint  stock  company  to  take 
charge  of  the  enterprise  and  of  the  construction  of  the  work  and  the 
company  when  organized  was  required  to  finish  the  canal  and  place 
at  the  public  service  within  the  subsequent  twelve  years  after  its 
formation. 

All  public  lands  required  for  the  route  of  the  canal,  the  ports,  sta- 
tions, wharves,  moorings,  and  warehouses,  and  for  its  construction  and 
service,  were  ceded  gratis  to  the  grantees  including  a  belt  of  land  200 
meters,  or  656  feet,  wide  on  each  side  of  its  banks  throughout  its  entire 
length. 

There  are  other  provisions  and  grants  to  aid  the  association  in  the 
successful  prosecution  of  its  work,  and  the  port  at  each  end  of  the 
canal  and  the  waterway  itself  are  declared  neutral  for  all  time,  so  that 
in  case  of  war  among  other  nations  the  merchant  vessels  and  individ- 
uals of  all  countries  may  enjoy  its  use  and  advantages  without  being 
molested  or  detained. 

In  consideration  of  the  rights,  privileges,  and  exemptions  contained 
in  the  contract,  the  Government  of  Colombia  is  declared  entitled  to  a 
share  in  the  gross  income  of  the  canal  from  all  sources  on  an  increas- 
ing scale  of  5  per  cent  at  first  to  8  per  cent  from  the  seventy-sixth  year 
after  its  opening  to  the  termination  of  the  privileges.  Four-fifths  of 
these  amounts  are  to  go  to  the  Republic  and  one-fifth  to  the  State 
through  whose  territory  the  canal  may  pass,  and  the  company  control- 
ling the  canal  expressly  guarantees  that  the  share  of  the  Republic 
shall  in  no  year  be  less  than  $250,000. 

The  right  to  transfer  these  privileges  to  other  capitalists  or  financial 
companies  is  given,  but  there  is  an  absolute  prohibition  against  ceding 
or  morgaging  them  to  any  foreign  government. 

A  copy  of  the  grant  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  GG. 
The  agreement  that  the  route  of  the  canal  should 
con^sT^pfrisiriS0  be  determined  by  an  international  commission  of 
individuals  and  competent  engineers  was  complied 
with  by  calling  an  "  International  Scientific  Congress  "  at  Paris,  which 
met  on  the  15th  day  of  May,  1879.  There  were  135  delegates,  a  ma- 
jority of  whom  were  French;  11  were  from  the  United  States.  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  and  other  European  nations  were  also  represented. 
The  convention  was  called  to  order  by  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  already 
famous  by  reason  of  his  connection  with  the  Suez  Canal,  and  after  a 
session  of  two  weeks  a  decision  was  reached  that  the  best  location  for 
the  proposed  waterway  was  from  the  Gulf  of  Limon,  or  Navy  Bay  as 
it  was  called  in  earlier  days,  to  the  Bay  of  Panama,  and  the  construction 
of  a  sea-level  canal  was  recommended. 


196  EEPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Subsequently  a  company,  chartered  under  the 
Panama  Canal  Company  jaws  Qf  Yvance,  was  organized  in  the  early  part  of 
1881  to  construct  the  canal  under  the  grant  from 
the  United  States  of  Colombia  and  De  Lesseps  became  the  leading 
spirit  in  the  enterprise.  The  company  was  designated  in  the  law  as 
the  "Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Interoceanique  de  Panama," 
but  it  is  more  commonly  known  in  this  country  as  the  Panama  Canal 
Company. 

The  location  of  the  canal  in  the  part  of  the  isthmus  where  the  Pan- 
ama Railroad  Company  had  exclusive  privileges  in  the  construction  of 
artificial  waterways  as  well  as  railroads,  made  it  necessary  to  enter 
into  some  arrangements  with  that  company  before  the  work  could  be 
commenced,  and  this  was  accomplished  by  obtaining  the  control  of  the 
railroad  company  through  a  purchase  of  its  stock,  or  the  larger  part 
of  it,  which  remained  among  the  assets  of  the  canal  company  when 
it  subsequently  went  into  liquidation. 

All  obstructions  being  removed,  the  company  entered  upon  its  work; 
but  after  the  expenditure  of  vast  sums  of   money 

danoTin^sIT iUt0  m,Ui"  the  effort  failed'  and  in  December,  1888,  payments 
were  suspended.  The  company  went  into  liqui- 
dation and  in  February,  1889,  a  liquidator  or  receiver  was  appointed 
by  the  civil  tribunal  of  the  Seine  and  was  given  authority  to  transfer 
to  any  new  company  all  or  any  portion  of  the  company's  assets. 

This  failure  and  the  change  in    the    situation    made  it   important 

to   have   a   new   agreement    with  Colombia,    and 

New  agreement  with  Co-   M     w  authorized  to  enter  into   further 

.■in. Inn.  18J)0.  _    J 

negotiations  to  obtain  a  modification  and  extension 
of  the  contract  in  favor  of  the  receiver,  whom  he  represented.  '  He 
succeeded  in  his  efforts,  and  another  contract  was  entered  into  at 
Bogota  on  the  10th  day  of  December,  1890,  granting  an  extension  of 
ten  years  within  which  the  canal  was  to  be  finished  and  put  in  public 
operation  by  a  new  company  to  be  organized  with  a  capital  sufficient 
for  the  purpose.  This  company  was  to  resume  the  work  of  excavation 
not  later  than  the  28th  day  of  February,  1893.  The  contract  was  con- 
firmed by  the  Congress  of  the  Republic,  and  a  copy  of  it  is  attached 
to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  HH. 

It  being  found  impracticable  to  complete  the 

Contract  extended  to  1904.  .  .    .  .  , .,,     , 

arrangements  contemplated  by  the  modified  con- 
tract within  the  specified  time,  a  further  extension  was  applied  for 
and  obtained  on  the  4th  day  of  April,  1893.  This  required  the  forma- 
tion of  the  new  company  and  the  resumption  of  the  work  in  a  serious 
and  permanent  manner  by  the  31st  day  of  October,  1891.  The  time  for 
its  completion  was  extended  for  ten  }^ears  from  that  date. 

A  copy  of  this  contract  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appen- 
dix LL 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  197 

A  further  extension  until  the  31st  day  of  Octo- 

Extenslon  to  1910.  .  ,     .     J 

ber,  1910,  was  granted  on  the  28d  day  or  April, 
1900.  A  cop}'  of  the  contract  granting  this  new  extension  is  attached 
to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  JJ. 

In  October,  1894,  the  new  company  was  organized  under  the  general 
corporation  laws  of  France  under  the  name  of  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company.  Its  capital  was  fixed  at  65,000,000  francs,  divided  into 
650,000  shares  of  100  francs  each;  50,000  of  these,  full  paid  and  non- 
assessable, were  to  be  set  apart  for  the  Republic  of  Colombia.  A 
memorandum  showing  the  legal  status  of  the  company,  including 
copies  of  the  French  laws  and  the  decrees  of  court  which  govern  it, 
and  of  its  charter,  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  Appendix  KK. 

The  receiver  of  the  old  company  became  a  party  to  this  new  organi- 
zation, and  transferred  and  contributed  to  it  all  the  property  and 
assets  of  the  Panama  Canal  Compaiw,  real  and  personal,  Avhether  in 
France  or  Colombia,  including  the  grants  from  the  Colombian  Govern- 
ment under  which  it  had  been  operating,  and  also  the  rights  of  every 
nature  in  the  Panama  Railroad  which  had  been  obtained  by  the 
arrangements  made  and  entered  into  writh  the  company  or  its  stock- 
holders. He  also  subscribed,  in  his  official  capacity,  for  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  stock  of  the  new  company.  This  sale  and  transfer  was 
made  upon  the  express  condition  that  the  property  and  rights  thus 
transferred  should  revert  to  the  estate  in  liquidation  upon  default  in 
the  completion  of  the  canal  within  the  time  fixed  in  the  concession 
under  which  the  work  was  to  be  constructed,  and  special  conditions 
were  made  as  to  the  Panama  Railroad,  which  are  set  forth  in  the  charter. 

During  the  progress  of  the  work  the  receiver  has  the  right  under 
the  terms  of  the  transfer  to  appoint  a  commission  of  three  engineers 
to  inspect  the  progress  that  is  made,  the  condition  and  maintenance 
of  the  buildings  and  plant,  and  the  accounts  relating  to  these  different 
objects.  The  expense  of  this  commission  is  to  be  borne  by  the  new 
company. 

Under  the  terms  of  the  transfer  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company 
has  a  title  to  the  whole  propert}r,  but  the  rights  of  those  interested  in 
the  old  company  have  not  been  entirely  extinguished.  They  are  under 
no  further  obligations  to  contribute  toward  the  construction  of  the 
canal  or  the  auxiliary  works,  but  its  successful  completion  and  opera- 
tion will  to  some  extent  be  to  their  pecuniary  advantage,  for  under  the 
terms  of  the  sale  60  per  cent  of  the  surplus  income,  after  paying  all 
expenses,  charges,  and  stipulated  dividends,  is  to  be  appropriated  to  the 
liquidator,  to  be  properly  distributed.  While  there  may  be  little  left 
for  the  proposed  distribution,  the  existence  of  this  right  in  favor  of 
the  old  company  will  apparently  require  its  concurrence  in  case  of  a 
sale  of  the  property  and  the  concession  and  charter  under  which  the 
company  is  acting. 


198  EEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

no  treaties  exist  giving  Tt  appears  f rom  the  foregoing  that  no  existing 
united  states  the  right  to  treaties  with  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  or  Colombia 
mc^OTCrtombUtoremii  £ive  to  the  United  States  the  right  to  occupy  the 
purposes.  territory  of  any  of  these  Republics  for  the  pur- 

pose of  constructing  and  operating  a  maritime  canal. 

The  concessions  and  grants  heretofore  made  by 

Terms  must  be  arranged  these  Republics  to  and  with  corporations,  associa- 

by  diplomatic  negotiations.     ,.  t-i-.it  ,,        ••  ,  ■  ,, 

tions,  and  individuals  authorizing  them  to  estab- 
lish and  maintain  a  communication  across  their  territory  from  ocean 
to  ocean,  whether  by  land  or  water,  in  terms  exclude  the  right  of  the 
concessionaires  and  grantees  to  transfer  them  to  a  foreign  government. 
The  purchase,  therefore,  by  the  United  States  of  any  such  concession 
or  grant  would  be  ineffectual  unless  it  were  accomplished  with  the 
consent  of  the  Republic  by  which  the  privileges  were  granted,  and  the 
terms  upon  which  such  consent  will  be  given  must  be  arranged  by 
diplomatic  negotiations. 

It  also  appears  that  the  only  prior  obligations  to 
concessions  from  Nicara-  corporations,  associations,  or  individuals,  in  the 

gua  and  Costa  Rica  declared  r     .        _.  ,  .  .   .      .       __    .      , 

forfeited.  way  of  a  direct  agreement,  under  which  the  United 

States  may  acquire  authority  from  Nicaragua  and 
Costa  Rica  to  use  their  territory  for  the  construction  of  a  canal,  to  be 
under  its  control,  management,  and  ownership,  have  been  eliminated 
by  the  forfeiture  and  termination  of  the  contracts  with  the  Maritime 
Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua  and  the  Interoceanic  Canal  Company, 
and  if  these  forfeitures  are  final  there  are  no  private  rights  in  the  way 
of  continuing  at  an  appropriate  time  negotiations  with  these  two 
Republics  to  acquire  the  consent  and  authority  necessary  for  the 
accomplishment  of  this  purpose. 

One  of  the  purposes  of  the  investigation  men- 

iegeTtolrn,sirde,red!,riTl"  tioned  in  the  law  was  to  determine  the  cost  of  con- 
structing a  canal  and  placing  the  same  "under 
the  control,  management,  and  ownership  of  the  United  States." 
Under  this  head  the  Commission  may  perhaps  be  expected  to  consider 
the  cost  of  acquiring  the  privilege  of  entering  and  occupying  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  States  through  which  the  different  routes  extend. 

Preliminary  to  this  a  question  arises  as  to  the 

Nature  of  title  required.  J  . *  . 

nature  of  the  title  by  which  the  United  States  is  to 

hold  the  proposed  canal,  and  the  words  of  the  law  already  quoted 

clearly  indicate  the  legislative  intent.    Propositions 

Plans     formerly     before    t  i  t      <•  r*  ji  i_ 

congress.  have  been  before  Congress  in  former  years  by 

which  the  United  States  was  to  be  a  part  owner  in 
such  an  enterprise,  or  a  shareholder  in  a  company  organized  to  con- 
struct a  maritime  canal,  and  the  projects  which  were  considered  contem- 
plated ownership  for  a  term  of  years,  after  which  the  property  was  to 
revert  to  the  Republic  that  had  permitted  the  use  of  its  territory.     But 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  199 

there  is  no  such  suggestion  in  the  law  under  which  this  Commission  is 

acting.  The  United  States  is  to  control,  manage, 
Jimmltedcontrolnowre.    ftnd  Qwn  ^  ^^j.   the  period  of  oWnersMp  is  not 

limited;  it  is  to  be  in  perpetuity.  No  divided 
control  of  management  is  proposed,  whether  effected  by  some  arrange- 
ment between  the  United  States  and  the  government  contracting  with 
it,  or  by.  the  formation  of  a  company,  with  stocks  and  shares,  or  by 
any  other  method.  Such  divided  ownership  would  give  some  voice  in 
the  management  of  the  enterprise,  even  to  minority  holders,  whose 
interests  might  and  probably  would  require  a  polic}'  different  from 
that  deemed  best  by  the  Government  and  people  of  the  United  States. 
This  right  of  complete  ownership  and  control  in  perpetuity,  which  is 
clearly  indicated,  is  to  be  exercised  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  State 
in  which  the  canal  is  located,  according  to  the  view  presented  in  the 
early  part  of  this  chapter. 

It  naturally  follows  that  the  compensation  to  be 
compilation  for  privi-    pR[^  ty  tne  United  States  in  consideration  of  the 

leges  should  be  definite  in  ...  ,  ,11        111        i^-.i^        -, 

amount.  privileges  to  be  granted  should  be  definitely  fixed, 

whether  included  in  a  single  amount  to  be  agreed 
upon  during  the  progress  of  negotiations,  or  in  payments  to  be  made 
annually  or  at  other  regular  intervals,  or  in  a  combination  of  these  two 
methods.  A  compensation  to  be  dependent  upon  the  earnings  and 
profits  of  the  enterprise  would  be  subject  to  the  objections  which 
make  a  divided  ownership  undesirable.  Other  interests  than  those  of 
the  United  States  would  be  involved  in  the  management,  and  account- 
ings would  have  to  be  made  from  time  to  time  to  another  government. 
The   amount   of   the   compensation   that   these 

Amount  of  compensation.     „,,.  .,  , 

Republics  would  require  for  the  occupation  and 
use  of  their  territory  remains  to  be  considered,  but  the  Commission  had 
no  power  under  the  law  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  them,  and  the 
treaties  and  concessions  relating  to  this  question  supply  the  only  infor- 
mation from  which  an}'  deductions  or  conclusions  can  be  drawn.  This 
ma}'  be  of  little  value,  but  what  has  been  done  in  the  past  with  refer- 
ence to  a  subject  is  often  suggestive,  and  it.  is  presented  so  that  it 
may  be  available  for  future  use  and  reference. 

A  treaty  negotiated  by  Mr.  Elijah  Hise  on  the 
gua.Sl    °"  f  CaFa"  Par^  °^  the  United  States  with  Nicaragua  in  June, 

1849,  conferred  upon  the  former,  or  to  a  compan}' 
of  its  citizens,  the  exclusive  right  to  construct  and  build  within  the 
territories  of  the  latter  a  canal  or  road  for  the  purpose  of  opening  a 
passage  or  communication  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  No  pecuniary  consideration  was  required  for  this  privilege, 
but  the  United  States,  by  the  twelfth  article  of  this  treaty,  solemnly 
agreed  and  undertook  to  protect  and  defend  Nicaragua  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  exercise  of  its  sovereignty  and  dominion  over  all  its  terri- 


200  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

tory  and  coasts  within  its  just  and  true  boundaries.  Mr.  Hise  acted 
without  authority  in  negotiating-  this  treaty,  and  it  was  never  submitted 
to  the  Senate  for  continuation.  The  purpose  of  Nicaragua  in  agree- 
ing to  its  terms  was  doubtless  to  secure  a  powerful  ally  in  the  dis- 
turbed and  threatening  relations  which  then  existed  between  her  and 
Great  Britain. 

A  copy  of  this  treaty  is  attached  to  this  report  marked  "Appendix 
LL." 

In  August,  1849,  Nicaragua  entered  into  a  contract  for  a  ship  canal 
across  its  territory  with  the  American  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal 
Company. 

The  company  was  to  pay  to  the  State  $10,000  on 

Contract  between  Nicara-  .  ,    .         x    ' 

sua  and  American  Atlantic  the  ratification  of  its  charter,  and  the  same  sum 
and  Pacific  ship  Canal  com-   eaeh  year  thereafter  during  the  period  of  con- 

puny,  ox 

struction.  The  State  was  to  receive  stock  of  the 
company  to  the  value  of  $200,000.  The  total  amount  of  stock  intended 
to  be  issued  is  not  stated. 

After  the  completion  of  the  canal  the  State  was  to  receive  annually, 
for  a  period  of  twenty  years,  20  per  cent  of  the  net  profits  of  the  work 
after  deducting  interest  at  the  rate  of  7  per  cent  per  annum  on  the 
capital  invested,  and  after  this  period  of  twenty  years  its  share  in  the 
net  profits  was  to  be  increased  to  25  per  cent  annually  until  the  ter- 
mination of  the  contract,  which  was  to  be  in  force  for  eighty-five  years 
from  the  day  the  canal  was  completed  and  put  in  use.  The  company 
was  to  present  a  report  and  account  yearly  to  the  State  as  a  basis  for 
these  payments,  which  was  to  be  subject  to  examination  and  compari- 
son with  the  company's  books  by  commissioners  to  be  appointed  by 
the  State.  At  the  end  of  the  period  of  eighty-five  years  the  entire 
property  and  the  rights  and  privileges  granted  were  to  be  surrendered 
to  the  State  without  indemnity  or  compensation,  but  the  company  was 
to  be  allowed  15  per  cent  from  the  net  profits  of  the  canal  for  ten 
years  after  the  surrender  if  the  cost  of  the  work  should  be  less  than 
$20,000,000,  and  for  twenty  years  if  the  cost  was  greater  than  that 
amount. 

A  copy  of  this  contract  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  "Appen- 
dix MM." 

The  next  contract  relating  to  this  subject  was 
Frellnghuysen  -  Zavala    .1      •  xn     t       i  rr         1  i  j.i 

1n,.ity  the    fc  relingnuysen  -  Zavala    treaty    between    the 

United  States  and  Nicaragua,  signed  in  December, 
1884,  already  mentioned  in  this  chapter  and  designated  as  Appendix 
L.  By  the  terms  of  this  treaty  the  canal  was  to  be  built  by  the 
United  States  and  owned  by  the  two  signatory  powers,  without  any 
limitation  as  to  time.  The  proceeds  of  the  canal  and  its  accessories  were 
to  be  applied  to  the  maintenance  and  necessary  improvement  of  the 
works,  including  the  salariesof  the  board  of  managers  and  all  officers  and 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    (ANAL    COMMISSION.  201 

others  employed,  and  the  balance  remaining  was  to  be  divided  between 
the  two  Governments,  one-third  of  which  was  to  be  paid  to  Nicaragua 

and  two-thirds  to  the  United  States.  The  United  States  also  agreed  to 
loan  to  Nicaragua  $4,000,000,  which  was  to  be  expended  in  making 
internal  improvements  and  was  to  be  repaid  with  interest  at  3  per  cent 
per  annum  out  of  its  share  in  the  net  revenues  of  the  canal.  As 
stated  in  another  part  of  this  chapter,  this  treaty  was  rejected  by  the 
Senate,  and  at  a  subsequent  session,  while  a  motion  for  reconsidera- 
tion was  still  pending,  it  was  withdrawn  by  the  President. 

The   contract  which  the  Maritime  Canal  Com- 
(jontrMt between  Nicwrft.   pllnv  0f   Nicaragua  was  incorporated   to  execute 

sua    and     Maritime    Canal  .  ,  .  , 

company.  was  made  by  .Nicaragua  w^ith  the  Nicaragua  Canal 

Association  of  New  York  in  March,  1887.  The 
pecuniary  consideration  promised  for  the  privileges  granted  was  to 
be  received  by  the  Republic  in  shares,  bonds,  certificates,  or  other 
securities  which  the  company  might  issue  to  raise  the  corporate  cap- 
ital, and  was  to  be  6  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  of  the  issue,  and 
in  no  event  less  than  $4,000,000  in  face  value,  to  be  represented  by 
40,000  shares  or  obligations  of  $100  each,  full  paid  and  nonassessable. 
The  privileges  were  to  last  for  ninety-nine  years  from  the  opening 
of  the  canal  to  universal  traffic,  at  the  end  of  which  period  the  Repub- 
lic was  to  become  the  owner  of  the  entire  property  in  perpetuity. 
The  company,  however,  was  to  have  the  privilege  of  renting  the  canal 
for  ninety-nine  years  longer  on  condition  of  paying  25  per  cent  of  the 
annual  net  profits  to  the  Government  of  Nicaragua.  This  contract  has 
been  stated  more  fully  in  an  earlier  part  of  this  chapter  and  is  there 
designated  as  Appendix  R. 

The  latest  contract  made  by  Nicaragua  for  the 
contract  between  Meara-  construction  of  a  maritime  canal  through  its  terri- 

gua  and  Interoieanic  Canal       .  " 

company.  ritory  was  entered  into  with  Messrs.  Edward  E\rre 

and  Edward  F.  Cragin,  representing  the  Inter- 
oceanic  Canal  Company,  in  October,  1898.  The  terms  of  this  contract 
are  set  forth  in  an  earlier  part  of  this  chapter,  but  the  part  relating 
to  the  consideration  promised  by  the  company  will  be  briefly  restated 
in  this  connection  for  more  ready  comparison  with  the  terms  of  the 
other  contracts.  The  Republic  was  to  be  entitled  to  8  per  cent  of  the 
company's  stock,  full  paid  and  nonassessable,  not  less  than  $8,000,000 
in  par  value.  For  one  hundred  and  ninety-nine  years  from  the  day  on 
which  the  canal  was  opened  to  universal  traffic  the  net  profits  were 
to  belong  to  the  stockholders;  during  a  period  of  ninety-nine  years 
following  the  stockholders  were  to  receive  a  cumulative  annual  dividend 
of  10  per  cent,  and  of  any  balance  that  remained  the  company  was  to 
pay  half  to  the  Republic  and  the  other  half  to  the  stockholders;  after 
this  period  the  net  annual  profits  were  to  be  divided  equally  between 
the  Government  and  the  stockholders.     While  the  grant  was  nominally 


202  KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

in  perpetuity,  it  is  evident  that  the  company  after  the  first  period 
would  not  be  entitled  to  the  rights  of  undivided  ownership. 

The  Republic  in  this  contract  granted  to  the  Interoceanic  Canal 
Company  some  important  privileges  which  do  not  appear  in  any  of 
the  other  contracts. 

It  conferred  authority  to  make  and  modify  police  regulations,  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  government  of  the  State,  for  guaranteeing 
order,  safety,  and  health  within  a  zone  5  miles  in  width  on  each 
side  of  the  canal.  A  police  force,  to  be  appointed  and  paid  by  the 
company,  was  to  enforce  these  regulations  and  also  the  general  police 
regulations  and  laws  of  the  State  within  this  zone,  with  all  the  cor- 
rective powers  exercised  by  the  police  force  of  the  Republic.  This 
provision  is  found  in  Article  XVII  of  the  contract. 

In  another  article  it  was  provided  that  all  contracts  made  by  the 
company  relating  to  the  canal  and  its  accessories  should  be  governed 
by  the  principle  of  "lex  loci  contractu." 

In  addition  to  the  privileges  contained  in  other  contracts  relating  to 
canal  construction,  the  Republic  granted  to  this  company  man}T  mer- 
cantile, banking,  and  other  business  prerogatives,  varied  in  character, 
which  would  have  been  of  great  value  to  private  owners.  These  are 
enumerated  in  Article  XVI  of  the  contract. 

In  addition  to  liberal  grants  of  land,  such  as  were  contained  in  the 
contract  with  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Association,  the  company  was 
given  an  option  to  select  and  purchase,  within  two  years  from  the 
date  of  its  organization,  a  million  hectares  (nearly  2,500,000  acres)  of 
national  land,  at  $1  per  hectare  in  American  gold. 

Taking  all  these  privileges  into  consideration  this  is  by  far  the  most 
liberal  contract  that  has  been  made  by  Nicaragua  in  connection  with 
this  subject,  and  it  is  of  special  significance,  because  it  is  the  most 
recent  in  date  and  is  the  latest  expression  and  act  of  the  Government 
from  which  an  inference  can  be  drawn  as  to  the  value  that  would  be 
set  upon  such  a  concession  or  grant  as  would  authorize  the  United 
States  to  construct,  manage,  and  operate  a  maritime  canal  through  the 
territory  of  the  Republic. 

A  copy  of  this  contract  is  attached  to  this  report,  marked  "Appen- 
dix T." 

contract  between  cost.  0nly  one  of  these  parties  that  contracted  with 
ijica  and  Maritime  Canal  Nicaragua  with  reference  to  the  route  known  by 

("",'1"l)-  the  name  of  that  State  entered  into  a  contract 

with  Costa  Rica  so  as  to  secure  the  consent  of  that  Republic  for  the 
use  of  its  territory  as  far  as  might  be  necessary  in  executing  the 
project.  This  was  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua.  Its 
contract  was  entered  into  in  July,  1888,  and  Costa  Rica  granted  to 
the  company  privileges  as  to  the  use  of  its  territory  similar  to  those 
it  had  already  obtained  from  Nicaragua,  but  the  amount  of  capital 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  203 

stock  in  the  company  was  to  be  li  per  cent,  instead  of  4,  in  shares 
or  certificates  of  $100  each;  the  total  value  to  be  in  no  event  less  than 
$1,500,000.  This  contract  has  been  referred  to  in  an  earlier  part  of 
this  chapter,  and  is  designated  as  "Appendix  Z." 

While  the  way  is  open  for  direct  negotiations  with  Nicaragua  and 
Costa  Rica  for  the  occupation  and  use  of  their  territory  for  canal  pur- 
poses, the  situation  is  different  at  Panama.     The  Republic  of  Colom- 
bia first  granted  a  concession  to  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  giving 
it  exclusive  privileges  on  the  isthmus,  which  will 
Privileges    of    Panama  continue,   according  to    modifications  afterwards 

Railroad     Company     con-  i        e  •  •  j>  *  j.  ^  h    -i  nr>i-r 

tinue  to  1966.  made,  tor  ninetj^-nine  years  from  August  lb,  lboY. 

A  later  concession  to  the  Panama  Canal  Company 
required  it  to  enter  into  some  amicable  arrangement  with  the  rail- 
road company  under  which  the  former  might  occupy  the  territory 
along  or  near  its  line.  The  canal  company  acquired  by  purchase  a 
majority  of  the  railroad  stock,  and  the  necessary  arrangements  were 
made.     This  stock  is  now  under  the  control  of  the  New  Panama  Canal 

Companv,  which  gives  it  a  directing  influence  in 
v™^?^?™'  both  organizations.     The  canal   concession  is  to 

continue,  acccording  to  its  latest  extension,  for 
ninety  nine  years  from  the  day  on  which  the  canal  shall  be  wholly 
or  partially  opened  to  public  service,  and  the  date  fixed  for  this  in  the 
contract  is  October  31, 1910.  Should  it  fail,  and  the  concession  be  for- 
feited, the  company  will  still  have  exclusive  control  of  the  territory 
through  which  its  line  extends  till  1966,  under  the  railroad  concession. 
The  canal  company  is  absolutely  prohibited  to  cede  or  mortgage  its 
rights,  under  any  consideration  whatever,  to  any  nation  or  foreign 

government,  under  penalty  of  forfeiture.  The 
Both  companies  prohih-   contract  with  the  railroad  company  contains  a  like 

Ited  from  ceding  privileges  .....  tit  e        11 

to  foreign  government.        prohibition,  and  declares  further  that  the  pain  of 
forfeiture  will   be  incurred  by  the  mere  act  of 
attempting  to  cede  or  transfer  its  privilege  to  a  foreign  government, 
and  such  an  act  is  declared  absolutely  null  and  of  no  value  or  effect. 

These  concessions,  if  acquired  by  the  United 
concessions.  * 8  Un  "  States,  would  not  give  to  the  Government  the 
control  and  ownership  evidently  contemplated  by 
the  law — that  is,  an  absolute  ownership  in  perpetuity.  The  right 
under  the  contract  with  the  railroad  company  is  designated  as  "the 
use  and  possession  "  of  the  property  for  ninety-nine  years,  and  it  is 
provided  that  "at  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  the  privilege,"  and  by 
the  sole  fact  of  the  expiration,  the  Government  of  Colombia  shall  be 
substituted  in  all  the  rights  of  the  company,  and  shall  immediately 
enter  into  the  enjoyment  of  the  line  of  communication,  its  fixtures, 
dependencies,  and  all  its  products.  The  right  of  the  canal  company 
is  substantially  of  the  same  character.  Its  concession  expressly  pro- 
vides that  five  years  previous  to  the  expiration  of  the  ninety-nine 


204  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

3Tears  of  "  the  privileges,"  the  executive  power  shall  appoint  a  com- 
missioner to  examine  the  condition  of  the  canal  and  annexes,  and  make 
an  official  report  describing-  the  condition  of  the  property  in  every 
detail.  This  report  is  to  establish  the  condition  in  which  the  canal  and 
its  dependencies  are  to  be  delivered  to  the  National  Government  on  the 
day  of  the  expiration  of  the  privilege.  There  is  no  provision  for  an 
extension  of  either  concession  beyond  the  period  mentioned,  and  the 
entire  property  in  each  case  passes  from  the  company  without  compen- 
sation. 

The  privileges  granted  by  these  concessions  are 
nuai  changes.8™  °  an*  subject  to  certain  annual  charges  in  the  nature  of 
rentals,  and  to  other  obligations.  The  railroad 
company  is  bound  during  the  continuance  of  its  concession  to  pay  to 
the  Colombian  Government  "  an  annual  revenue"  of  $250,000  in  Amer- 
ican gold,  in  quarterly  payments.  The  failure  to  make  any  of  the 
quarterly  payments,  after  being  one  year  overdue,  subjects  the  com- 
pany to  a  forfeiture  of  its  privilege.  It  is  also  bound  to  transport 
over  its  road  the  Colombian  mails  without  charge,  and  the  troops, 
chiefs,  and  officers,  and  their  equipage,  ammunition,  armament, 
clothing,  and  all  similar  elf ects  belonging  to  or  destined  for  the  service 
of  the  Republic,  and  emigrants  to  the  country  up  to  the  number  of 
2,000  annually.  The  canal  company  is  bound  to  pay  to  the  Govern- 
ment, in  half-yearly  installments,  during  the  first  twenty-five  years 
after  the  opening  of  the  canal  to  the  public  service  a  share  amounting 
to  5  per  cent  on  its  gross  income  from  all  sources,  without  any  deduc- 
tions whatever.  For  a  second  period  of  twenty-five  years  the  share  of 
the  Government  is  increased  to  6  per  cent;  for  a  third  to  7  per  cent; 
and  for  a  fourth,  to  the  termination  of  its  privilege,  to  8  per  cent. 
The  company  guarantees  that  this  share  shall  in  no  case  be  less  than 
$250,000  in  any  year.  The  Colombian  Government  also  owns,  in 
accordance  with  the  extension  law  of  December  20,  1890,  and  by  the 
terms  of  the  company's  charter,  50,000  full-paid  shares  of  its  stock, 
of  the  par  value  of  100  francs  each,  the  total  number  of  shares  issued 
by  the  company  being  050,000.  The  Government  of  the  Republic  has 
the  power  under  the  concession  to  protect  these  interests  by  appoint- 
ing a  commissioner  or  agent  to  intervene  in  the  collection,  and  exam- 
ine the  accounts  of  the  company. 

This  being  the  situation,  it  was  manifest  that,  even  if  the  privileges 
of  the  companies  could  be  purchased  by  and  transferred  to  the  United 
States,  they  were  encumbered  with  charges  and  conditions  that  would 
not  permit  this  Government  to  exercise  all  the  rights  of  complete 
ownership  over  a  canal  constructed  by  it  at  the  Panama  route. 

A  new  arrangement  is  necessary  if  the  United 
n,«  arrangement  netes-   States  is  to  undertake  the  work.     The  relinquish- 

sary  If  lulled  States  under-  .  ,        , 

takes  work.  ment  by  the  canal  company,  with  the  consent  of 

Colombia,  of  the  privileges  it  has  under  existing 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  205 

concessions,  for  a  consideration  to  be  agreed  upon  with  the  United 
States,  would  leave  the  way  open  for  treaty  negotiations  between  the 
two  Governments  to  ascertain  whether  Colombia  will  consent  to  the 
occupation  of  its  territory  by  the  United  States  for  the  construction 
of  a  canal  to  be  under  Government  control,  management,  and  owner- 
ship, and,  if  so,  whether  they  can  agree  upon  terms  mutually  satis- 
factory. The  situation  is  peculiar,  as  there  are  three  parties  in  interest. 
The  United  States  can  obtain  from  Colombia  no  concession  that  does 
not  have  the  approval  of  the  company,  and  its  concessions  do  not  per- 
mit the  company  to  transfer  or  attempt  to  transfer  its  rights  to  a 
foreign  government. 

As  the  Commission  was  specially  authorized  and  instructed  to  ascer- 
tain the  cost  of  purchasing  all  the  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises 
held  and  owned  b}^  corporations,  associations,  and  individuals  in  the 
different  canal  routes,  so  as  to  determine  the  cost  of  constructing  an 
isthmian  canal  at  each  of  them  and  placing  it  under  the  control, 
management,  and  ownership  of  the  United  States,  it  attempted  at  the 
first  favorable  opportunity,  after  its  organization,  to  ascertain  the 
views  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  with  reference  to  a  disposi- 
tion and  transfer  of  its  property  and  rights. 

While  the  Commission  was  in  Paris  in  September,  1899,  interviews 
were  held  with  the  president  and  other  officers  of  the  company,  dur- 
ing which  their  attention  was  directed  to  the'  scope  of  the  investiga- 
tion in  which  it  was  engaged,  and  their  views  were  sought  upon  this 
subject  of  sale  and  transfer.  They  were  not  prepared  to  make  a  defi- 
nite reply,  and  responded  onty  with  some  general  remarks,  which  did 
not  give  the  information  that  was  sought. 

Mr.  Maurice  Hutin  was  afterwards  chosen  president  of  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  and  came  to  the  United  States  early  in  1900, 
during  the  absence  of  the  Commission  in  Central  and  South  America. 
Soon  after  its  return,  on  the  4th  day  of  April,  1900,  he  addressed  a 
letter  to  the  president  of  the  Commission,  stating  that  the  principal 
object  of  his  visit  was  to  give  to  the  Commission  any  additional 
information  it  might  desire  with  reference  to  the  company  and  the 
canal  project,  and  that  he  was  ready  to  do  so,  either  upon  technical 
points  or  others  that  might  be  indicated  to  him. 

In  response  to  this  letter  the  president  of  the  Commission  reminded 
him  of  the  discussions  at  Paris  with  reference  to  a  transfer  of  the 
canal  property  to  the  United  States  which  had  then  led  to  no  result,  and 
submitted  three  inquiries  to  which  he  solicited  replies  as  full  and  as 
clear  as  he  might  find  it  convenient  to  make.  They  were  substantially 
as  follows: 

1.  Whether  the  company  was  willing  to  sell  its  rights,  property, 
and  unfinished  work  to  the  United  States. 

2.  Whether  the  company  had  the  legal  power  to  make  such  sale  and 


206  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

give  to  the  purchaser  a  perfect  title,  free  from  all  incumbrances  and 
the  claims  of  the  stockholders  and  creditors  of  the  old  company. 

3.  For  what  sum,  in  cash,  would  the  company  sell  its  rights,  privi- 
leges, franchises,  and  its  property  of  every  description  connected  with 
the  construction  of  a  canal  across  the  isthmus  of  Panama? 

He  stated  that  the  Commission  was  well  aware  that  the  concession 
under  which  the  company  was  acting  prohibited  a  sale  or  transfer  of 
its  privileges  to  any  foreign  Government,  and  suggested  that,  in  the 
discussion  of  the  subject,  the  consent  of  the  Colombian  Government 
might  be  assumed.  He  also  called  attention  to  the  terms  of  the  law 
under  which  the  Commission  was  acting,  which  authorized  it  to  collect 
information  to  be  submitted  to  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
but  conferred  no  power  to  accept  or  reject  any  terms  which  might  be 
offered. 

There  was  no  early  response  to  this  communication.  President  Hutin 
returned  to  Paris,  and  on  the  20th  of  July  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
president  of  the  Commission,  in  which  he  said  that  on  account  of  the 
importance  of  the  questions  asked  him  it  would  be  well  to  have  inter- 
views with  him  and  other  members  of  the  Commission,  with  a  view  of 
making  the  reply  precise  and  including  in  it  everything  which  might 
be  needed.  Before  closing  he  asked  to  be  informed  by  what  date  a 
reply  to  the  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  was  desired.  In  acknowledging 
this  letter,  on  the  13th  of  August,  the  president  of  the  Commission 
stated  that  it  was  desirable  to  have  the  reply  at  as  earlj'  a  date  as  prac- 
ticable, and  not  later  than  the  1st  day  of  October  following. 

A  few  weeks  later,  President  Hutin  visited  Washington  again,  and 
the  Commission  and  its  committee  on  rights,  privileges,  and  fran- 
chises held  conferences  with  him  from  time  to  time,  at  which  the  sub- 
ject of  these  inquiries  was  freely  discussed,  but  no  formal  reply  to  the 
letter  was  received  until  November  16,  just  before  the  Commission 
closed  its  prelim inaiy  report. 

During  these  conferences  the  question  of  title  was  fully  discussed, 
and  the  Commission  was  furnished  with  copies  of  the  concession  from 
Colombia  to  the  old  company;  the  different  contracts  by  which  it  was 
extended;  the  laws  under  which  the  old  and  new  companies  were 
organized;  the  legislative  acts  relating  to  the  old  company  and  the 
liquidation  of  its  affairs;  the  decrees  of  the  court  relating  to  the 
liquidation  and  to  the  formation  of  the  new  company;  the  charter  of 
the  new  company,  and  other  documents  bearing  upon  its  legal  history. 
These  have  been  made  use  of  by  the  Commission  in  its  investigation  of 
the  legal  status  of  the  new  company,  and  its  conclusions  will  be  given 
further  on  in  this  report. 

No  result  was  reached  with  reference  to  the  other  questions.  There 
was  no  offer  to  dispose  of  the  property  and  privileges  of  the  company 
to  the  United  States  upon  any  terms,  even  with  the  consent  of  the 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  207 

Colombian  Government,  nor  was  any  desire  expressed  to  enter  into 
any  negotiations  with  the  United  States  with  reference  to  such  a  dispo- 
sition of  its  property  and  rights,  and  it  was  manifest  that  the  company 
preferred  some  other  arrangement  than  an  absolute  sale.  President 
Hutin  during  these  conferences  suggested  that  the  United  States 
might  obtain  control  of  the  rights,  privileges,  and  property  of  the 
canal  company  as  a  majority  stockholder  of  a  new  organization,  to 
which  the  company  might  contribute  its  concession,  plant,  unfinished 
work,  and  other  property,  at  a  valuation  to  be  determined  by  arbitra- 
tion, and  he  expressed  the  opinion  that  such  an  arrangement  could  be 
made  without  violating  the  concessions.  But  this  must  include  some 
plan  for  the  protection  of  the  minority  stockholders  in  the  financial 
management,  for  they  would  favor  a  policy  that  would  realize  liberal 
dividends  in  proportion  to  the  commercial  value  of  the  canal,  while 
the  policy  of  the  United  States  might  be  to  reduce  tolls  and  charges  to 
the  cost  of  maintenance,  or  even  below  it,  if  its  interests  would  be 
thereby  advanced. 

The  letter  contained  no  answers  to  the  first  and  third  questions  of 
the  communication  of  April  10,  1900,  but  submitted  a  plan  substan- 
tially the  same  as  that  outlined  in  the  letter  of  the  company  of  Febru- 
ary 28,  1899,  addressed  to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  which 
was  published  in  Senate  Doc.  No.  188,  Fifty-sixth  Congress,  first 
session,  pages  41  and  42. 

This  was  to  reincorporate  under  the  laws  of  New  York  or  some 
other  State,  and  accord  to  the  United  States  such  representation  in  its 
board  of  directors  and  such  opportunity  to  acquire  an  interest  in 
its  securities  as  its  concessions  permitted. 

This  plan  was  subject  to  all  the  objections  of  a  divided  ownership, 
and  would  not  give  to  the  United  States  the  control,  management,  and 
ownership  contemplated  by  the  law.  An  assurance  was  added  to  the 
effect  that  if  the  United  States  should  desire  to  perpetuate  or  enlarge 
its  existing  rights  and  privileges  acquired  under  the  treaty  of  1846,  the 
company  would  conform  to  such  supplemental  treaty  as  might  be 
entered  into  between  the  United  States  and  Colombia. 

It  was  further  stated  in  the  letter  of  November  26,  1900,  that  there 
were  other  plans  by  which  the  United  States  could  acquire  a  prepon- 
derating influence  in  the  company  without  violating  the  spirit  of  the 
concessions,  but  they  were  not  disclosed  either  in  the  letter  or  during 
the  discussions. 

In  the  spring  of  1901,  the  preliminary  report  of  the  Commission 
having  been  published  during  the  previous  winter,  there  were  some 
communications  between  the  Colombian  Government  and  the  canal 
company,  which  caused  the  latter  to  somewhat  change  its  attitude. 
The  Commission  was  informed  that  the  company,  through  its  presi- 
dent, had  expressed  a  desire  to  sell  and  transfer  its  rights,  property, 


208  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

and  interests  to  the  United  States,  with  the  necessary  authorization  of 
the  Colombian  Government,  that  the  Government  -would  give  its  con- 
sent to  the  company  to  make  such  sale  and  transfer,  if  satisfactory 
arrangements  and  conditions  could  be  agreed  upon,  and  that  the  com- 
pany was  authorized  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  that  end  in  view. 

This  apparently  removed  all  obstacles  to  a  full  and  frank  expression 
of  the  views  of  the  company  upon  the  subject,  and  in  a  letter,  dated 
May  8,  1901,  addressed  to  President  Hutin,  the  president  of  the  Com- 
mission expressed  the  hope  that  he  would  take  up  the  question  once 
more,  now  that  he  was  relieved  of  the  embarrassments  under  which  he 
had  formerly  labored,  and  give  such  additional  information  as  he  felt 
at  liberty  to  do,  particularly  in  reply  to  the  first  and  third  questions 
contained  in  the  former  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  so  that  the  Commis- 
sion might  make  a  full  representation  of  the  subject  in  its  forthcoming 
report  for  the  information  of  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

In  his  reply,  on  the  loth  of  the  same  month,  President  Hutin 
responded  to  the  first  question  by  stating  that  the  company  would  con- 
sent if  authorization  therefor  should  be  given  by  the  Colombian  Gov- 
ernment to  transfer  its  concessions  to  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  the  conditions  of  the  transfer  to  be  fixed  independent  of  any 
particular  arrangements  which  might  be  made  between  the  Govern- 
ments of  Colombia  and  the  United  States. 

A  reply  to  the  third  question  was  deferred  until  his  return  to  Paris, 
because,  as  he  stated  personally  to  the  president  of  the  Commission, 
no  price  could  be  fixed  until  he  could  consult  with  the  directors  of 
the  company  and  have  free  access  to  its  books  and  accounts. 

He  referred  again  to  the  question  of  a  divided  control  of  the  canal 
propert}',  and  the  conditions  under  which  the  United  States  might 
obtain  a  share  in  it,  and  suggested  that  it  might  be  of  interest  to 
examine  it  afresh. 

The  president  of  the  Commission  acknowledged  the  receipt  of  this 
letter  on  the  da}'  following.  He  urged  that  the  first  step  for  the  com- 
pany to  take  was  to  express  its  views  as  to  the  value  of  its  property, 
and  that  this  could  be  done  in  no  better  way  than  by  a  specific  reply 
to  the  question  asked  in  the  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  and  expressed 
the  hope  that  this  would  be  done  with  the  least  possible  loss  of  time. 
He  discouraged  the  proposal  to  examine  afresh  the  question  of 
divided  control.  The  law  under  which  the  Commission  was  appointed 
contemplated  nothing  less  than  a  complete  ownership  of  the  propert}-, 
and,  as  the  compan}'  was  then  in  a  position  to  make  :i  direct  sale  to  the 
United  States,  he  said  that  it  need  no  longer  be  considered. 

The  summer  passed  without  making  any  material  progress,  although 
letters  and  cablegrams  upon  the  subject  were  exchanged.  On  the  28th 
of  June  the  president  of  the  Commission  was  assured  that  a  detailed 
valuation  of  the  company's  property  would  be  sent  in  about  a  fort- 


RETORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


209 


night.  On  the  25th  of  July  it  was  to  be  sent  by  next  mail,  and  the 
statement  was  added  that  the  preparation  had  required  more  time  than 
contemplated.  The  formal  reply,  dated  Paris,  October  4,  1901,  was 
finally  presented  in  Washington  by  President  Hutin  in  person,  on  the 
17th  of  the  same  month,  together  with  a  paper  containing  the  esti- 
mated values  of  the  property  of  the  company.  These  valuations  are 
given  in  the  following  table  in  francs  and  also  in  dollars,  the  franc 
being  valued  at  19.3  cents: 


Stock  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company 

Buildings,  lands,  etc.,  on  Panama  isthmus,  constituting  the  company's 

private  estate 

Hospitals  at  Colon  and  at  Panama 

Amounts  expended  for  concessions,  with  interest 

Work  done  by  the  old  company 

Work  done  by  the  new  company  to  January  1, 1902 

Technical  surveys 

Total 


Francs. 


Dollars. 


55, 000, 000 

9,000,000 
4,500,000 

24,000,000 

415, i 

in.  moo,  000 
18, 000, 000 

10, 615, 000 

1,737,000 
868, 500 
4,632,000 
80, 095, 000 
7,720,000 
3, 474, 000 

565, 500, 000 

109,141,500 

These  figures  were  intended  by  the  company  to  represent  the 
intrinsic,  or  real  and  absolute,  value  of  the  work  already  done  and 
the  other  property  it  owns  upon  the  isthmus.  In  addition  to  this  a 
compensation  was  proposed  for  the  possible  profits  that  might  result 
from  the  operation  of  the  canal  after  its  completion.  The  plan  pro- 
posed for  estimating  these  profits  was  to  allow  a  certain  amount  per 
ton  on  the  actual  annual  tonnage  that  might  pass  through  the  canal 
whenever  it  amounted  to  7,000,000  tons  or  more,  at  an  increasing  rate, 
without  reference  to  the  toll  charge  or  actual  receipts.  The  proposed 
rates  of  compensation  were  as  follows: 

Francs  per  ton. 

7,000,000  tons  per  annum 50 

8,000,000  tons  per  annum 1.  00 

8,000,000  to  11,000,000  tons  per  annum 1.  50 

11,000,000  to  16,000,000  tons  per  annum 2.  00 

16,000,000  to  19,000,000  tons  per  annum 2.  50 

20,000,000  and  more  tons  per  annum 3.  00 

It  being  the  desire  of  President  Hutin  to  enter  upon  a  discussion  of 
these  items,  so  that  objections  might  be  made  and  considered,  mem- 
bers of  the  committee  on  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises  met  for  a 
conference  with  him  and  his  counsel,  and  the  greater  part  of  three 
days  was  spent  in  an  examination  of  the  paper  containing  the  estimated 
value  of  the  proper ty. 

The  total  valuation  is  largely  in  excess  of  that  fixed  by  the  Commis- 
sion, the  greatest  variance  being  in  the  amounts  for  the  excavation 
and  work  already  done  that  can  be  utilized  in  the  completion  of  the 
canal. 

S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 14 


210  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

This  resulted  from  different  views  as  to  prices  and  methods  of  cal- 
culation and  partly  to  a  difference  in  plans.  The  compan}T's  estimate 
also  included,  in  addition  to  the  work,  the  value  of  the  plant  upon  the 
isthmus,  consisting-  of  locomotives,  cars,  dredging  and  other  machines, 
tools  and  implements  of  various  kinds,  stored  in  sheds  and  ware- 
houses, which  originally  cost  many  millions  of  dollars,  but  would  be 
of  no  value  to  the  United  States;  most  of  these  machines  and  imple- 
ments are  old,  and  even  if  in  good  order  are  not  adapted  to  present 
methods. 

The  members  of  the  Commission  could  not  agree  to  the  proposition 
that  the  company  would  have  any  just  claim  to  share  in  the  profits  of 
the  canal  enterprise  after  selling  it  to  the  United  States  at  its  real  and 
absolute  value.  The  element  of  probable  future  profits  may  fairly  be 
considered  in  fixing  the  price,  but  if  the  United  States  should  become 
a  purchaser,  it  will  be  upon  the  condition  of  acquiring  a  complete  title 
and  the  absolute  control  of  the  property.  As  a  result  of  the  discussion, 
this  proposition  was  withdrawn,  but  in  other  respects  the  views  and 
opinions  of  each  party  remained  unchanged. 

It  was  then  proposed  by  President  Hutin  that  there  should  be  a 
thorough  examination  of  the  data  and  estimates  made  by  the  Commis- 
sion and  the  company,  so  that  by  proper  comparison  the  differences 
might  be  developed,  and  if  possible,  adjusted,  so  that  a  result  could  be 
reached  that  would  be  acceptable  to  the  two  interests  that  were  repre- 
resented.  It  was  further  proposed  that  if  the  differences  could  not  be 
thus  adjusted,  there  should  be  an  arbitration  to  settle  them.  As  the 
reasons  for  the  existing  differences  had  been  developed  during  the 
conferences  already  held,  and  as  the  efforts  to  reconcile  them  had  been 
fruitless,  the  further  examination  proposed  did  not  appear  to  be 
desirable,  and  besides  it  was  then  impracticable. 

After  all  the  obstructions  in  the  way  of  a  sale  had  been  removed,  it 
took  several  months  for  the  company  to  go  over  its  books,  accounts, 
and  other  data  in  preparation  of  the  paper  then  under  consideration. 
The  Commission  had  devoted  many  months  to  this  part  of  its  investi- 
gations and  studies.  It  was  therefore  manifestly  impossible  to  go 
over  the  details  of  the  results  reached  by  the  company  and  the  Com- 
mission in  the  brief  time  that  remained  for  the  preparation  and  pres- 
entation of  the  report  of  the  latter  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States. 

A  resort  to  arbitration  in  ease  of  disagreement  would  require  a  pre- 
sentation of  the  two  sets  of  details  to  a  new  body  of  men,  who  would 
have  to  examine  the  entire  subject  for  themselves,  and  their  work 
could  not  be  completed  for  many  months,  perhaps  years. 

If  an  adjustment  by  this  method  were  practicable  and  desirable,  it 
was  not  within  the  scope  of  the  duties  of  the  Commission.  Its  duty 
was  to  obtain  information,  and  it  was  ready  to  entertain  any  proposi- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  211 

tion  or  agreement  that  the  company  might  offer,  submit  it  to  the  presi- 
dent, and  to  continue  the  discussions  as  far  as  practicable  during  the 
brief  time  that  remained;  but  it  was  clothed  with  no  power  to  accept  or 
reject,  as  the  company  had  been  informed  at  the  beginning  of  these 
conferences.  An  arbitration  under  such  circumstances  would  be  a 
useless  waste  of  time  and  effort,  would  lead  to  no  practical  result,  and 
would  only  serve  to  further  delay  action  upon  the  canal  question. 

The  proposition  for  a  more  extended  discussion  and  comparison  of 
the  details  of  the  estimates  made  by  the  company  and  by  the  Commis- 
sion was  therefore  declined,  and  President  Hutin  was  informed  that 
the  Commission  would  be  obliged  to  complete  its  report  at  an  early 
day,  and  that  any  proposal  from  the  company  would  be  received  until 
the  5th  day  of  November,  when  the  question  would  be  considered 
as  closed,  and  it  was  hoped  that  by  that  time  he  would  be  ready  to 
present  his  final  conclusions. 

Before  that  time  a  letter  was  received  from  President  Hutin,  stating 
that  the  board  of  directors  of  his  company  had  fixed  a  price  for  the 
sale  of  the  canal  property  and  interests,  according  to  calculations  and 
estimates  "which  it  considers  exact  and  justified  until  the  contrary  is 
proven."  This  price  is  the  aggregate  of  the  items  contained  in  the 
paper  submitted  with  his  letter  of  October  4,  and  he  states  that  he 
confirms  this  letter  and  the  accompanying  paper  or  memorandum, 
except  the  part  of  the  latter  relating  to  a  share  in  the  profits  of 
the  canal  enterprise,  which  claim  is  relinquished  "as  an  act  of 
conciliation.  " 

This  statement  was  somewhat  indefinite,  but  in  the  reply  to  the 
letter  the  president  of  the  Commission  stated  that  he  understood  that 
the  company  withdrew  the  proposition  with  regard  to  sharing  in  the 
possible  profits  accruing  from  the  canal,  after  completion,  and  with 
that  exception  that  the  company  confirmed  and  stood  upon  the  figures 
submitted  with  the  letter  of  the  4th  of  October  last,  which  aggregated 
565,500,000  francs,  or  8109,141,500,  and  that  these  figures,  with  his 
views,  would  be  presented  to  the  President  in  the  report  of  the  Com- 
mission. There  has  been  no  dissent  to  this  interpretation  of  the  mean- 
ing and  purport  of  the  letter. 

The  Commission  submits  this  as  the  result  of  its  efforts  to  ascertain 
upon  what  terms  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  new  Panama  Canal 
Company  can  be  obtained. 

It  is  proper  to  add  that  the  examination  of  the  title  of  the  present 
company  to  the  canal  propertj7  under  the  laws  of  France  and  Colombia 
has  satisfied  this  Commission  that  the  new  Panama  Canal  Company 
has  the  entire  control  and  management  of  the  canal  property.  It 
appears,  further,  that  the  liquidator  appointed  by  the  French  court  to 
settle  the  affairs  of  the  old  company  contributed  under  the  charter 
all  the  privileges  and  property  of  that  company  to  the  new  organiza- 


212  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

tion,  and  in  consideration  of  this  contribution  he  will  be  entitled  to 
receive  60  per  cent  of  the  net  income  after  paying-  all  expenses, 
charges,  and  stipulated  dividends,  to  be  distributed  by  him  among  the 
parties  in  interest.  This  right  to  a  share  in  the  profits  gives  no  right 
to  the  old  stockholders  to  take  any  part  in  the  acts  or  administration 
of  the  new  company,  but  the  charter  recognizes  a  continued  interest 
of  the  old  company  in  the  affairs  of  its  successor  by  conferring  upon 
the  liquidator  until  the  completion  of  the  canal  the  power  to  appoint 
a  commission  of  three  members  to  inspect  the  progress  of  the  work, 
the  condition  and  maintenance  of  the  plant  and  buildings,  as  well  as 
the  accounts  relating  to  these  different  objects,  th©  expense  of  the 
commission  to  be  borne  b}T  the  new  company.  It  will  thus  be  mani- 
fest that  if  an  agreement  be  made  for  the  purchase  of  the  company's 
concession  and  property  by  the  United  States,  it  must  include  some 
settlement  of  this  right  which  the  French  court  has  placed  under  the 
control  of  the  liquidator,  and  if  a  sale  is  effected  the  liquidator  must 
unite  in  it  under  the  authority  of  the  court  from  which  he  received 
his  appointment. 

The  correspondence  between  the  company  and  the  Commission  is  as 

follows: 

The  New  Caxal  Company  of  Panama, 

Washington,  D.  C,  April  4,  1900. 
Admiral  J.  G.  Walker, 

President  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Mr.  President:  In  pursuance  of  the  intentions  expressed  and  the  assurances  given 
by  the  New  Canal  Company  of  Panama  to  the  President  of  the  United  States  and 
the  committees  of  Congress  before  the  creation  of  the  Commission  over  which  you 
preside,  and  also  because  of  similar  intentions  and  assurances  which  we  had  the 
honor  of  addressing  to  yourself,  we  were  very  glad  to  be  able  in  the  beginning  to 
confer  with  the  Commission  in  Paris.  Indeed,  that  gave  us  the  opportunity  of  pre- 
senting to  you  in  a  most  complete  and  satisfactory  manner  our  detailed  technical 
plans,  with  all  the  data  and  documents  which  had  been  used  in  their  formation. 
We  have  also  made  known  to  you  the  results  of  our  statistical  and  economical 
investigations  and  have  exhibited  the  general  organization  and  the  present  situation 
of  our  company. 

Following  your  studies  in  Paris,  we  were  much  pleased  to  receive  you  in  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  where  we  submitted  for  your  examination  the  entire  scheme  of 
our  project  and  the  work  on  the  canal  in  process  of  execution. 
Since  your  departure  from  Paris  I  was  elected  president  as  well  as  director-general 
of  the  New  Canal  Company  of  Panama,  and  soon  after  I  left  France  with  the  inten- 
tion of  joining  you  on  the  isthmus.  Upon  my  arrival  at  New  York  I  cabled  you  and 
received  from  you  the  reply  that  the  Commission  would  probably  leave  Colon  on  the 
19th  of  .March,  which  left  me  no  opportunity  of  an  interview  with  the  Commission 
during  its  stay  in  Panama. 

As  the  principal  object  of  my  visit  was  to  give  the  Commission  any  additional 
information  which  it  i i i i «_r  1  it  desire,  1  have  remained  in  the  United  States  to  await  its 
return.  It  is  possible  that  your  profound  study  of  the  project  of  our  company, 
made  during  your  visit  to  the  isthmus  and  illustrated  by  the  actual  condition  of  the 
work  which  is  now  in  process  of  execution  upon  the  line  of  the  canal,  may  have 
suggested  the  desire  to  obtain  new  information;  and  because  of  that  possibility  I 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  213 

have  been  desirous  of  holding  myself  at  your  disposition  in  order  to  supply  you  upon 
technical  points,  as  well  as  upon  others  that  you  may  be  good  enough  to  indicate  to 
me,  such  complementary  information  and  explanations  as  you  may  judge  necessary. 
I  shall  remain  in  Washington  or  in  New  York  as  long  as  you  consider  my  pres- 
ence useful.     I  beg  that  you  will  accept,  Mr.  President,  the  assurances  of  my  high 

consideration  and  my  devoted  sentiments. 

M.  Hutin. 

My  address  at  Washington  is  Hotel  Raleigh,  and  in  New  York  to  the  care  of 
Messrs.  Sullivan  &  Cromwell,  45  Wall  street. 


Department  op  State,  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 

Washington,  D.  C,  April  10,  1900. 
Maurice  Hutin,  Esq., 

President  of  New  Panama  Canal  Company, 

Care  of  Messrs.  Sullivan  &  Cromwell,  45  Wall  street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Dear  Sir  :  During  the  conferences  which  this  Commission  had  the  honor  to  hold 
with  you  in  Paris,  and  in  the  sessions  of  September  7  and  8  last,  your  attention  was 
invited  to  that  portion  of  the  law  of  Congress  which  created  the  Commission,  requir- 
ing it  "to  ascertain  the  cost  of  purchasing  all  the  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises 
held  and  owned"  by  the  association  of  which  you  are  the  head.  Your  attention 
was  also  invited  to  the  scope  of  the  investigation  in  which  the  Commission  is  engaged, 
as  defined  in  the  last  sentence  of  section  3,  which  is  as  follows,  viz  :  "  To  make  such 
full  and  complete  investigation  as  to  determine  the  most  feasible  and  practicable 
route  across  said  Isthmus  for  a  canal,  together  with  the  cost  of  constructing  the  same 
and  placing  the  same  under  the  control,  management,  and  ownership  of  the  United 
States." 

The  subject  was  opened  without  any  expectation  that  it  could  be  fully  discussed 
at  that  time,  it  being  well  understood  that  questions  so  important  and  so  difficult 
must  require  time  for  consideration.  You  were  pleased  to  make  certain  general 
statements,  which  were  all  that  could  be  expected  by  the  Commission  for  the  moment. 
They  did  not,  however,  convey  the  information  which  the  Commission  is  seeking, 
viz:  How  much  will  it  cost  the  United  States  to  acquire  complete  ownership  and 
control  of  all  the  rights,  privileges,  franchises,  and  property  belonging  to  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  ?  I  beg,  therefore,  to  revert  to  the  subject  with  a  view  to 
reaching,  if  possible,  a  clearer  understanding  upon  that  subject. 

You  understand,  of  course,  that  the  Commission  has  no  authority  to  accept  or 
reject  any  terms  which  may  be  offered,  but  is  collecting  information  to  be  submitted 
to  the  President. 

I  may  remark  at  the  outset  that  the  Commission  is  familiar  with  the  clause  in  your 
concession  which  prohibits  the  sale  or  transfer  of  your  rights  to  any  nation  or  foreign 
Government.  In  the  discussion  of  this  question  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  consent 
of  the  Colombian  Government  has  been  obtained  for  a  sale  to  the  United  States.  It 
is  with  that  assumption  that  the  following  questions  are  respectfully  submitted,  and 
that  replies  as  full  and  as  clear  as  you  may  find  it  convenient  to  make  are  solicited. 

1.  Is  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  willing  to  sell  to  the  United  States  all  of 
the  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises,  together  with  all  the  works,  railways  (includ- 
ing the  Panama  Railway),  telegraph  or  telephone  lines,  buildings,  lands,  plant, 
material,  drawings,  and  documents  of  every  description  which  it  owns  or  controls  in 
connection  with  the  construction  of  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama? 

2.  Is  the  company  able — that  is,  has  it  the  legal  power — to  give  a  clear  title  to  such 
rights,  privileges,  franchises,  property,  etc.,  of  every  description,  free  of  all  encum- 
fcrance  or  claim  of  any  nature,  from'  any  person  whatsoever,  and  particularly  from 
tne  stockholders  or  creditors  of  the  old  Panama  Canal  Company? 


214  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

3.  For  what  sum  of  money,  in  cash,  will  the  company  transfer  to  the  United  States 
all  of  the  rights,  privileges,  franchises,  property,  etc.,  of  every  description,  which  it 
owns  or  controls  in  connection  with  the  construction  of  a  canal  across  the  isthmus  of 
Panama? 

The  law  under  which  the  Commission  is  acting  contemplates  only  the  complete 
"control,  management,  and  ownership"  of  the  canal  by  the  United  States,  and  not  a 
partial  or  joint  control  with  private  corporations  or  individuals.  Nevertheless,  should 
your  reply  to  the  first  or  the  second  questions  be  in  the  negative,  it  would  no  doubt 
be  of  great  interest  to  the  President  to  know  what  degree  of  control  could  be  obtained 
by  the  United  States  in  the  Panama  Canal,  and  upon  what  terms. 

In  the  contingency  referred  to,  viz,  a  negative  reply  to  the  first  or  second  ques- 
tions, you  are  invited  to  state  how  far  the  company  will  be  able  and  willing  to  go  in 
the  direction  of  yielding  control  to  the  United  States,  and  what  compensation  it  will 
expect  therefor. 

Thanking  you  again,  my  dear  Mr.  Hutin,  for  the  great  assistance  and  many  kind- 
nesses extended  to  the  members  of  this  Commission,  both  in  Paris  and  upon  the 
isthmus  of  Panama,  I  am,  with  great  respect,  > 

Your  obedient  servant, 

J.  G.  Walker, 
President  of  Commission. 


Paris,  July  SO,  1900. 
Mr.  President:  Our  council  of  administration  is  preparing  to  reply  to  your  letter 
of  April  11  (10)  last. 

On  account  of  the  importance  of  the  questions  asked,  we  think  it  possible  that 
before  determining  precisely  the  terms  of  our  reply,  and  with  a  view  of  making  it 
precise  and  including  therein  everything  which  you  may  need,  it  might  be  well  that 
I  should  have  at  Washington  interviews  with  yourself  and  with  the  members  of  the 
Commission. 

Whether  you  are  of  this  same  opinion  or  not,  we  would  be  much  obliged,  Mr. 
President,  to  be  informed  by  what  date  you  wish  to  have  our  reply  to  your  above- 
mentioned  letter. 

I  beg  that  you  will  accept,  Mr.  President,  the  renewed  assurance  of  my  devoted 
sentiments. 
The  president  of  the  council  of  administration: 

M.  Hutin. 
Rear-Admiral  Walker, 

President  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 
Corcoran  Building, 

Washington,  D.  C,  United  States. 


Department  of  State,  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 

Washington,  D.  C,  August  IS,  1900. 
Mr.  Maurice  Hutin, 

President  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  Paris,  France. 
Mr.  President:  I  have  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  letter  of  July  20, 
received  during  my  absence  from  town,  informing  me  that  the  council  of  administra- 
tion of  your  company  is  preparing  a  reply  to  my  letter  of  April  10  last,  and  also 
asking  to  be  informed  by  what  date  we  desire  your  reply  to  the  above-mentioned 
letter. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  215 

In  response  to  your  inquiry  I  have  to  say  that  I  will  be  glad  to  have  your  reply  at 
as  early  a  date  as  practicable,  but  I  think  it  should  not  be  later  than  the  1st  of  next 
October. 

With  great  respect,  believe  me,  very  sincerely,  yours, 

J.  G.  Walker, 
President  of  Commission. 


Washington,  D.  C,  November  26,  1900. 
Rear-Admiral  John  G.  Walker, 

President  Isthmian  Canal  Commission. 

Dear  Sir:  We  have  taken  pleasure  in  being  able  at  various  times  to  confer  with  you 
and  your  associates  of  the  Commission  upon  the  numerous  and  complex  questions 
involved  in  the  problem  of  the  interoceanic  canal,  and  particularly  the  inquiries  pre- 
sented by  your  letter  of  April  10  last. 

Referring  to  that  communication  we  note  your  statement  ' '  that  the  Commission 
has  no  authority  to  accept  or  reject  any  terms  which  may  be  offered,  but  is  collecting 
information  to  submit  to  the  President." 

It  is  manifest,  therefore,  that  nothing  decisive  at  this  time  could  result  from  a 
categorical  answer  to  certain  of  your  inquiries.  Nevertheless  we  wish  now,  as  we 
have  from  the  beginning,  to  manifest  our  sincere  desire  to  assist  you  in  accomplish- 
ing the  high  duties  with  which  you  have  been  charged  by  the  President. 

We  beg  leave,  first,  to  renew  and  confirm  our  proposal  of  February  27-28,  1899. 

In  that  proposition  the  company  declared  that  if  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  adopted  the  Panama  route  it  would  transform  its  organization  and  reincorpo- 
rate under  American  law,  and  while  providing  for  the  completion  of  the  canal  with 
its  own  resources  would  grant  to  the  Government  (without  pecuniary  contribution 
upon  the  latter's  part)  representation  in  the  directorate  of  the  company;  and  it  also 
thereby  offered  to  the  Government  the  opportunity  of  acquiring  securities  of  the  com- 
pany to  the  extent  permitted  by  the  concessions  without  being  made  a  condition  of 
our  proposal ;  and  it  further  thereby  pledged  itself  to  conform  to  such  supplemental 
treaty  as  might  be  entered  into  between  the  United  States  and  the  Republic  of  Colom- 
bia in  perpetuation  or  enlargement  of  the  existing  rights  and  privileges  of  the  United 
States  under  the  treaty  of  1846,  and  to  accept  such  modifications  of  the  concessions  as 
might  result  therefrom. 

We  would  prefer  to  carry  out  this  plan,  which  is  embodied  in  the  communication 
of  February  27-28,  1899,  but  we  recognize  the  present  desire  of  the  Government  to 
acquire  preponderating  interest  and  influence  in  any  interoceanic  canal,  and  we  are 
prepared  to  further  that  desire  as  far  as  lies  in  our  power. 

There  are  several  plans  by  which  the  United  States  could  acquire  such  preponder- 
ating interest  and  influence  without  violation  of  the  provisions  of  the  concessions 
prohibiting  the  transfer  of  the  concessionary  rights  to  any  foreign  government.  As 
the  Commission  is  acquainted  with  the  terms  of  such  prohibition,  we  are  quite  sure 
that  it  will  agree  that  should  the  arrangement  arrived  at  (whatever  it  might  be)  take 
a  form  requiring  the  concurrence  of  Colombia,  we  could  not  in  that  contingency  bind 
ourselves  until  such  concurrence  be  obtained.  You  will  surely  appreciate  that  under 
no  circumstances  must  any  act  be  done  by  us  which  might  imperil  our  concessionary 
rights. 

As  concerns  all  legal  questions,  we  reiterate  our  unequivocal  declaration,  justified 
by  the  title  deeds  and  documents  submitted  to  you  and  supported  by  the  highest 
legal  authorities,  that  our  titles  and  concessions  are  absolute  and  indisputable,  and 
that  any  agreement  which  might  be  reached  between  the  United  States  and  the 
company  would  be  indubitably  legal. 


216  KEPOKT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

I  beg  leave  to  say,  therefore,  that  I  am  prepared  and  fully  authorized  to  continue 
the  consideration  of  the  subject  and  to  reach  a  conclusion  with  any  representatives 
of  the  Government  authorized,  as  I  am,  to  come  to  a  final  determination. 
I  am,  dear  sir,  with  great  respect,  your  obedient  servant, 

M.  Hrrix, 
President  et  Directeur- General. 


Legacion  de  Colombia, 

Washington,  April  29,  1901. 
M.  M.  Hutln, 

President  and  General  Director  of  the  Panama  Canal  Company,  Washington. 

Dear  Sir:  In  reply  to  your  favor  of  yesterday  I  have  the  honor  to  inform  you  that 
the  honorable  Secretary  of  State,  Mr.  Hay,  has  told  me  that,  not  being  duly  author- 
ized by  the  Senate,  he  can  not  for  the  present  enter  into  direct  negotiations  in  the 
matter  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

Besides,  I  understand  that  the  Government  of  the  United  States  wishes  to  come  to 
an  understanding  with  Great  Britain  on  the  proposed  modifications  of  the  Clayton- 
Bulwer  treaty  before  entering  into  negotiations  relative  to  either  the  Nicaragua  or 
the  Panama  Canal. 

Under  present  circumstances,  and  pending  the  reunion  of  Congress,  the  labor  of  the 
Commission  over  which  Admiral  Walker  presides  will  be  merely  informatory;  and 
so  I  have  been  given  to  understand  by  the  Secretary  of  State. 

The  final  report  that  the  Commission  is  to  present  will  be  absolutely  impartial,  and 
it  will  coverall  questions,  whether  technical,  political,  economic,  or  commercial,  that 
are  to  be  taken  into  account  to  secure  a  correct  result,  leaving  no  room  either  for 
undue  haste  or  for  the  influence  of  private  interests. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  preparation  of  a  complete  report  by  the  Commission,  I 
would  beg  of  you  to  inform  me,  at  least  in  a  general  way,  what  would  be  the  condi- 
tions under  which  your  company  would  be  disposed  to  cede  its  franchise  to  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  of  course  with  the  necessary  authorization  from 
the  Colombian  Government. 

I  believe  that  it  is  important  to  make  this  matter  clear  in  order  to  dispel  doubts 
and  misunderstandings  that  have  given  rise  to  malignant  insinuations,  in  spite  of  the 
prudent  reserve  that  you  have  observed  before  being  informed  of  the  attitude  of  the 
Colombian  Government  in  the  matter. 

I  avail  myself  of  this  opportunity  to  renew  the  assurance  of  my  high  regard. 

Carlos  Martinez  Silva. 


Washington,  D.  C,  May  1,  1901. 
His  Excellency  Mr.  Martinez  Silva, 

Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Minister  PlenipoU  ntiary  of  the  Ju  /-nhJic  of  Colombia 

to  tfie  Rejtiih/ic  of  (lie  T'nitcd  Staffs  at  ]Yasliington. 

Mr.  Minister:  Since  your  arrival  in  this  country  I  have  had  the  honor  of  having 
with  you  numerous  conferences,  in  the  course  of  which  I  have  stated  to  you  the  pur- 
pose, the  development,  and  present  state  of  the  relations  established  between  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  and  our  company  since  the  end  of  the  year  L898. 

At  your  suggestion  and  in  agreement  with  you  I -have  abstained  from  all  other  pro- 
ceedings. It  was  proper,  in  fact,  to  wait  [until  the  situation  of  the  interoceanic  cana 
question  in  the  United  States,  regarded  from  the  double  point  of  view — legislative 
and  diplomatic — should  be,  if  it  were  possible,  better  defined.  The  events  which 
occurred  in  the  course  of  the  months  of  February  and  March  last  permitted  me  to 
write  you  my  letter  of  March  20,  in  which  I  asked  you  to  kindly  inform  me  how 
your  Government,  under  the  present  circumstances,  meant  to  interpret  and  apply 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  217 

the  provisions  of  articles  21  and  22  of  the  law  granting  the  concession  for  the  Panama 
Canal. 

Yon  were  good  enough  to  answer  me  on  March  28,  by  a  letter  from  which  I  quote 
the  following  passage: 

"  The  reserve  maintained  by  you  with  regard  to  the  propositions  which  have  been 
made  by  the  Commission  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  in  con- 
formity with  the  act  of  Congress  of  March  3,  1899,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  a  sale  to 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  of  the  Panama  Canal  concession,  has  been  pru- 
dent ;  because  any  offer  on  your  part  would  have  been  baseless  without  the  previous 
knowledge  and  authorization  of  Colombia,  in  accordance  with  articles  21  and  22  of 
the  concession  law. 

"  In  order  to  define  clearly  the  respective  positions  of  Colombia  and  the  United 
States  on  the  subject  of  the  Panama  Canal,  I  presented  yesterday  to  the  Secretary 
of  State,  Mr.  Hay,  a  memorandum  on  the  general  points  which  might  serve  as  a  basis 
for  negotiations  for  the  purpose  of  harmonizing  the  interests  of  Colombia,  those  of 
the  Panama  Canal  Company,  and  those  of  the  United  States,  so  far  as  the  latter  are 
not  in  conflict  with  the  traditional  principles  of  Colombian  policy  which  are  expressed 
in  the  concession  law. 

"  In  this  memorandum  it  was  stated^that  the  Government  of  Colombia  would  give 
the  canal  company  its  consent  to  transfer  the  latter' s  concession  to  the  Government 
of  the  United  States,  provided  always  that  the  latter  would  accept  the  conditions 
which  have  been  submitted  to  it. 

"  The  Secretary  of  State  told  me  that  he  would  study  the  question  with  care  and 
that  he  would  advise  me  when  we  could  discuss  it  at  another  conference. 

"  I  will  give  you  timely  advices  of  what  may  result  from  it." 

In  view  of  the  announcement  of  the  departure  and  the  intended  long  absence  of 
the  Secretary  of  State,  referring  to  the  foregoing  letter  I  wrote  you  on  April  28, 
to  ask  you  to  let  me  know  whether  any  decision  had  been  reached  or  any  determi- 
nation arrived  at. 

You  were  good  enough  in  reply  to  write  me  on  the  next  day  as  follows: 

"In  reply  to  your  letter  of  yesterday,  I  have  the  honor  of  informing  you  that  the 
Secretary  of  State,  Mr.  Hay,  has  told  me  that  not  being  authorized  by  the  Senate  he 
can  not  at  present  enter  into  any  direct  negotiations  concerning  the  Panama  Canal. 

"I  understood  also  that  the  Government  of  the  United  States  desired,  before 
undertaking  any  arrangement  relative  to  the  Nicaragua  or  Panama  Canal,  to  come 
to  an  understanding  with  the  English  cabinet  to  endeavor  to  modify  the  Clayton- 
Bulwer  treaty. 

"For  these  reasons  the  Secretary  of  State  informed  me  that  until  the  meeting  of 
the  next  Congress  the  work  to  be  done  will  consist  in  collecting  further  information, 
with  which  the  Commission  of  which  Admiral  Walker  is  president  will  be  charged. 

"The  final  report  which  it  is  to  present  will  be  inspired  by  the  loftiest  impartiality, 
and  will  comprehend  all  the  technical,  political,  economic,  and  commercial  questions 
which  should  be  taken  into  account  to  give  the  problem  the  best  solution,  closing  the 
way  to  any  hasty  action  and  to  the  operation  of  private  interests. 

"To  facilitate  this  Commission  in  obtaining  the  means  of  presenting  a  complete 
report  it  would  be  proper  that  you,  as  representing  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company, 
should  tell  me,  at  least  in  general  terms,  what  are  the  bases,  given  the  previous  con- 
sent of  the  Government  of  Colombia,  upon  which  the  company  would  be  disposed  to 
transfer  its  concession  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States. 

"I  think  it  important  to  settle  this  point  in  order  to  avoid  the  doubts  and  misun- 
derstandings which  have  given  rise  to  unfriendly  interpretations,  notwithstanding 
the  proper  reserve  of  the  course  which  you  have  followed,  so  long  as  you  were  not 
informed  of  the  attitude  of  the  Government  of  Colombia." 

I  hasten,  Mr.  Minister,  to  comply  with  your  wish.     I  shall  thus,  moreover,  only 


218  EEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

be  continuing  to  follow  the  invariable  line  of  conduct  adopted  by  the  New  Panama 
Canal  Company  since  its  organization  in  1894.  In  fact,  in  each  of  its  annual  reports 
to  the  shareholders'  meetings,  our  board  of  directors  has  shown  itself  disposed  to 
grant  to  American  interests  the  satisfaction  which  they  might  legitimately  desire, 
subject  to  the  sole  condition  of  an  understanding  which  should  be  equitable  to  all 
parties  in  interest. 

You  are  also  aware,  Mr.  Minister,  from  the  documents  which  I  have  handed  you, 
that  we  have  the  right  to  express  regret  that  the  preliminary  report  of  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission,  dated  November  30,  1900,  while  furnishing  arguments  which 
fully  justify  the  attitude  of  our  company,  contains  conclusions  which  have  caused 
our  declarations  and  intentions  to  be  judged  incorrectly. 

Our  company  ought  not  and  would  not  infringe  the  express  requirements  of  its 
concession  laws.  It  could  not,  without  the  previous  consent  of  Colombia,  answer 
the  questions  which  were  put  to  it,  nor  the  propositions  which  were  made  to  it.  By 
every  means  in  our  power  we  have  sought  to  bring  about  the  necessary  intervention 
of  your  Government.  Your  presence  and  your  action,  as  authorized  representative 
of  the  Colombian  Government  at  Washington,  establish  the  proper  situation  in 
which  our  company  should  be  placed  in  order  to  discuss  the  questions  presented  by 
the  Government  of  the  United  States. 

I  shall  not  dwell  further  upon  this  subject,  of  which  I  have  made  a  complete  state- 
ment in  the  memorandum  which  I  hand  you  and  in  which  I  shall  note  also  some 
inaccuracies  which  the  preliminary  report  contains  on  the  subject  of  the  situation 
and  legal  powers  of  our  company. 

Nor  is  it  my  intention  to  discuss  here  the  technical  part  of  the  preliminary  report 
of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission.  This  would  be  premature,  and  I  should  be 
compelled  at  present  to  confine  myself  within  the  limits  of  a  general  discussion.  It 
is  proper  to  await  the  detailed  statements  which  the  final  report  of  the  Commission 
must  necessarily  furnish  to  be  able  to  make  in  a  complete  manner  a  critical 
comparison  of  the  two  routes  of  Panama  and  Nicaragua.  I  will  limit  myself  to 
observing  that  the  preliminary  report  as  it  stands  proves  incontestably  the  superi- 
ority of  the  Panama  project,  and,  furthermore,  I  must  make  all  reservations  as  to 
the  comparative  estimates  of  expenses  which  it  contains. 

I  must  further  protest  against  the  conclusions  of  the  report  which  relate  to  the 
time  of  passage.  We  are  ready  to  prove  irrefutably  that  the  difference  of  twenty- 
one  hours  shown  in  favor  of  Panama  is  much  too  small;  that  the  real  difference  is  at 
least  three  times  greater,  thus  favoring  the  Panama  project  for  each  of  the  routes 
from  San  Francisco  to  New  York,  or  to  New  Orleans,  or  to  Liverpool.  Now.  in 
addition  to  this  the  Commission  itself  admits  that  the  time  for  maritime  voyages 
from  the  Atlantic  ports  of  the  United  States  to  the  west  coast  of  South  America  is 
less  by  way  of  Panama  than  by  Nicaragua. 

Having  stated  all  this  and  to  reply,  Mr.  Minister,  to  the  request  contained  in  your 
letter  of  April  29,  quoted  above,  I  have  the  honor  of  informing  you  that  our  com- 
pany will  consent,  if  authorization  therefor  is  given  by  the  Colombian  Government, 
to  transfer  its  concession  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States.  All  the  conditions 
of  this  transfer  will  be  fixed,  of  course,  for  the  company  outside  of  and  independently 
of  the  particular  arrangements  which  maybe  made  between  the  Governments  of 
Colombia  and  the  United  States. 

The  price  of  sale  of  the  concession  itself,  of  the  works  executed,  material  and 
installations,  shares  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  etc. — in  short,  of  all  the  prop- 
erty of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company — would  be  fixed,  so  far  as  possible,  by 
amicable  valuations  and  agreement;  hut  it  would  lie  understood,  however,  that  if  a 
considerable  difference  of  opinion  should  arise,  recourse  would  he  had,  as  is  just  and 
equitable,  to  arbitration  in  the  usual  form. 

It  will  also  be  necessary  to  determine,  either  by  amicable  agreement,  or,  if  need 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  219 

be,  by  arbitration,  the  compensation  which  should  be  awarded  to  the  company  for 
the  eventual  profits  which  its  concession  would  have  enabled  it  to  make;  a  com- 
pensation which  may  be  represented  either  by  an  annuity,  or  by  capitalized  sum,  to 
be  proportioned  in  either  case,  of  course,  to  the  value  of  the  property  transferred  by 
the  company  at  the  time  when  the  transfer  shall  be  made. 

Everybody  will  understand,  finally,  that  the  promise  to  transfer  its  concessions 
can  not  bind  our  company  for  an  indefinite  time  without  danger  of  compromising 
the  progress  of  its  works  and  its  general  interests.  We  shall,  therefore,  ask  to  limit 
the  effect  of  this  promise  to  March  1,  1902,  it  being  understood  that  all  preliminary 
agreements  shall  be  made  before  December  1,  1901,  in  order  to  be  submitted,  after 
approval  by  the  shareholders'  meeting  of  the  company,  for  ratification  by  Congress 
at  its  next  session. 

Finally,  Mr.  Minister,  I  should  remind  you  of  the  question  which  was  also  put  to 
us  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  for  the  purpose  of  learning  what  share  of 
control  could  be  assigned  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  failing  a  complete 
transfer  of  the  concession.  Later  the  Commission  refuses  to  enter  into  negotiation 
on  its  owm  propositions.  At  various  times  I  had  made  various  suggestions  which  are 
finally  summed  up  in  a  letter  of  November  30,  1900.  We  are  still  ready  to  consider 
combinations  of  this  character. 

Kindly  accept,  Mr.  Minister,  with  the  assurances  of  my  high  consideration,  the 
renewed  expression  of  my  devoted  sentiments. 

M.  Hutin. 


Legacio  de  Colombia, 
Washington,  May  3,  1901. 
Rear-Admiral  John  G.  Walker, 

President  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission. 
My  Dear  Sir:  In  consequence  of  the  interview  that  I  had  the  honor  of  having 
with  you  last  month,  I  addressed  a  letter  to  Mr.  M.  Hutin,  president  and  general 
director  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  a  translation  of  which  I  inclose, 
together  with  a  copy  of  Mr.  Hutin' s  answer. 

I  believe  that  these  documents  will  be  of  importance  to  the  Commission  over 
which  you  so  worthily  preside. 

In  conformity  with  the  wishes  of  the  honorable  Secretary  of  State,  I  would  inform 
you  that  I  am  ready  to  answer,  on  behalf  of  the  Colombian  Government,  the  ques- 
tions that  the  Commission  may  be  pleased  to  present  relative  to  the  manner  of  bring- 
ing about  an  understanding  between  the  two  Governments  for  the  construction  of 
the  Panama  Canal. 

I  trust  that  the  steps  that  have  been  taken  will  render  manifest  to  the  Commission 
the  good  will  that  animates  both  the  Colombian  Government  and  the  Panama  Canal 
Company  to  remove  obstacles  in  the  pending  negotiations,  and  to  dissipate  any  doubts 
that  may  have  been  entertained  respecting  their  attitude  toward  the  Government  of 
the  United  States. 

I  remain,  sir,  yours,  very  respectfully, 

Carlos  Martinez  Silva. 


Department  of  State,  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 

Washington,  D.  C,  May  8,  1901. 
Maurice  Hutin,  Esq., 

President  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  Washington,  D.  C. 
My  Dear  Sir:  I  have  to  inform  you  that  I  have  received  a  letter  from  Senor  Don 
Carlos  Martinez  Silva,  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  minister  to  the  United  States 


220  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

from  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  under  date  of  May  3,  inclosing  for  the  information 
of  this  Commisson  a  copy  of  your  letter  to  Mr.  Silva  of  May  1,  in  which  you  state 
that  your  company  will,  if  so  authorized  by  the  Colombian  Government,  sell  and 
transfer  its  rights,  concessions,  and  property  to  the  United  States,  upon  terms  to  be 
hereafter  arranged.  It  appears  also  from  this  correspondence  that  the  Colombian 
minister,  acting  for  his  Government,  has  authorized  you  to  enter  into  negotiations,  in 
behalf  of  your  company,  with  this  purpose  in  view. 

Under  these  circumstances  I  desire  to  call  your  attention  to  a  letter  addressed  to 
you  by  myself  on  April  10,  1900,  in  which  certain  questions  were  asked  with  regard 
to  the  sale  and  transfer  of  the  property  of  your  company,  so  that  the  Commission 
might  obtain  information  which  it  required,  in  order  to  discharge  its  duties  intelli- 
gently. You  were  not  then  in  a  position  to  reply  fully  and  definitely  to  that  letter, 
because  of  the  terms  of  your  concessions;  but  now  that  you  have  1  >een  relieved  of  the 
embarrassments  under  which  you  then  labored,  I  am  encouraged  to  hope  that  you 
will  take  the  subject  up  once  more,  and  give  me  such  additional  information  as  you 
feel  at  liberty  to  do,  particularly  in  reply  to  the  first  and  third  questions  contained 
in  my  letter  of  April  10,  a  copy  of  which  letter  I  inclose,  so  that  the  Commission 
may  be  able  to  make  a  full  representation  of  the  subject  in  its  forthcoming  report  for 
the  information  of  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

I  fully  appreciate  the  courtesy  that  you  have  always  manifested  in  your  delicate 
and  difficult  position  between  the  Colombian  Government  and  the  work  of  this 
Commission,  and  with  an  earnest  hope  that  the  way  is  now  open  to  a  satisfactory 
solution  of  the  many  perplexing  problems  which  have  been  committed  to  you, 
believe  me,  my  dear  Mr.  Hutin, 

With  great  respect,  always,  your  obedient  servant, 

J.  G.  Walker, 
President  of  Commission. 


Washington,  D.  C,  May  10,  1001. 
Admiral  John  Walker. 

My  Dear  Admiral:  I  have  never  regretted  so  much  as  during  these  days,  partic- 
ularly to-day,  being  unable  to  speak  English,  in  order  to  be  able  to  inform  you  directly 
concerning  our  business.  But  I  wish  to  tell  you,  now,  that  I  shall  send  you  an  answer 
to  your  letter  of  the  8th  instant  as  soon  as  I  shall  have  had  the  necessary  time  to  con- 
sider it;  and  since  you  will  be  absent  for  a  few  days,  I  shall  send  you  the  answer  and 
hold  myself  at  your  disposal  upon  your  return. 

I  beg  that  you  will  accept,  my  dear  Admiral,  the  renewed  assurance  of  my  devoted 
sentiments, 

M.  Hutin. 


Washington,  D.  C,  May  15,  1901. 
Admiral  J.  G.  Walker, 

President  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  Washington,  D.  C. 

My  Dear  Mr.  President:  I  beg  leave  to  acknowledge  receipl  of  your  favor  of  the 
8th  instant,  by  which  you  inform  me  that  Senor  Don  Carlos  Martinez  Silva,  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  and  minister  to  the  United  States  from  the  Republic  of  Colombia, 
transmitted  to  you  on  the  3d  instant  a  copy  of  the  letter  which  I  addressed  to  him 
upon  his  request  on  the  1st  of  the  month. 

I  am  obliged  to  you,  Mr.  President,  for  recognizing  in  your  above-mentioned  letter 
of  May  8  that  our  company  has  not  been  until  the  present  time  in  a  position  to  answer 
certain  questions  presented  by  the  Commission  over  which  you  preside. 

Under  the  new  conditions  nowactnally  existing  it  will  besufficienl  for  the  response 
which  you  desire  to  the  first  and  third  questions  contained  in  your  letter  of  April  10, 


KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  221 

1900,  to  now  confirm  what  I  had  the  honor  to  write  to  Minister  Martinez  Silva  on 
the  1st  of  the  present  month. 

Therefore  I  beg  to  inform  you  that  our  company  will  consent,  if  authorization 
therefor  is  given  by  the  Colombian  Government,  to  transfer  its  concession  to  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States.  All  the  conditions  of  this  transfer  will  be  fixed,  of 
course,  for  the  company  outside  of  and  independently  of  the  particular  arrangements 
which  may  be  made  between  the  Governments  of  Colombia  and  the  United  States. 

The  price  of  sale  of  the  concession  itself,  of  the  works  executed,  material  and 
installations,  shares  of  the  Panama  Eailroad  Company,  etc.,  in  short,  of  all  the  prop- 
erty of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  will  be  fixed,  so  far  as  possible,  by  amicable 
valuation  and  agreement;  but  it  will  be  understood,  however,  that  if  an  important 
difference  of  opinion  should  arise  recourse  will  be  had,  as  is  just  and  equitable,  to 
arbitration  in  the  usual  form. 

It  also  will  be  necessary  to  determine,  either  by  amicable  agreement  or,  if  need  be, 
by  arbitration,  the  compensation  which  should  be  awarded  to  the  company  for  the 
eventual  profits  which  its  concession  would  have  enabled  it  to  make — a  compensa- 
tion which  should  be  represented  either  by  an  annuity  or  by  a  capitalized  sum,  to 
be  proportioned  in  either  case,  of  course,  to  the  value  of  the  property  transferred  by 
the  company  at  the  time  when  the  transfer  shall  be  made. 

This  being  said,  I  must  call  your  attention,  Mr.  President,  to  the  necessity  which 
we  jointly  have  (according  to  my  understanding)  of  examining  afresh  the  second 
question  of  your  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  which  refers  to  the  legal  powers  of  our  com- 
pany. It  will  be  proper,  in  consequence,  to  correct  certain  statements  on  that  sub- 
ject contained  in  the  preliminary  report  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission. 

Independent,  however,  of  the  foregoing,  will  you  permit  me,  Mr.  President,  to 
say,  as  you  have  suggested  in  your  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  that  it  may  be  of  interest 
to  examine  afresh  the  proposition  contained  in  said  letter,  viz: 

"  What  share  of  control  could  be  assigned  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
in  the  New  Panama  Canal  and  under  what  conditions." 

In  conclusion,  I  beg  leave  to  say,  Mr.  President,  that  the  promise  made  by  the 
New  Panama  Canal  Company  to  transfer  its  concession  can  not  continue  for  an 
indefinite  period  of  time.  We  shall  therefore  limit  the  effect  of  this  promise  to 
March  1,  1902,  it  being  understood  that  all  preliminary  agreements  shall  be  made 
before  December  1, 1901,  in  order  to  be  submitted,  after  approval  by  the  shareholders' 
meeting  of  the  company,  for  ratification  by  Congress  at  its  next  session. 

I  have  the  honor,  my  dear  Mr.  President,  to  express  my  high  esteem  and  to  be, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

M.  Hutin, 

President  and  Director-General. 


Department  of  State,  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 

Washington,  D.  C,  May  16,  1901. 
Maurice  Hutin,  Esq., 

President  of  X<  w  Panama  Canal  Company,  Washington,  D.  C. 
My  Dear  Sir:  I  have  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  letter  of  yesterday  in 
response  to  mine  of  the  8th  instant. 

You  inform  me  that  your  company,  with  the  consent  of  the  Colombian  Govern- 
ment, will  transfer  its  concessions  and  property  to  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  the  conditions  of  this  transfer  to  be  determined  by  negotiations  outside  of 
and  independently  of  the  particular  arrangements  which  may  be  made  between  the 
Governments  of  Colombia  and  the  United  States. 

This  being  the  case,  the  next  step  will  be  to  determine  the  price  to  be  paid  for  the 
property  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  which  you  suggest  shall  be  fixed,  so 
far  as  possible,  by  amicable  valuation  and  agreement,  with  the  understanding  that 


222  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

if  an  important  difference  of  opinion  should  arise  recourse  should  be  had  to  a  just 
and  equitable  arbitration  in  the  usual  form. 

As  a  basis  for  these  negotiations  there  should  be  some  expression  of  the  views  of 
the  company  as  to  the  value  of  its  property,  and  perhaps  this  can  be  done  in  no 
better  way  than  by  a  specific  reply  to  the  questions  asked  you  in  my  letter  of  April 
10,  1900. 

At  the  informal  conference  of  yesterday  you  stated  that  no  price  could  be  fixed  by 
you  until  after  your  return  to  Paris,  where  you  could  consult  with  the  directors  of 
your  company  and  have  free  access  to  its  books  and  accounts;  and  I  presume,  there- 
fore, that  no  progress  can  be  made  in  that  direction  until  your  return  to  Washington, 
which  I  trust  may  be  at  an  early  date,  as  it  is  important  that  this  matter  be  fully 
negotiated  with  the  least  possible  loss  of  time. 

With  regard  to  the  question  of  compensation  for  the  possible  profits  from  the 
enterprise  when  completed,  I  would  suggest  the  extreme  difficulty,  if  not  impossi- 
bility, of  arriving  at  a  correct  estimate  of  such  profits,  and  my  present  opinion  is 
that  this  question  should  be  considered  in  fixing  the  price  for  the  property  when 
sold,  as  the  law  under  which  this  Commission  is  acting  contemplates  absolute  owner- 
ship on  the  part  of  the  United  States. 

Regarding  the  legal  question — that  is,  of  the  ability  of  your  company  to  give  the 
United  States  a  clear  title  to  the  property — I  did  not,  in  my  recent  letter,  touch  upon 
that  matter  because  it  is  one  which  will  in  the  end  necessarily  be  determined  by  the 
law  officers  of  the  company  and  those  of  the  United  States,  and  no  transfer  of  the 
property  can  be  made  until  a  clear  title  is  obtainable.  Your  company  has  already 
given  us  much  information  upon  this  subject,  but  we  shall  be  pleased  to  receive  and 
consider  any  further  facts  or  information  that  you  may  lie  able  to  furnish  us. 

Referring  to  my  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  in  which  I  say  that  in  the  case  of  a  nega- 
tive reply  to  the  first  and  second  questions  contained  in  that  letter,  you  are  invited 
to  state  how  far  the  company  will  be  able  and  willing  to  go  in  the  direction  of  yield- 
ing control  to  the  United  States,  and  what  compensation  it  will  expect  therefor,  I 
have  to  say  that  this  Commission  being  directed  to  furnish  the  President  of  the  United 
States  with  complete  information  upon  the  question  of  a  canal  across  the  American 
isthmus,  I  made  this  inquiry  with  that  end  in  view;  but  the  law  contemplates  noth- 
ing less  than  a  complete  ownership  and  control  of  the  canal  by  the  United  States, 
and  as  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  is  now  in  a  position  to  make  a  direct  sale 
to  the  United  States,  that  question  need  no  longer  be  considered. 

In  the  conclusion  of  your  letter  you  state  that  you  limit  your  promise  to  sell,  etc., 
to  March  1,  1902,  it  being  understood  that  all  preliminary  agreements  shall  be  made 
before  December  1,  1901,  in  order  to  be  submitted  for  approval  at  the  stockholders' 
meeting  of  your  company  at  its  next  session. 

To  this  I  have  to  say  that,  while  there  is  no  objection  to  December  1,  1901,  being 
named  as  the  date  at  which  all  preliminary  agreements  shall  be  completed,  I  suggest 
that  the  promise  to  sell  shall  stand  until  the  end  of  the  next  session  of  Congress,  in 
order  that  that  body  may  have  its  entire  session  for  a  full  and  careful  consideration 
of  the  whole  subject. 

Hoping  that  you  may  soon  return  to  Washington  prepared  to  carry  this  important 
matter  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion,  believe  me,  my  dear  Mr.  Hutin, 
With  great  respect,  your  obedient  servant, 

J.  G.  Walker, 
President  of  Commission. 


Paris,  June  21,  1901. 
Mr.  President:  By  your  letter  of  May  16  last  you  kindly  asked  us  to  extend,  until 
the  end  of  the  next  session  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  the  time  during 
which  would  remain  binding  the  promise  made,  subject  to  the  reserves  and  under 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  223 

the  conditions  mentioned  in  your  letter  of  May  15th,  to  transfer  our  concession  to 
the  Government  of  the  United  States. 

I  have  the  honor  to  inform  you  that  after  examination  with  my  colleagues  of  the 
board  of  directors  it  has  been  decided  to  accede  to  your  desire. 

Our  board  of  directors  (council  of  administration)  is  undertaking  a  careful  study  of 

all  the  questions  which  are  brought  up  by  the  project  to  transfer  our  concession  to 

the  Government  of  the  United  States,  and  I  will  inform  you,  in  the  shortest  possible 

time,  of  the  resolutions  (decisions)  which  may  have  been  adopted. 

I  beg  that  you  will  accept,  Mr.  President,  the  assurances  of  my  high  consideration. 

M.  Hutin, 
The  President  of  the  Council  of  Administration. 
Admiral  John  G.  Walker, 

President  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 

Corcoran  Building,  Washington,  D.  C,  United  States. 


[Cablegram.] 

Paris,  June  S8, 1901. 
Admiral  Walker, 

Corcoran  Building,  Washington: 
We  confirm  our  letter  dated  June  21.  We  will  send  you  in  about  a  fortnight,  in 
accordance  with  letters  exchanged  May  8,  15,  16,  detailed  valuation  company  prop- 
erty. Please  advise  us  at  what  date  you  shall  have  examined  results,  that  we  shall 
send  and  gather  elements  of  your  own  valuation,  so  that  on  either  side  we  may  be 
able  to  discuss  contradictorily. 

Hutin. 


Department  op  State,  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 

Washington,  D.  C,  July  3,  1901. 
Maurice  Hutin,  Esq., 

President,  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  7  Rue  Louis  le  Grand,  Paris,  France. 
My  Dear  Mr.  Hutin:   I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt,  on  the 
28th  of  June,  of  your  cablegram  of  the  same  date  confirming  your  letter  of  June  21, 
which  reached  me  on  July  1. 

I  shall  await  the  receipt  of  the  detailed  valuation  of  your  company's  property, 
which  I  shall  hope  to  receive  at  an  early  date. 
Believe  me,  my  dear  Mr.  Hutin,  with  great  respect, 
Very  sincerely  yours, 

.  G.  Walker, 
President  of  Commission. 

[Cablegram.] 

Paris,  July  $5,  1901. 
Admiral  Walker, 

Corcoran  Building,  Washington: 
We  intend  sending  you  by  next  mail  detailed  valuation  company's  property,  but 
preparation  has  required  much  more  time  than  contemplated.  Can  you  tell  us  by 
cable  up  to  what  date  you  will  remain  in  Washington,  or  whether  will  be  absent  on 
account  of  season,  and  whether  we  might  examine  together  contradictorily  our  valu- 
ation as  early  as  beginning  September,  or  can  you  name  a  date  at  your  convenience? 

Hutin. 


224  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

[Cablegram.] 

Washington,  July  26,  1901. 
Pananovo,  Paris: 

Will  give  valuation  prompt  attention  when  received.     Will  take  up  discussion 
here  upon  your  arrival. 

Walker. 


[Cablegram.] 

Paris,  September  14,  1901. 
Admiral  Walker, 

Corcoran  Building,  Washington: 
Under  sad  present  circumstances,  do  you  still  think  I  should  meet  you  in  Wash- 
ington about  October  1? 

Hutin. 


[Cablegram.] 

Washington,  September  14, 1901. 
Pananovo,  Paris: 

If  you  intend  naming  price  for  property  and  concessions  there  should  be  no 
delay. 

Walker. 


[Cablegram.] 

Paris,  September  25,  1901. 
Admiral  Walker, 

Corcoran  Building,  Washington: 
Boyard  has  sailed  Saturday  last  on  Champagne,  carrying  document  which  he  will 
hand  you.     Myself  will  sail  Saturday  next  on  Savoie  and  join  you  Washington. 

Hutin. 


[Telegram.] 

New  York,  September  SO,  1901. 
Admiral  J.  G.  Walker, 

President  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  Washington,  D.  C: 
Steamer  delayed.     Arrived  only  this  morning.     Will  go  Washington  to-morrow 
afternoon,  Tuesday,  and  call  at  your  office  Wednesday  morning  to  deliver  you 
documents  as  per  cable  Mr.  Hutin.     If  not  convenient  to  you,  kindly  wire  my  office 
to-morrow  morniug  early. 

X.  Boyard. 


New  York,  N.  Y.,  October  10,  1901. 
Admiral  J.  G.  Walker, 

President  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Dear  Sir:  By  a  cable   received  yesterday  from    my    company   in   Paris   I  am 
requested  to  respectfully  inform  you  that  Mr.  Hutin  sailed  yesterday  from  Cherbourg 
on  the  steamer  Kaiser  Willnlm. 

I  believe  Mr.  Hutin  will  be  in  New  York  on  or  about  the  15th  of  October,  and 
will  at  once  communicate  with  you. 

Yours,  very  respectfully,  X.  Boyard. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  225 

Department  of  State,  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 

Washington,  D.  C,  October  11,  1901. 
X.  Boyard,  Esq. 

24  State  street,  Neiv  York,  N.  Y. 
My  Dear  Mr.  Boyard:  Your  letter  of  yesterday  reached  me  this  morning.     I  am 
glad  to  know  that  Mr.  Hutin  has  sailed  for  New  York.     Trust  he  will  have  a  speedy 
and  pleasant  passage. 

Time  is  becoming  an  important  element  with  this  Commission.  Its  report  has 
been  delayed  pending  a  conference  with  Mr.  Hutin,  but  it  will  soon  be  called  for  by 
the  President  and  it  is  of  importance  that  Mr.  Hutin  should  come  here  as  promptly 
as  possible,  that  our  conference  with  him  should  be  expedited  in  every  practicable 
way. 

Will  you  please  say  to  him  that  I  trust  he  will  lose  no  time  in  coming  to  Wash- 
ington? 

With  best  wishes,  believe  me,  my  dear  Mr.  Boyard, 

Very  truly,  yours,  J.  G.  Walker, 

President  of  Commission. 


Paris,  October  4,  1901. 
(Received  in  Washington  October  17,  1901.) 

Mr.  President:  In  the  letter  I  had  the  honor  to  address  to  you  from  Washington 
on  May  15  last,  in  answer  to  yours  dated  8th  of  same  month,  and  in  consequence  of 
the  communications  from  Seflor  Martinez  Silva,  I  stated  that  this  company  would 
agree  to  transfer  its  concession  and  property  to  the  United  States  Government  if  it 
was  so  authorized  by  the  Government  of  Colombia,  and  I  defined  the  general  condi- 
tions under  which  such  a  transfer  might  be  effected,  as  follows: 

"  The  selling  price  of  the  concession  itself,  work  done,  plant  and  machinery,  Panama 
Railroad  stock,  etc.,  and  all  the  property  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  should 
be  determined,  wherever  possible,  on  valuations  and  by  an  amicable  understanding. 
It  shall  be  understood,  however,  that  in  case  a  serious  difference  of  opinion  should 
arise,  arbitration,  in  its  customary  form,  as  it  is  just  and  fair,  should  be  resorted  to. 

"It  shall  also  be  necessary  to  determine,  either  by  an  amicable  understanding,  or 
if  needed  by  arbitration,  what  compensation  shall  be  allowed  to  the  company  for  the 
possible  profits  it  would  have  derived  from  its  concession,  which  compensation  might 
be  represented  either  by  an  installment  or  by  a  capitalized  amount,  the  one  and  the 
other  corresponding  both  to  the  value  of  the  property  transferred  by  the  company  at 
the  time  of  effecting  the  transfer." 

In  your  letter  of  May  16,  acknowledging  receipt  of  my  previous  letter,  you  were 
kind  enough  to  suggest  that: 

"This  being  the  case,  the  next  step  will  be  to  determine  the  price  to  be  paid  for 
the  property  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  which  you  suggest  should  be  fixed, 
so  far  as  possible,  by  amicable  valuation  and  agreement,  with  the  understanding  that 
if  an  important  difference  of  opinion  should  arise  recourse  should  be  had  to  a  just 
and  equitable  arbitration  in  the  usual  form. 

"As  a  basis  for  these  negotiations  there  should  be  some  expression  of  the  views  of 
the  company  as  to  the  value  of  its  property,  and  perhaps  this  can  be  done  in  no  bet- 
ter way  than  by  a  specific  reply  to  the  questions  asked  you  in  my  letter  of  April  10, 
1900." 

You  added,  Mr.  President,  that,  as  to  the  question  of  compensation  for  the  possible 
profits  to  be  derived  from  the  undertaking  when  completed,  it  seemed  to  you  that 
there  was  an  "extreme  difficulty,  if  not  impossibility,  of  arriving  at  a  correct 
estimate  of  such  profits,  and  my  present  opinion  is  that  this  question  should  be  con- 
sidered in  fixing  the  price  of  the  property  when  sold,  as  the  law  under  which  this 
S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 15 


226  KEPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Commission  is  acting  contemplates  absolute  ownership  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States." 

On  my  return  to  Paris  I  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  board  of  our  company 
the  letters  exchanged  with  your  good  self  on  May  15  and  16  last,  and  of  which  the 
above  quotations  are  the  essential  paragraphs.  I  pointed  out  the  necessity  of  answer- 
ing to  our  mutual  views  and  of  giving  satisfaction  to  the  ideas  expressed  in  our  above 
letters,  by  effecting,  on  our  part,  a  complete  work,  with  the  object  of  determining 
the  pecuniary  value  we  thought  it  fair  to  put  on  the  whole  of  rights,  privileges,  and 
property  we  would  have  to  transfer  to  the  United  States  Government  when  trans- 
ferring our  concession.  The  board  appointed  a  commission  of  three  of  its  members 
to  accomplish  the  said  investigation,  which  required  long  and  difficult  researches  in 
the  engineering  records  of  both  the  old  and  the  new  company. 

This  Commission  has  submitted  the  result  of  its  investigations  and  estimations 
both  of  the  value  it  deemed  fair  to  put  on  the  property  we  should  have  to  transfer  of 
the  kind  of  compensation  to  be  applied,  accounting,  in  the  fairest  way  possible,  for 
the  possible  profits  we  would  have  derived  from  our  concession,  in  a  very  elaborate 
note,  the  general  ideas  of  which  were  approved  by  the  board,  and  which  I  beg  to 
inclose  herewith  as  a  document  for  discussion. 

This  note  shows  for  every  portion  of  our  contribution  the  amounts  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  constitutive  elements  of  property  included,  appear  to  represent  a  fair  esti- 
mate of  the  value  of  each,  as  it  would  result  from  the  actual  advantages  to  accrue  to 
the  United  States  from  the  acquisition. 

You  will  kindly  note  that  we  have  viewed  these  values  in  their  intrinsic  consist- 
ence, in  what  they  really  are  in  themselves,  without  any  reference  to  their  relation 
with  the  comparative  expenses  of  either  canal;  in  short,  for  the  portion  of  usefulness 
they  actually  represent  in  the  Panama  Canal  undertaking,  supposed  to  be  completed 
and  regarded  solely  in  itself.  They  represent  what  might  be  called  the  real  and 
absolute  value  of  our  contribution. 

"We  might  have  followed  another  course,  showing  the  relative  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  the  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal  as  compared  to  the  construction 
of  the  Nicaragua  Canal.  But  if  the  latter  became  necessary,  we  think  it  would  be 
useful  to  proceed  to  make  such  an  estimation  of  the  relative  value  of  our  contribution 
only  when  a  more  perfect  knowledge  will  be  reached  of  the  conditions  of  a  possible 
project  of  a  canal  through  Nicaragua. 

I  hasten  to  add,  Mr.  President,  that  these  are  but  the  amounts  to  which  we  have 
come  from  a  personal  estimation  of  the  elements  to  be  discussed  contradictorily  in 
our  negotiations  and  which,  as  a  result  of  such  contradictory  discussion,  themselves 
might  be  altered  to  a  more  or  less  important  degree.  Such  is  therefore,  properly 
speaking,  the  first  expression  of  views  of  our  company,  to  which  you  have  referred 
in  your  letter  of  May  16,  last,  as  being  to  form  the  basis  of  discussion  on  our  side 
in  the  proposed  negotiation,  which  negotiations  we  shall  take  up,  as  you  may  be 
sure,  with  the  most  earnest  wish  to  reach  an  amicable  understanding.  With  that 
object  in  view,  we  are  willing  to  follow  a  sincere  course  of  conciliation  and  conces- 
sions, with  the  hope  that  we  may  be  met  from  the  other  side  with  the  same  spirit 
and  the  same  desire  to  conciliate,  in  an  equitable  manner,  the  weighty  interests 
which  are  confronted  in  the  subject. 

I  further  beg  to  state,  Mr.  President,  that,  in  view  of  the  above-shown  good  will 
and  in  consideration  of  the  large  amount  of  French  money  invested  in  the  Panama 
Canal  undertaking  from  the  beginning,  we  think  we  are  justified  in  asking,  without 
any  purpose  on  our  part  to  interfere  with  matters  relating  to  the  future  control  of 
the  proposed  isthmian  waterway,  that  the  French  merchant  ships  may  he  treated  on 
a  foot  of  absolute  equality  with  the  merchant  ships  of  the  United  States. 
Believe  me,  Mr.  President,  respectfully  and  devotedly  yours, 

M.    IllTIN, 

The  President  of  the  Council  of  Administration. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  227 

A  STUDY  CONCERNING  THE  ESTIMATED  VALUE  OF  THE  FRENCH  COM- 
PANY'S CONTRIBUTION  TO  THE  CANAL  UNDERTAKING  IN  CASE  OF  A 
TRANSFER  OF   OUR  CONCESSION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT. 

From  whatever  standpoint,  a  priori,  we  may  consider  the  principles  which  must 
be  taken  as  a  rule  for  the  determination  of  the  pecuniary  compensation  that  would 
be  due  to  the  Panama  Company  for  the  transfer  of  its  concession  and  property  to 
the  United  States  Government,  whether  those  principles  be  based  on  the  considera- 
tion of  the  commercial  value  of  the  property  and  the  possible  profits  expected  to  be 
derived  therefrom,  or  on  the  simple  consideration  of  its  intrinsic  value,  as  resulting 
from  the  expenses  involved  in  its  construction,  it  is  plain  that  the  first  and  vital  ele- 
ment to  be  considered  and,  therefore,  determined  in  the  discussion,  is  the  actual 
value  of  the  advantages  represented  by  the  cession  of  all  that  has  been  already 
accomplished  in  the  interoceanic  canal  undertaking  supposed  to  be  brought  to  con- 
clusion.    We  think  it  is  fair  to  estimate  the  various  elements  as  follows: 

Elements  Concerning  the  Real  Value  Proper  of  our  Contribution. 
Our  contribution  consists  in  two  portions  of  an  essentially  different  character — 

FIRST   PORTION. 

A  first  portion  is  represented  by  property  having  in  itself  an  immediate  marketable 
value  independent  from  the  possible  results  of  operation,  and  not  forming  a  necessary 
part  of  the  canal  undertaking  itself.  This  property,  which  has  properly  the  char- 
acter of  private  property,  is  as  follows: 

First.  The  stock  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  which  is  held  by  the  canal 
company. 

Second.  The  buildings,  lands,  and  real  property,  constituting  the  company's  pri- 
vate estate,  which  by  reason  of  their  destination  itself  are  not  given  an  ephemeral 
existence  only,  dependent  on  the  time  of  canal  construction;  such  are  the  company's 
buildings  at  Panama,  the  various  inhabitations  constituting  the  block  of  houses  of 
Christopher  Columbus,  the  inhabitations  erected  along  the  canal  line,  as  lodgings  for 
the  officers  of  the  company,  and  which  are  to  be  maintained  after  the  conclusion  of 
the  work. 

Third.  The  important  property  as  represented  by  the  Panama  and  Colon  hospitals, 
and  the  price  of  which,  as  admitted  by  the  isthmian  Commission,  is  not  to  be 
included  in  the  estimated  value  of  the  work  done  by  the  old  company  on  the  canal. 
We  are  not  referring  here  to  the  landed  property  granted  to  the  concessory  company 
under  article  4  of  the  concessions,  besides  the  canal  itself,  and  which  there  is  no  rea- 
son to  transfer  together  with  what  concerns  the  canal  itself. 

We  will  now  state  the  values  which  we  think  must  be  given  to  these  various 
elements: 

Stock  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company. — The  old  company  had  bought  68,534 
shares  of  this  stock.     The  new  company  bought  329,  making  a  total  of  68,863  shares. 

The  amount  paid  for  this  total  quantity  is  93,411,834.60  francs. 

The  Isthmian  Commission  found  that  it  would  be  fair  to  pay  for  this  stock  the  par 
value  thereof,  which  is  $100  a  share,  or  a  total  amount  of  36,000,000  francs. 

Neither  of  these  figures  do  we  think  fair.  In  fact,  the  Panama  railroad  stock  has 
an  intrinsic  value,  to  be  estimated  according  to  the  chances  of  profits  it  may  yield  in 
the  future  and  under  circumstances  that  may  be  anticipated.  The  United  States 
Government  should  pay  for  it  to  the  company  on  same  terms  as  it  would  pay  for  the 
stock  to  a  private  individual  who  would  be  holder  thereof  and  willing  to  transfer,  with 
neither  gain  nor  loss  as  to  profits  he,  expected  to  derive  therefrom,  which  profit 


228  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

would,  after  transfer,  accrue  to  the  party  who  would  hold  the  stock.  In  short,  the 
company  by  transferring  the  stock  is  entitled  to  claim  a  compensation  equal  to  the 
profits  it  would  derive  from  the  stock  if  kept. 

Besides  the  results  of  normal  operation,  which  it  is  impossible  to  foretell  and 
appreciate,  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  is  expected  to  derive,  during  the  period 
of  canal  construction  and  from  the  construction  itself,  in  view  of  the  large  trans- 
portation traffic  that  will  be  occasioned  thereby,  very  important  profits,  an  idea  of 
which  may  be  formed  from  the  experience  of  the  past  and  which  are  such  as  to  con- 
stitute for  the  stock  a  value  which  should  fairly  be  accounted  for  when  selling  it, 
since  it  is  sold  precisely  in  anticipation  of  the  canal  being  completed. 

In  the  years  frqni  1881  to  1889,  a  period  during  which  the  operations  of  the  old 
company  gave  rise  for  the  railroad  to  an  active  local  traffic,  the  stock  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  Company  yielded  an  average  dividend  of  13.  75  per  cent  a  year.  It  is  but 
reasonable  to  expect  that  during  the  eight-year  period  assigned  for  the  completion 
of  the  work  to  come,  the  Panama  Railroad  shall,  by  the  sole  fact  of  these  operations, 
derive  profits  which  will  allow,  during  that  period,  of  an  average  annual  dividend  of 
13  or  14  per  cent.  The  mere  discount  of  such  an  exceptional  income  would  justify 
by  itself  an  allowance  to  the  Panama  Railroad  stock,  at  the  time  of  resuming  work, 
of  a  selling  value  of  about  500  francs  per  share.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  certain  that 
after  the  construction  of  the  canal  the  railroad  will  remain  most  valuable  as  a  means 
of  transportation  by  reason  of  the  increase  in  local  population  and  production,  which 
shall  not  fail  to  take  place  on  the  canal  territory.  The  Panama  Railroad  stock  may 
therefore  expect  profits  after  the  canal  is  completed,  and  it  should  also  be  allowed  a 
certain  selling  value  at  that  time,  which  value  we  think  may  be  regarded  as  equal  to 
a  compensation  of  300  francs  to  be  paid  at  present. 

It  is  useful  here  to  call  attention  to  the  improvements  made  from  time  to  time 
on  the  railroad,  and  which  help  to  add  to  its  value,  such  as  the  recently  constructed 
La  Boca  terminal. 

In  this  connection  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  large  interest  which  the 
constructor  of  the  canal  has  in  owning  the  bulk  of  the  stock,  which  empowers  him 
to  exercise  a  controlling  influence  for  the  use  of  the  railroad  in  the  execution  of  the 
work  on  most  favorable  terms,  and  will  enable  him  later  on  to  reach  an  amicable 
understanding  with  the  Panama  Railroad  as  to  the  possible  rights  conferred  upon 
it  by  the  concession  in  case  a  canal  should  be  constructed  through  the  part  of  the 
isthmus  crossed  by  the  railroad.  From  the  above  considerations,  which  were  amid 
the  motives  that  have  induced  Count  de  Lesseps  to  put  in  possession  of  the  canal 
company  nearly  the  whole  of  the  stock,  we  may  infer,  with  the  best  chances  to  be 
on  the  safe  side,  that  the  selling  value  to  be  given  to  the  Panama  Railroad  stock  if 
the  company  chooses  to  dispose  of  it  to  the  United  States  Government,  which  it  is 
willing  to  do,  without  it  being  absolutely  necessary  for  the  completion  of  the  canal, 
must  not  fairly  be  estimated  below  800  francs.  The  number  of  shares  owned  by  the 
company  being  68,863,  that  would  make  a  capital  of  55,000,000  francs  in  round  fig- 
ures to  be  allowed  to  the  company  as  a  consideration  for  this  transfer. 

Buildings  <>//</  property  constituting  the  private  estate. — The  estimation  of  this  special 
property  is  not  an  easy  task,  because  the  expenses  they  represent  are  partly  mixed 
up  with  the  expenses  included  in  the  estimatioa  of  work  of  canal  construction. 

Under  our  estimates,  based  in  part  on  the  investigations  into  the  accounts  of  the 
old  company  and  in  part  on  direct  estimate,  we  are  induced  to  fix  the  value  of  this 
property  at  9,000,000  francs. 

Hospitals  at  Panama  and  Colon  and  dependencies. — The  cost  of  this  property  was 

about  4,500,000  francs,  and  could  not  be  put  to-day  at  a  lower  figure.     There  is  even 

ground  for  contending  that,  by  the  further  improvements  effected  thereon,  and  by  the 

cultivation  of  important  depending  lands,  this  property  acquired  additional  value. 

This  portion  of  our  contribution,  the  elements  of  which  we  have  just  shown— that 


EEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  229 

is  to  say,  the  portion  of  the  company's  property  which  has  the  character  of  private 
property  and  represents  a  capital  to  be  due  to  it  at  the  time  of  the  transfer— might  be 
made  the  object  of  either  an  immediate  payment  of  that  amount  or  of  installments 
to  be  determined  according  to  a  method  of  division  to  be  agreed  upon. 

We  deem  it  useful  to  point  out  here  that  the  possession  of  this  property  by  the 
constructor  of  the  canal,  whoever  he  may  be,  is  not  an  absolute  necessity,  although 
the  company  be  willing  to  dispose  thereof  to  him,  if  he  finds  therein  a  serious  inter- 
est. There  is  no  obligation  inherent  to  the  circumstances,  and  we  think  the  company 
would  prefer  to  keep  it  rather  than  transfer  it  on  too  unfavorable  terms. 

SECOND    PORTION. 

The  second  portion  of  our  contribution  is  represented  by  property  which  derives 
essentially  its  value  from  the  use  that  may  be  made  of  it  in  the  work  of  completion 
of  the  canal.  It  consists  in  all  that  has  been  usefully  done  or  prepared  for  the  execu- 
tion of  the  canal  by  both  the  old  and  the  new  companies.  It  is  composed  of  various 
elements,  which  we  shall  now  estimate  in  turn: 

The  first  element  is  composed  of  the  amounts  actually  expended  for  the  payment 
of  the  concession  as  now  defined. 

The  whole  of  the  amounts  paid,  either  in  cash  or  by  fully  paid  stock,  amounts  to 
32,000,000  francs.  As,  however,  the  fully  paid  stock,  which  has  been  transferred  for 
this  special  object,  does  not  represent  an  actually  expended  capital — although  it  is 
entitled  to  share  with  the  other  stock  the  right  to  participate  in  the  price  of  the  pro- 
posed transfer,  and  on  that  account  ought  to  be  considered  as  expended  capital— we 
shall  not  take  it  into  consideration,  but  will  only  retain  on  the  above  figure  the 
amount  paid  in  cash,  22,000,000  francs,  to  which  must  be  added  for  accrued  interest 
on  a  portion  of  this  capital  (5,000,000  during  8  years)  2,000,000  francs,  bringing  the 
figure  to  24,000,000  francs. 

The  second  element  is  of  a  different  determination,  and  necessarily  dubious  to  a 
certain  degree.  The  total  amount  of  excavation  done  by  the  old  company  and  the 
new  company  must  first  be  established,  and  then  the  amount  which  is  now  without 
object  as  to  the  realization  of  the  proposed  lock  canal  must  be  deducted  therefrom, 
in  order  to  retain  the  real  amount  only  that  is  useful  for  the  final  construction  of  the 
canal.  Then  the  average  cost  to  be  credited  to  that  amount  of  excavation  is  to  be 
determined,  by  taking  into  consideration  every  element  that  plays  a  part  therein, 
such  as  the  first  cost  of  organization,  establishment  of  works  necessitated  by  the 
excavation  of  that  amount  and  regarded  as  redeemed  in  its  cost,  amortization  of  the 
plant  employed  for  the  excavation,  as  well  as  the  establishment  of  workshops  and 
laborers'  quarters  which  it  has  necessitated.  We  shall  consider  separately  what  has 
been  done  by  the  old  company  and  what  has  been  done  by  the  new  company. 

The  old  company,  as  regards  work  proper  concerning  the  canal  and  the  diversion 
of  streams  which  formed  a  completing  portion,  has  done  excavation  only.  The  total 
amount  it  has  excavated,  according  to  statements  rendered  on  different  occasions, 
and  particularly  in  the  reports  of  legal  experts  appointed  after  the  failure  of  the 
company,  is  in  round  figures  50,500,000  m.  c,  divided  as  follows  for  the  different 

sections: 

m.  c. 

Section  from  Colon  to  Bohio,  Colon  (kilometer  23. 5)  Harbor,  canal,  and 
diversions 20,500,000 

Section  from  Bohio  to  Obispo  ( kilometers  23.  5  to  45 ) 9, 500, 000 

Section  from  Obispo  to  Paraiso  (kilometers  45  to  57),  the  diversion  in- 
cluded      11,500,000 

Section  from  Paraiso  to  end  of  canal 9,  000,  000 

Of  these  amounts,  a  portion  executed  for  a  tide-level  canal  will  be  useless  for  the 
lock  canal.  Certain  portions  of  diversions  executed  in  order  to  meet  the  provisions 
of  the  tide-level  plans  are  also  now  without  object,  in  view  of  the  lock-canal  plan. 


230  KEPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

'Such  amounts  as  have  become  without  object  should  be  deducted  as  erroneous 
operations,  since  it  is  proposed  to  determine  the  real  value  of  useful  cooperation  of  the 
old  company  in  the  final  canal  work  as  now  proposed.    The  corrected  amounts,  after 
the  necessary  deductions,  are  as  follows: 
Section  from —  m.  c. 

Colon  to  Bohio 17,000,000 

Bohio  to  Obispo 4,700,000 

Obispo  to  Paraiso 10,500,000 

Paraiso  to  end 9,000,000 

Total  of  available  excavation  by  the  old  company 41, 200, 000 

To  which  must  be  added  the  amount  excavated  by  the  new  company  in  the  big 
cut  and  in  the  Pacific  tide-level  section,  which  amount  on  the  1st  of  January,  1902, 
should  be  fixed  at  8,500,000  m.  c. 

But  it  must  be  stated  that  of  the  amount  of  excavation  done  by  the  old  company 
in  the  level  from  Colon  to  Bohio,  and  the  left  side  diversion  corresponding  to  that 
level,  an  important  portion  has  been  filled  in  by  the  silt  from  the  Chagres  and  other 
streams  that  invaded  that  portion  of  already  deepened  river  beds.  The  amount  of 
that  silt  is  about  5,000,000  m.  c. 

A  similar  fact  is  to  be  noted  in  the  section  from  Paraiso  to  end  of  canal;  an  amount 
of  silt  of  about  2,000,000  m.  c.  has  partially  filled  up  the  excavations  of  the  old  com- 
pany. 

It  would  be  quite  unfair  to  deduct  these  amounts  from  the  amounts  originally  exca- 
vated, crediting  the  company  with  the  surplus  only.  The  removing  of  this  silt  will 
be,  in  fact,  a  great  deal  easier  and  less  costly,  especially  at  present,  than  the  removal 
of  original  river  bed  it  has  filled  up.  With  the  removal  of  this  silt  the  work  done  by 
the  old  company  would  be  wholly  restored.  The  only  deduction  that  ought  fairly  to 
be  made  on  this  account  from  the  value  of  the  work  of  the  old  company  is  that  result- 
ing from  the  expenses  now  to  be  incurred  for  the  removal  of  the  silt. 

We  have  now  to  figure  out  the  value  to  be  given  to  the  work  of  the  old  company, 
determined  by  quantities,  according  to  what  has  been  said.  With  that  object  in  view, 
we  must  find  out  the  average  unit  prices  that  we  fairly  may  apply  to  the  usefully  exca- 
vated amounts,  taking  into  consideration  all  circumstances  and  difficulties  that  would 
affect  those  prices  if  the  work  were  to  be  done  under  the  same  general  conditii  »ns  as  in 
the  past;  the  expenses  that  would  be  represented  by  the  preliminary  work;  the  organ- 
izations of  the  beginning  and  the  establishment  of  the  works  for  an  undertaking  of 
such  magnitude.  Of  course,  it  must  be  supposed  that  all  that  would  have  heen 
accomplished  with  the  same  competence  and  prudence  as  those  supposed  to  he  used 
in  the  execution  of  future  operations.  It  would  be  obviously  unfair  to  apply  to  the 
estimation  of  such  original  work,  as  was  done  by  the  Isthmian  Commission  in  its  pre- 
liminaiy  report,  the  unit  prices  the  Commission  took  as  a  basis  for  the  work  remain- 
ing to  be  done.  For  not  only  will  the  latter  benefit  by  all  the  installations  and  by 
the  organization  realized  at  great  cost  for  the  former,  as  well  as  by  the  improvement 
in  the  sanitary  conditions  resulting  from  the  original  work,  but  also  all  the  expenses 
of  preliminary  work  and  organization,  expenses  which  are  always  important, 
are  covered  by  the  work  already  done.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the  enor- 
mous quantity  of  machinery  that  was  to  be  provided  for  their  execution,  and  part 
of  which  may  be  used  for  the  execution  of  the  others  free  of  cost,  if  we  include  the 
Aralue  of  the  useful  machinery  in  the  cost  of  the  work  already  done.  Such  is  also  the 
case  as  to  installations  on  labor  places  which  we  shall  suppose  as  having  been  paid  by 
this  original  work,  and  which  will  be  useful  for  the  execution  of  the  others.  Finally, 
we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  work  done  derives  for  the  greater  part  the 
advantage  it  represents  precisely  from  the  fact  that  it  is  now  accomplished,  thus 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  231 

reducing  the  time  required  for  the  opening  of  the  canal  by  this  route.  It  must  there- 
fore be  estimated  at  the  cost  required  for  its  execution  in  the  past  when  the  unskilled 
labor,  the  unit  of  which  was  and  remains  the  Colombiam  silver  dollar,  was  worth, 
all  things  being  equal,  nearly  twice  what  it  is  worth  now. 

Supposing  that  the  unit  prices  adopted  by  the  Commission  (which,  it  says,  are  the 
same  as  for  the  Nicaragua  Canal)  area  fair  average  for  the  whole  of  the  Panama  Canal 
work,  if  everything  was  still  to  be  done,  it  would  be  quite  contrary  to  equity  and 
experience  to  hold  that,  under  similar  conditions  as  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the 
original  work  done  under  the  pressure  of  all  the  difficulties  and  indirect  expenses 
of  the  beginning,  should  be  estimated  at  the  same  unit  prices  as  the  last  work  to  be 
done  that  is  to  follow  and  will  benefit  by  all  the  facilities  of  execution  created  and 
paid  for  by  the  original  operations  at  great  cost,  as  if  it  was  to  be  added  to  the  latter 
as  an  additional  bulk  to  be  executed  under  the  same  conditions.  In  short,  the  work 
remaining  to  be  done  ought  to  cost  a  great  deal  less  than  the  average  of  the  whole, 
and  the  original  work  a  great  deal  more  than  that  average.  We  think  that,  whereas 
we  include  in  the  cost  of  the  original  work  all  of  the  preliminary  and  indirect 
expenses,  all  the  expenses  of  establishments  on  the  canal  works,  workshops,  store- 
houses, etc.,  all  the  expenses  of  machinery  used  up  or  yet  valuable  as  apt  to  be 
employed  in  the  future,  all  the  expenses  for  installations  affecting  the  laborers' 
quarters,  by  which  the  future  work  will  also  be  benefited ;  whereas,  finally,  the 
labor  price  at  the  time  of  construction  of  that  work  was  about  the  double  of  what 
it  has  been  supposed  it  shall  be  for  the  execution  of  the  remaining  work,  we  are 
conservative  in  admitting  on  a  principle,  and  as  a  general  proposition,  that  the  esti- 
mate of  work  done  should  be  established  by  adding  an  average  increase  of  3.50 
francs  per  cubic  meter  to  the  result  that  would  be  obtained  if  to  that  work  were  to 
be  applied  the  unit  prices  we  took  as  a  basis  for  the  estimate  of  the  work  remaining 
to  be  done,  in  which  estimate  it  was  supposed  that  everything  that  had  to  come 
from  the  old  company  would  be  used  free  of  cost  by  the  future  constructor. 

The  average  unit  prices  adopted  by  the  International  Technical  Committee  for  the 
work  remaining  to  be  done  are  as  follows: 

Francs. 

Section  from  Colon  to  Bohio,  average  price 3.  20 

Section  from  Bohio  to  Obispo,  average  price,  applicable  to  work  remaining  to 

be  done 4.  00 

Section  from  Obispo  to  Paraiso. — These  are  mainly  the  operations  in  the  big  central 
cut.  The  soil  excavated  by  the  old  company  is  without  analogy  as  to  the  difficulties 
it  would  occasion,  in  the  remaining  part;  it  was  a  surface  clay  that,  in  the  climate  of 
the  Isthmus,  constituted  a  more  costly  excavation  than  the  hard  soil  remaining  to 
be  removed,  which,  as  a  future  price,  is  estimated  at,  5.50  francs  per  cubic  meter. 
It  is  certainly  quite  conservative  to  discuss  on  that  basis. 

Section  from  Paraiso  to  end  of  canal. — The  average  price  to  be  applied  to  the  work 
remaining  to  be  done  is  of  3.40  francs  per  cubic  meter. 

If  now  we  apply  these  estimate  basis  prices  to  the  amounts  of  excavation  above 
stated  for  each  section,  we  reach  the  following  estimates  which  would  represent  the 
theoretical  cost  of  their  excavation  if  they  were  included  simply  as  an  additional 
bulk  in  the  work  remaining  to  be  done,  with  all  the  facilities  that  now  exist  for  this 
future  work.  By  adding  a  general  increase  of  3.50  francs  per  cubic  meter  to  the 
total  thus  obtained,  we  shall  have  an  estimate  that  we  deem  may  fairly  be  admitted 
for  the  value  of  that  original  work,  including  all  the  indirect  expenses  connected 
therewith,  all  the  preliminary  cost  of  organization  and  installations,  all  the  used-up 
or  still  available  values  of  machinery,  of  existing  installations  or  working  places, 
installations  of  workshops  and  laborers'  quarters  which  will  be  used  for  future  works 


232  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

taking  further  into  consideration  the  value  of  the  labor  unit  at  that  time,  the  diffi- 
culties and  risks  of  climate  as  they  existed  at  the  time  of  their  execution: 

Francs. 

Section  from  Colon  to  Bohio 54,400,000 

Section  from  Bohio  to  Obispo 18,800,000 

Section  from  Obispo  to  Paraiso 57,  750,000 

Section  from  Paraiso  to  end  of  canal 30, 600, 000 

Grand  total 161,550,000 

As  the  general  available  amount  is  of  41,200,000  m.  c,  if  we  apply  to  it  an  increase 
of  3.50  francs  per  cubic  meter  we  shall  have  a  sum  of  144,200,000  francs  to  be  added 
to  the  preceding  one,  and  giving  the  total  of  306,000,000  francs  (in  round  figures)  to 
represent  the  cost  that  is  to  be  named  for  the  construction  proper  of  the  useful  work 
of  the  old  company;  that  is,  the  money  usefully  expended  on  the  ground  for  that 
construction. 

This  total  shows  an  average  price  of  7.40  francs  per  m.  c.  for  the  whole  of  the  exca- 
vation done  by  the  old  company  and  available  for  the  final  construction  of  the  canal. 
The  amount  actually  removed  by  the  old  company  was,  as  shown  above,  about 
50,000,000  m.  c.  The  expenses  incurred  on  the  Isthmus  and  paid  by  the  company  or 
the  receiver  for  the  execution  of  that  work,  including  the  preliminary  organization 
expenses,  the  installations  on  the  works,  the  expenses  for  construction,  machinery, 
workshops,  storehouses,  and  laborers'  quarters,  but  not  including  the  general  admin- 
istration expenses  and  the  intercalary  interest  for  capital  account,  amounted  to 
730,000,000  francs.  (This  amount  does  not  include  expenses  concerning  hospitals, 
buildings,  and  land  constituting  the  company's  private  estate. ) 

The  average  cost  per  m.  c.  was  therefore  14.60  francs,  while  the  cost  resulting 
from  the  above  estimate  of  the  value  of  useful  work,  forming  a  part  of  our  grant,  is 
but  7.40  francs.  This  comparison  is  an  evidence  of  the  conservative  spirit  we  are 
showing  when  adding  an  increase  of  only  3.50  francs  per  cubic  meter  to  the  cost  of 
original  work,  estimated  as  if  it  was  to  be  done  under  the  conditions  of  future  work. 
To  that  must  be  added  the  general  expenses  of  administration  in  Paris  and  on  the 
Isthmus,  the  general  office  expenses,  police,  sanitary,  department,  etc. 

As  a  rule,  8  per  cent  of  the  direct  expenses  incurred  in  the  work  are  taken  on  that 
account  for  large  undertakings,  accomplished  under  normal  conditions;  it  may  be 
safe  to  adopt  here  a  proportion  of  12  per  cent,  which  would  give  for  the  above  total 
an  increase  on  general  expenses  of  37,000,000  francs,  and  bring  the  total  up  to  about 
343,000,000. 

This  amount  represents  the  funds  that  were  to  be  raised  and  expended  if  for  the 
method  of  conducting  business  which  has  been  put  in  practice  by  the  old  company  was 
to  be  substituted,  by  a  hypothesis,  another  method,  meeting  all  objections,  as  it  is  pre- 
sumed will  be  applied  in  the  future.  But  as  such  funds,  as  usually,  would  be  raised  by 
public  subscriptions,  there  should  be  added  to  the  above  amount  the  expenses  to  be 
incurred  for  issuing  the  securities  and  for  intercalary  interests  that  would  accrue  on 
the  capital  during  the  period  during  which  the  works  have  been  prosecuted.  Esti- 
mating such  interests  at  5  per  cent  for  an  average  period  of  four  years  for  the  whole 
of  the  capital,  and  adding  5  per  cent  in  bulk  for  the  expenses  to  be  incurred  for  issu- 
ing securities,  an  increase  is  reached  of  25  per  cent,  to  be  added  to  the  above  amount, 
and  finally  we  get  a  total  figure  of  429,000,000  francs,  representing  the  present  value 
at  which  is  to  be  estimated  the  portion  of  contribution  resulting  from  the  work  done 
by  the  old  company  and  available  for  final  canal  construction. 

But,  as  previously  stated,  a  portion  of  available  excavations,  executed  on  line  of 
canal  or  on  the  diversions  corresponding  to  the  tide-level  sections,  has  silted  up,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  remove  that  silt  in  order  that  the  work  of  the  old  company  may  be 
restored.     Therefore  the  expenses  of  this  removal  are  to  be  deducted  from  the  value 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  233 

of  its  contribution  previously  estimated.  The  amount  of  silt  to  be  removed  is  of 
about  5,000,000  m.  c,  including  the  diversions  on  the  Atlantic  side  and  2,000,000 
m.  c.  on  the  Pacific  side.  The  expenses  of  such  work  (the  work  being  easy,  as 
there  is  but  silt  and  mud)  may  be  estimated  at  14,000,000  francs  all  included.  The 
final  value  of  the  available  contribution  of  the  old  company,  determined  at  this 
date,  or  to  take  a  formal  date,  on  January  1 ,  1902,  should  be  fixed  at  415,000,000  francs. 

To  the  work  of  the  old  company  must  be  added  the  work  done  by -the  new  com- 
pany in  order  to  determine  the  part  of  cooperation  represented  in  the  final  canal 
construction  by  the  whole  of  the  work  now  done.  To  estimate  the  portion  of  grant 
to  be  credited  on  that  account  to  the  operations  of  the  new  company,  it  is  sufficient 
to  take  the  total  figure  of  real  expenses  it  will  have  incurred  up  to  January  1,  1902, 
as  no  question  could  be  raised  as  to  the  efficiency  and  economy  of  its  expenses. 
These  expenses,  including  general  expenses,  may  be  fixed  at  the  round  figure  of 
40,000,000  francs. 

The  last  element  remaining  to  be  estimated  in  order  to  determine  the  total  figure  of 
what  constitutes  the  second  portion  of  our  contribution  is  the  element  represented 
by  the  technical  surveys,  by  data  of  all  kinds  collected  on  the  Isthmus  to  be  used  as 
a  basis  for  the  investigations,  and  by  the  plans  made  on  such  investigations,  explora- 
tions, and  experimental  work,  etc.  The  said  portion  of  expenses  can  not  be  directly 
estimated.  But  it  may  be  fairly  figured  out  by  applying,  as  is  usual  in  that  case,  a 
given  percentage  to  the  total  amount  of  expenses  that  would  represent  the  work  of 
the  canal  proper  supposed  to  be  completed.  It  will  be  very  conservative  in  this 
matter  to  adopt  the  coefficient  percentage  of  1.50  per  cent,  generally  used  for  the  sur- 
veys of  large  undertakings  accomplished  under  normal  conditions.  The  total  amount 
of  canal  work,  by  adding  to  the  expenses  remaining  to  be  incurred  for  the  comple- 
tion the  expenses  reasonably  representing  the  work  already  done,  may  be  estimated 
very  approximately  at  1,200,000,000  francs.  The  value  to  be  credited  to  the  surveys 
is  therefore  18,000,000  francs. 

Compensation  for  the  Possible  Profits  as  May  Result  from  the  Operation  of 

Our  Concession. 

In  the  foregoing  note  we  solely  sought  to  determine  what  intrinsic  value  should 
be  given  to  our  actual  contribution  consisting  in  the  work  already  done  and  other 
property  we  own  on  the  isthmus. 

The  president  of  our  board  of  directors,  in  his  letter  of  May  15,  1901,  to  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Isthmian  Commission,  suggested  that  it  would  be  fair  to  account  to  the 
French  company  by  prorating  on  the  actual  value  of  its  contribution  for  the  possible 
profits  it  would  have  derived  from  the  concession  if  it  retained  the  operation  of  it. 
The  president  of  the  Commission,  while  pointing  out  the  difficulties,  if  not  the  im- 
possibility, according  to  his  opinion,  of  estimating  such  profits,  intimated  that  in  his 
judgment  they  might  be  accounted  for  in  the  selling  price  of  the  concession  itself. 
We  beg  to  state  here  how  we  think  the  question  might  be  disposed  of  in  the 
premises. 

As  previously  shown,  the  French  company's  contribution  consists  in  two  portions, 
having  each  an  essentially  different  character.  The  first  is  constituted  by  property 
having  the  character  of  private  property.  Whatever  may  be  the  figure  it  might  be 
fixed  at  in  negotiations  to  come,  this  will  always  be  a  property  having  its  own  value, 
independent  from  the  chances  of  canal  operation,  and  which  must  in  every  case  form 
the  object  of  a  simple  payment,  either  through  immediate  capital  or  by  installments 
representing  the  equivalent  of  the  capital  that  would  have  been  paid  immediately. 
The  rate  of  interest  on  which  to  base  the  calculation  of  said  installments  would  be 
the  rate  of  interest  that  the  company  could  safely  get  by  the  investment  of  the  cap- 
ital if  it  were  paid  in  immediately. 

The  second  portion  of  our  contribution,  the  value  of  which  we  have  analyzed  up 
to  January  1,  1902,  in  the  elements  of  useful  expenses  that  help  constituting  it,  and 


234  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

which,  in  the  proposed  negotiations,  will  finally  be  estimated  at  a  figure  that  we 
suppose  represented  by  A,  is  formed  by  property  and  accomplished  work  that  have 
no  marketable  value  in  themselves,  but  derive  their  value  from  their  usefulness  for 
the  work  of  completing  the  canal.  It  may  safely  be  called  a  commercial  value, 
the  income  of  which,  if  things  were  to  follow  their  natural  and  normal  course, 
would  be  variable  and  dependent  on  the  net  earnings  to  be  derived  from  the  oper- 
ation of  the  canal  itself.  It  would  seem  quite  reasonable  and  fair  that  in  con- 
ideration  of  this  portion  of  our  contribution,  we  should  be  allowed  not  a  given  cap- 
ital equal  to  A  or  fixed  installments  equivalent  of  such  capital,  but  an  annual  income 
from  such  capital  that  would  be  variable,  according  to  the  earnings  derived  from  the 
operation  of  the  canal  supposed  to  be  conducted  on  a  profit-making  basis.  Thus 
would  be  realized  the  idea  to  include  incidentally  in  the  selling  price  of  our  conces- 
sion, and  of  what  we  have  done  to  accomplish  the  object  thereof,  the  chances  of 
possible  profits  we  are  to  derive  from  it.  There  is  no  intention  on  our  part  to  en- 
deavor to  estimate  what  said  profits  might  prove  in  the  consecutive  years  of  the 
concession  term;  that  would  be  a  very  unsafe  operation  without  any  practical  value, 
because  we  would  first  have  to  imagine  in  an  absolutely  hypothetical  manner  the 
traffic  the  canal  would  furnish  in  the  series  of  years  succeeding  its  opening  to  navi- 
gation. It  would  be  reasonable,  on  the  contrary,  to  work  in  the  same  train  of  thought 
for  a  solution  of  this  question  by  taking  as  an  object  of  the  study  no  longer  the 
expected  average  income  for  the  term  of  the  concession  or  the  expected  annual 
income  in  the  consecutive  years,  but  only  the  earnings  corresponding  to  annual 
amounts  of  tonnage  that  might  be  expected  to  turn  out  consecutively  at  undeter- 
mined times,  and  leaving  the  attribution  of  installments  to  be  derived  therefrom 
dependent  on  the  actual  realization  of  tonnage  that  had  been  used  as  a  basis  for 
their  determination. 

After  determination  of  the  quota  of  annual  income  that  would  accrue  to  the  capital 
invested  in  canal  construction,  according  to  such  or  other  circumstances  of  traffic  in 
an  industrial  operating  system  reasonably  conducted,  there  should  be  deducted  from 
such  a  quota  the  normal  interest  incidentally  involved  in  the  installments  allowed  to 
the  capital  A,  representing  the  interested  contribution  of  the  French  company,  and 
there  should  be  allowed  to  it  as  a  compensation  for  possible  profits  the  additional 
normal  interest  in  connection  with  the  variable  quota  corresponding  to  the  consecu- 
tively noted  traffic.  In  such  direction  does  it  seem  to  us  must  be  sought  the  compen- 
sation that  it  will  be  fair  to  allow  to  the  company  for  the  possible  profits  that  it  would 
have  derived  from  its  concession. 

The  investigation  we  have  made  into  that  subject,  the  developments  of  which  are 
too  long  to  be  given  here,  has  led  us  to  the  following  results: 

Supposing  the  fixed  installments  that  would  be  allowed  to  the  company  as  an 
equivalent  of  the  sum  A,  at  which  figure  the  actual  value  of  its  contribution  was  to 
be  fixed,  provide  in  their  calculation  for  an  interest  of  4  per  cent,  for  instance,  the 
additional  income  to  be  credited  to  it  in  consideration  of  possible  profits  of  its  con- 
cession would,  according  to  actual  conditions  of  canal  traffic,  be  determined  as 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


Annual  tonnages. 

Additional 
income  in 
considera- 
tion of  poa- 
sibleprofits. 

Francs  per 
ton. 
0.50 

1.00 

1.50 

2.00 

•>.  50 

3.00 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  235 

Department  of  State,  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 

Washington,  D.  C,  October  IS,  1901. 
Maurice  Hutin,  Esq., 

President  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Dear  Sir:  Your  letter,  dated  Paris,  October  4,  1901,  with  the  accompanying  paper 
relative  to  the  value  of  the  concessions,  property,  and  unfinished  work  of  the  Panama 
Canal  Company,  has  been  received  and  carefully  considered. 

I  had  hoped  that  upon  your  return  from  Paris  you  would  be  prepared  to  give  a 
definite  answer  to  the  third  question  which  was  submitted  to  you  in  my  letter  of 
April  10,  1900,  to  wit,  "  For  what  sum  of  money,  in  cash,  will  the  company  transfer 
to  the  United  States  all  of  the  rights,  privileges,  franchises,  property,  etc.,  of  every 
description  which  it  owns  or  controls  in  connection  with  the  construction  of  a  canal 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama?"     * 

No  direct  answer  had  been  made  to  this  inquiry  prior  to  November  30, 1900,  when 
the  Commission  submitted  its  preliminary  report  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  and  it  was  understood  in  our  informal  conferences  that  this  question  had  not 
been  answered  because  your  company  felt  embarrassed  by  its  relations  with  the 
Republic  of  Colombia,  for  the  reason  that  the  concession  under  which  it  is  authorized 
to  construct  the  canal  did  not  then  permit  you  to  enter  into  negotiations  for  a  sale  of 
its  property  to  a  foreign  government. 

At  a  later  date  information  reached  me  that  the  Colombian  Government  had 
relieved  you  of  this  embarrassment,  and  that  you  were  at  liberty  to  take  up  the  sub- 
ject with  the  Commission,  and  our  conferences  and  correspondence  were  renewed. 

On  the  8th  of  May  last  I  addressed  a  letter  to  you,  calling  your  attention  to  the 
inquiries  contained  in  my  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  and  asking  specifically  for  a  reply 
to  the  first  and  third  questions  contained  therein. 

On  the  10th  of  May  you  acknowledged  the  receipt  of  my  letter  and  promised  an 
early  reply.  The  answer  was  afterwards  received,  dated  May  15,  1901,  expressing, 
in  reply  to  the  first  question,  a  willingness  to  sell  and  transfer  to  the  United  States 
the  canal  property  and  concessions,  if  authorized  by  the  Colombian  Government, 
but  there  was  still  no  direct  response  to  the  question  as  to  price. 

You  stated  that  the  value  of  the  property  would  be  fixed  so  far  as  possible  by 
amicable  valuation  and  agreement,  with  recourse  to  arbitration  if  an  important  dif- 
ference of  opinion  should  arise.  At  our  subsequent  conferences,  and  in  my  answer 
of  May  16  to  this  letter,  without  replying  to  the  suggestion  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  you  would  fix  the  value  of  the  property,  and  without  inquiry  as  to  the 
basis  and  conditions  of  the  arbitration  suggested  by  you,  I  again  called  attention  to 
my  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  and  stated  that  there  should  be  a  specified  reply  to  this 
third  question  as  a  basis  for  future  negotiations  ;  but  your  answer  was  deferred  until 
your  return  to  Paris,  so  that  you  might  there  consult  with  the  directors  of  your 
company  and  have  free  access  to  their  books  and  accounts. 

The  paper  you  now  submit  does  not  yet  give  a  definite  answer  to  the  question,  but 
it  contains  the  elements  from  which  a  final  sum  can  be  ascertained.  In  the  confer- 
ences which  Mr.  Pasco  and  myself  have  had  with  you  during  the  past  two  days  wre 
have  informally  discussed  the  views  presented  in  this  paper,  and  have  directed  your 
attention  to  such  items  as  seem  objectionable,  so  that  you  might  consider  the  causes 
of  objection  in  preparing  the  final  and  definite  offer  to  be  submitted  by  the  Com- 
mission to  the  President  of  the  United  States  in  its  report.  It  is,  perhaps,  well  to 
state  the  most  important  of  these  objections  briefly  in  this  formal  reply  to  your 
letter. 

1.  The  value  of  the  shares  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  is  estimated  by  you 
at  about  $3,500,000  higher  than  the  estimate  of  this  Commission  in  its  preliminary 
report,  and  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  this  property  should  not  be  estimated  at  so 
high  a  value. 


236  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

2.  The  price  for  the  canal  concession  and  the  interest  charged  upon  a  part  of  the 
money  paid  for  the  original  contract  with  Colombia,  was  objected  to  as  excessive 
because  this  concession  will  not  serve  the  purpose  of  the  United  States,  if  it  under- 
takes the  completion  of  the  canal.  In  that  event  a  new  contract  must  be  arranged 
with  the  Government  of  Colombia  by  treaty,  displacing  that  which  now  exists 
between  the  Republic  and  the  Panama  Canal  Company. 

3.  The  amount  fixed  for  the  work  already  done  upon  the  canal  project  is  also 
regarded  as  excessive,  and  is  far  beyond  the  value  of  the  work  as  estimated  by  the 
Commission.  Some  of  the  reasons  for  this  excess  are  that  the  company's  estimate 
includes  a  valuation  of  the  large  amount  of  plant,  machinery,  locomotives,  dredges, 
etc.,  now  stored  upon  the  isthmus  in  sheds  and  warehouses,  which  will  not,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Commission,  be  of  value  to  the  United  States,  should  it  undertake  the 
completion  of  the  canal. 

After  stating  the  value  of  the  work  done  by  the  old  company,  at  a  price  consider- 
ably greater  than  estimated  by  this  Commission,  it  is  increased  in  your  estimate  by 
an  additional  charge  of  3.50  francs  per  cubic  meter,  and  to  the  increased  price  is 
added  12  per  cent  of  the  whole  amount  for  "  the  general  expenses  of  administration 
in  Paris  and  on  the  isthmus,  the  general  office  expenses,  police,  sanitary,  department, 
etc."  To  this  sum  is  added  25  per  cent  for  expenses  "incurred  for  issuing  the  secu- 
rities and  intercalary  interest  that  would  accrue  on  the  capital  during  the  period 
during  which  the  works  have  been  prosecuted." 

We  have  carefully  considered  the  reasons  stated  for  these  additions,  but  are  not 
convinced  that  they  should  be  made. 

4.  The  last  part  of  the  paper  presents  a  claim  for  a  share  in  the  possible  profits  of 
the  canal  when  completed.  The  law  under  which  the  Commission  is  acting  con- 
templates the  construction  of  a  canal  to  be  under  the  "control,  management,  and 
ownership  of  the  United  States."  A  proposition  to  share  in  the  profits,  upon  any 
basis,  is  not  likely  to  meet  with  the  favorable  consideration  of  Congress. 

The  price  ultimately  fixed  by  the  company  should  be  for  an  absolute  sale  of  the 
Panama  canal  project,  without  any  reservation  whatever.  If  the  United  States 
purchases  the  property  of  the  Panama  Canal  Company  and  incurs  all  the  risk  of 
a  canal  enterprise  we  do  not  accept  your  view  that  the  company  will  have  any 
basis  for  a  claim  in  the  profits  which  may  accrue  from  its  successful  operation  and 
management. 

We  will  gladly  confer  with  you  further  as  to  the  items  contained  in  your  paper 
and  aid  you  as  far  as  we  properly  can  in  presenting  any  proposition  you  may  desire 
to  make  with  reference  to  the  sale  of  the  rights  and  property  of  your  company  to  the 
United  States  Government. 

When  you  have  fully  determined  upon  your  proposition,  or  agreement,  with  refer- 
ence to  a  sale,  whether  it  be  a  definite  offer  of  a  fixed  sum  or  of  a  sum  to  be  fixed 
"  by  amicable  valuation  and  agreement,"  recourse  to  be  had  to  arbitration  "if  an 
important  difference  of  opinion  should  arise,"  we  will  submit  it  in  our  report  to  the 
President;  but  we  still  believe  that  the  direct  offer  of  a  fixed  sum  is  much  to  be 
preferred. 

In  our  recent  conferences  you  have  proposed  that  there  should  be  an  agreement 
between  ourselves  as  to  the  value  of  the  rights  and  property  of  the  Panama  Canal 
Company  and  an  arbitration  to  conclude  the  matter  in  case  of  a  disagreement;  but 
the  law  under  which  the  Commission  is  acting  confers  no  power  on  it  to  enter  into 
any  agreement  that  would  bind  the  United  States  Government,  and  an  effort  to  do 
so  would  be  futile.  From  the  beginning  of  our  correspondence  and  conferences 
upon  this  subject  we  have  kept  you  advised  that  the  Commission  was  authorized  to 
obtain  information  for  the  President,  and  was  not  empowered  to  bind  the  United 
States  Government  by  any  agreement.  My  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  contains  this 
statement:  "You  understand,  of  course,  that  the  Commission  is  not  authorized  to 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  237 

accept  or  reject  any  offer  which  it  may  receive,  but  is  collecting  information  to  be 
submitted  to  the  President." 

We  can  not,  therefore,  consider  any  proposition  looking  to  an  agreement,  whether 
reached  by  conference  or  by  arbitration,  but  as  I  have  already  said,  we  are  willing 
to  continue  our  informal  discussions  if  you  think  we  can  be  of  assistance  to  you  in 
preparing  your  final  proposition. 

In  closing  your  letter  you  ask  that  if  the  canal  should  be  completed  and  operated 
by  the  United  States,  "  French  merchant  ships  may  be  treated  on  a  footing  of  abso- 
lute equality  with  the  merchant  ships  of  the  United  States."  This  subject  has  not 
been  included  in  the  duties  assigned  to  this  Commission,  and  therefore  can  not  be 
considered  by  it,  but  is  a  proper  matter  for  diplomatic  action. 

I  have  tried  to  make  my  statements  clear,  desiring  to  be  frank  with  you,  that  there 
may  be  no  room  for  misunderstanding,  and  hope  that  we  shall  soon  be  able  to  bring 
this  matter,  which  I  know  has  at  times  been  full  of  difficulty  and  perplexity  to  you, 
to  a  satisfactory  conclusion. 

Believe  me,  my  dear  Mr.  Hutin,  with  great  respect, 

Very  sincerely,  yours,  J.  G.  Walker, 

President  of  Commission. 


Department  of  State,  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 

Washington,  I).  C,  October  22,  1901. 
Maurice  Hutin,  Esq., 

President  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Dear  Sir:  I  have  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  message,  through  Mr.  Boyard, 
stating  that  after  the  receipt  of  my  letter  of  the  19th  instant  you  had  cabled  to  Paris, 
asking  for  further  instructions;  that  when  an  answer  was  received  you  would  notify 
me,  and  that  you  wrould  not  be  ready  to  discuss  further  the  question  of  a  sale  of  the 
property  of  your  company  until  a  response  was  received  from  your  board  of  directors. 

I  much  regret  the  delay  and  feel  compelled  to  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that 
Congress  will  convene  on  the  2d  day  of  December;  that  the  report  of  this  Com- 
mission should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  President  a  considerable  time  prior  to  that 
date;  that  understanding  that  you  wished  to  make  a  proposal  for  a  sale  of  the  Panama 
Canal  Company's  property,  and  desiring  to  give  you  every  opportunity  for  doing  so, 
the  report  has  been  held  open  for  that  purpose. 

In  this  situation  you  must  see  the  necessity  for  early  and  decisive  action,  and  for 
fixing  a  date  for  closing  the  report  of  the  Commission.  This  matter  was  first  called 
to  your  attention  at  the  sessions  of  the  Commission  held  with  you  in  Paris  on  the 
7th  and  8th  of  September,  1899.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  the  subject  of  frequent 
conferences  and  of  a  correspondence  of  some  length,  to  which  your  attention  is 
called,  and  particularly  to  my  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  in  which  the  powers  of  the 
Commission  were  frankly  stated  and  three  definite  questions  asked;  the  substance 
of  these  questions  being  the  willingness  of  the  company  to  sell,  its  ability  to  do  so, 
and  the  money,  in  cash,  for  which  it  would  dispose  of  its  property.  These  questions 
have  been  repeated  at  intervals  since  that  date,  and  the  third  still  remains  unanswered. 

When  you  left  Washington  in  May  last,  the  consent  of  the  Colombian  Govern- 
ment to  a  sale  having  been  obtained,  it  was  understood  between  us  that  upon  your 
return  to  Paris  you  would  consult  your  board  of  directors,  and  a  definite  answer 
would  be  made  at  an  early  date. 

More  than  two  years  have  passed  since  the  subject  was  first  presented  to  you, 
more  than  eighteen  months  since  the  specific  questions  were  asked  in  my  letter  of 
April  10,  1900,  and  five  months  since  your  departure  for  Paris,,  with  the  understand- 
ing above  referred  to.  Our  correspondence  since  that  time  shows  frequent  post- 
ponements, and  no  result  has  yet  been  reached.     Under  these  circumstances  I  feel 


238  KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

that  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  suggest  that  the  time  has  come  when  some  definite 
and  final  action  should  be  taken. 

I  therefore  think  it  proper  to  say  to  you  that  any  proposal  that  you  wish  to  make 
will  be  received  until  the  5th  of  November  next,  at  which  date  the  Commission  will 
be  compelled  to  consider  this  question  closed,  so  that  its  report  may  be  completed. 

This  of  course  is  not  intended  to  prevent  such  conferences  as  you  may  desire  in  the 
meantime,  and  it  is  hoped  that  you  may  be  able  to  present  your  final  conclusions 
before  the  date  mentioned. 

Believe  me,  my  dear  Mr.  Hutin,  with  great  respect, 

Very  sincerely,  yours,  J.  G.  Walker, 

President  of  Commission. 


Washington,  D.  C,  November  2,  1901. 
Admiral  John  G.  Walker, 

President  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Mr.  President:  I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  your  letters  dated 
October  18  and  22  last.  They  contain  a  certain  number  of  remarks,  and  even  of 
criticisms,  upon  which  I  will  dwell,  if  necessary,  in  due  time.  To-day,  however, 
having  only  in  mind  the  purpose  of  demonstrating  the  correctness  of  the  proposi- 
tions and  conclusions  of  the  present  letter,  I  beg  to  recall  to  your  attention  but  a  few 
facts. 

In  your  letter  of  October  22  you  alluded  to  our  conferences  held  in  Paris  on  Septem- 
ber 7  and  8,  1899.  At  those  meetings  you  did,  in  fact,  ask  me  for  the  first  time 
under  what  conditions  of  price  and  by  what  means  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  could  purchase  the  canal  of  Panama.  In  my  reply  I  called  your  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  law  of  the  Congress  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  under  which  we 
hold  our  concession,  formally  prohibits  its  sale  to  a  foreign  government,  but  that  if 
we  were  relieved  of  that  clause  we  would  be  willing  to  transfer  our  enterprise  to  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  ujxm  fair  and  equitable  conditions. 

Later  on  you  renewed  your  questions,  stating  them  more  definitely  in  a  letter 
dated  April  10,  1900,  and  moreover  you  suggested  to  discuss  them,  admitting  that 
the  consent  of  the  Government  of  Colombia  had  been  obtained  for  the  purpose  of 
selling  the  concession  to  the  United  States. 

In  the  interviews  held  prior  to  said  letter,  as  well  as  in  all  those  we  had 
together  in  Washington  until  the  end  of  the  month  of  November,  1900,  I  wasobliged 
to  state  to  you  that  our  company,  for  paramount  reasons,  could  not  accept  such  a 
ground  of  discussion.  I  told  you  repeatedly  that  our  company  could  nut  afford  to 
commit  itself  to  any  conditional  agreement,  even  as  the  one  proposed  by  you, 
because  the  company  considered  it  indispensable  to  first  obtain  the  previous  authori- 
zation of  the  Colombian  Government  for  the  sale  of  the  Panama  Canal  to  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States.  It  is,  therefore  (and  this  is  the  only  critical  remark  I 
will  venture  to  make  in  this  letter),  that  I  experienced  some  surprise  in  reading  cer- 
tain utterances  relating  to  this  matter  and  contained  in  the  preliminary  report  of 
November  30,  1900. 

During  the  month  of  February,  1901,  an  authorized  representative  of  the  Colom- 
bian Government,  Mr.  .Martinez  Silva,  arrived  in  Washington.  He  was  aware 
of  the  proposition  of  the  United  States  eventually  to  purchase  our  concession.  I 
requested  him  to  state  to  me  in  which  manner  his  Government  would  interpret  and 
apply  the  clauses  of  our  law  of  concession. 

Mr.  Martinez  Silva  replied,  the  28th  of  March,  1901,  that  the  Colomlnan  Govern- 
ment would  authorize  the  canal  company  to  transfer  its  concession  to  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Onited  States  upon  certain  conditions  which  he  had  submitted  to  the 
latter  Government. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  239 

On  April  29  following  he  asked  me  what  would  he  the  basis  upon  which  the 
company  would  be  willing  to  make  such  transfer,  supposing  the  previous  authoriza- 
tion to  do  so  had  been  obtained  from  the  Government  of  Colombia.  I  stated  them 
to  Mr.  Martinez  Silva,  with  my  reasons,  in  a  letter  I  sent  to  him  on  May  1. 

On  the  8th  of  May  following,  you  kindly  informed  me  that  Mr.  Martinez  Silva  had 
forwarded  to  you  a  copy  of  my  above-mentioned  letter  of  May  1,  and  you  again 
asked  me  to  reply  to  the  questions  put  in  your  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  to  which  I 
have  already  referred. 

Consequently,  I  answered  you  on  May  15:  "I  am  indebted  to  you,  Mr.  President,  for 
having  kindly  admitted,  in  your  above-mentioned  letter  of  May  8,  that  our  com- 
pany has  not,  until  the  present,  been  in  a  position  to  reply  to  some  of  the  questions 
which  had  been  submitted  to  it  by  the  Commission  over  which  you  preside. 

"  Under  the  new  conditions  now  existing,  it  will  be  sufficient  for  me,  in  order  to 
reply  as  you  desire  me  to  do,  to  the  first  and  third  questions  of  your  letter  of  April 
10,  1900,  to  confirm  what  I  had  the  honor  to  write  to  Mr.  Martinez  Silva  the  1st  of 
the  month." 

I  then  repeated  and  confirmed  the  terms  of  my  letter  of  May  1,  1901,  to  Mr.  Mar- 
tinez Silva,  concerning  the  transfer  of  our  concession,  stating  clearly  and  precisely  to 
you,  in  that  manner,  that  our  company  was  thus  actually  answering  the  questions 
of  your  letter  of  April  10,  1900,.  by  showing  upon  what  basis  and  under  what  condi- 
tions it  was  willing  to  have  the  value  of  its  concession  and  properties  established. 

You  acknowledged  receipt  the  following  day,  May  16,  reproducing  nearly  word 
for  word  my  letter  of  the  day  before  and  without  entering  any  direct  or  fundamen- 
tal objections  to  my  propositions.  My  colleagues  of  the  board  of  directors  and 
myself  have  interpreted  your  answer — and  I  must  add  that. we  still  do  so — as  creat- 
ing an  understanding  between  the  Commission  and  our  company,  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  together,  by  a  practical  method,  the  exact  value  of  our  concession 
and  properties,  so  as  to  reach  in  this  manner  a  fair  and  equitable  basis  to  be  used 
eventually  in  any  negotiations  before  the  Congress  of  the  United  States. 

Consequently  we  proceeded  to  make  out  our  estimates.  They  were  calculated  with 
the  utmost  care,  and  after  most  detailed  and  complete  studies  they  were  summed 
up  in  a  memorandum,  approved  by  our  board  of  directors,  which  was  handed  to  you 
with  a  letter  dated  Paris,  October  4,  last,  and  in  which,  once  more,  I  expressed  our 
sincere  desire  for  conciliation  and  agreement. 

1  therefore  could  not  help  but  experience  a  great  surprise  when  I  realized,  during 
the  conferences  which  took  place  after  handing  you  said  letter  of  October  4,  that 
there  existed  now  between  us  with  regard  to  the  method  of  discussion  I  had  proposed 
to  you  on  May  15,  a  disagreement  which,  heretofore,  you  had  not  made  know  n  to  me, 
either  verbally  or  in  writing.  In  your  letter  of  October  18,  1901,  you  confirmed  this 
disagreement.  You  call  my  attention  to  the  fact  that  when  you  wrote  me  on  May 
16  you  did  not  reply  to  my  suggestions  concerning  the  manner  in  which  was  to  be 
established  the  value  of  our  properties — as  if  such  silence  on  your  part  could  consti- 
tutes a  rejection  of  my  suggestions — and  you  add  that  you  did  not  inquire  of  me 
which  would  be  the  basis  and  conditions  of  arbitration  when  I  had  already  suggested 
to  you  that  such  arbitration  was  to  be  made  in  the  usual  form. 

The  only  point  in  your  letter  of  October  18,  1901,  upon  which  I  wish  to  dwell  at 
present,  is  the  fact  that  you  discuss  therein  for  the  first  time  the  propositions  of  my 
letter  of  May  15  last.  It  is  my  duty  to  reply  to  your  objections,  which  are  summed 
up  in  the  two  following  paragraphs  of  your  letter  of  October  18:  "In  our  recent 
conferences  you  have  proposed  that  there  should  be  an  agreement  between  ourselves 
as  to  the  value  of  the  rights  and  property  of  the  Panama  Canal  Company,  and  an 
arbitration  to  conclude  the  manner  in  case  of  disagreement;  but  the  law  under  which 
the  Commission  is  acting  confers  no  power  on  it  to  enter  into  any  agreement  that 
would  bind  the  United  States  Government,  and  an  effort  to  do  so  would  be  futile. 


240  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

From  the  beginning  of  our  correspondence  and  conferences  upon  this  subject  we 
have  kept  you  advised  that  the  Commission  was  authorized  to  obtain  information  for 
he  President,  and  was  not  empowered  to  bind  the  United  States  Government  by  any 
agreement.  My  letter  of  April  10,  1900,  contains  this  statement:  '  You  understand, 
of  course,  that  the  Commission  is  not  authorized  to  accept  or  reject  any  offer  which 
it  may  receive,  but  is  collecting  information  to  be  submitted  to  the  President.'  We 
can  not,  therefore,  consider  any  proposition  looking  to  an  agreement,  whether 
reached  by  conference  or  by  arbitration,  but  as  I  have  already  said,  we  are  willing 
to  continue  our  informal  discussions  if  you  think  we  can  be  of  assistance  to  you  in 
preparing  your  final  proposition." 

Allow  me  to  say  to  you,  Mr.  President,  that  never  did  we,  either  by  word  or  in 
writing,  make  propositions  carrying  with  them  such  scope  and  consequences  as  you 
suppose  in  your  letter  of  October  18.  I  think  that  the  text  of  my  letters  of  May  15 
and  October  18,  1901,  as  well  as  the  verbal  explanations  given  to  you,  contradict 
such  an  interpretation  of  our  intentions. 

You  will  surely  understand,  Mr.  President,  that  our  board  of  directors  can  not  and 
should  not  accept  the  estimates  of  the  value  of  our  concession  and  property,  as  given 
in  the  Preliminary  Report  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission.  These  estimates  are 
the  result  of  the  measurement  of  certain  amount  of  work  done  and  of  the  calculation 
of  certain  prices  to  be  applied.  We  simply  ask  that,  in  any  discussion  with  the 
Commission,  as  to  work  done  and  prices  applied,  both  sides  should  be  heard,  in  order 
mutually  to  agree  upon  them  as  far  as  possible.  In  case  of  disagreement  of  opinion 
we  could,  in  certain  instances,  by  mutual  concessions,  have  reached  an  amicable 
understanding;  but  if  our  estimates  had  remained  too  far  apart,  we  would  have  had 
recourse  to  technical  arbitrators  who  would  definitely  have  concluded  the  matter. 

Under  the  present  circumstances,  and  on  account  of  your  present  declarations,  I 
do  not  feel  warranted  to  judge  whether  or  not  the  Commission,  whose  duty  con- 
sists in  gathering  information  for  the  President  of  the  United  States,  possesses  the 
power  to  follow  the  method  suggested  by  me.  However,  it  is  my  duty  to  state  that 
such  a  method  would,  in  no  way  whatever,  have  committed  the  Government  or  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States  in  their  decisions.  This  method  would  only  have 
led  to  the  establishment,  for  the  real  value  of  the  concession  and  property  of  the 
New  Panama  Canal  Company,  of  a  price  which  would  have  hound  the  company 
alone. 

Therefore,  under  the  present  circumstances,  it  is  not  sufficient  for  me  to  assert 
that  the  board  of  directors  of  the  company  has  taken  into  account,  as  it  should  do, 
its  duties  and  responsibilities.  I  believe,  moreover,  to  have  the  right  to  say  that  the 
company's  conduct  is  in  accord  with  reason  and  equity.  The  board  could  not  do 
otherwise  but  propose  a  price  for  the  sale,  which  has  been  established  according  to 
calculations  and  estimates  and  which  it  considers  exact  and  justified  until  the  con- 
trary is  proven.  The  board  deeply  regrets  that  the  Commission  has  not  the  power 
to  discuss  them  after  both  sides  had  been  heard. 

This  being  the  situation,  I  have  the  honor  to  confirm  my  above-mentioned  letter 
of  October  4,  as  well  as  the  "memorandum"  accompanying  the  same,  except  as 
regards  the  last  part  thereof,  and  upon  which  I  will  dwell  later. 

Referring  again  to  your  letter  of  October  18,  in  which,  in  general  terms,  you  criti- 
cise our  estimates,  I  desire  to  repeat  that,  with  the  same  spirit  of  conciliation  we 
have  heretofore  shown  and  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  reasonable  understanding,  we  will 
always  remain  ready  to  discuss,  when  we  will  have  before  us  one  or  several  persons 
clothed  with  official  authority  and  qualified  to  establish,  with  us,  the  basis  of  an 
agreement  which  will  determine  the  price  of  the  sale  of  our  concession  and  properties. 

A  last  question  still  remains  to  be  examined.  In  your  letter  of  October  IS  you  say, 
Mr.  President,  that  you  decline  to  adopt  our  view  with  regard  to  our  request  to  share 
in  the  future  benefits  of  the  management  of  the  canal.     We  could,  I  believe,  con- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  241 

tinue  to  maintain  that  our  claim  is  just  and  well  founded:  but,  among  other  things, 
you  have  argued  that  such  a  combination  would  be  prejudicial  to  the  principle  of 
absolute  ownership  of  the  canal  by  the  United  States.  Under  such  conditions,  and 
without  intending  to  discuss:  that  point  of  law,  I  herewith  state  that  we  are  now 
ready  prepared  to  relinquish  totally  our  claim  to  a  share  in  the  eventual  profits  of 
the  management  of  the  canal,  having  in  mind  that  this  surrender  constitutes  on  our 
part  an  act  of  conciliation  which  must  be  taken  into  account  during  the  discussion 
of  our  other  propositions. 
Be  pleased,  Mr.  President,  to  accept  the  assurance  of  my  high  consideration. 

M.  Hutin, 
President  and  Director-General. 


Department  of  State,  Isthmian  Canal  Commission, 

Washington,  D.  C,  November  5,  1901. 
Maurice  Hutin,  Esq., 

President  and  Director-General  New  Panama  Canal  Company, 

Washington,  D.  C. 
Mr.  President:  I  have  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  letter  of  the  2d  instant 
and  its  English  translation,  which  was  received  at  this  office  after  I  had  left  last 
evening. 

I  understand  from  this  letter  that  you  withdraw  your  proposition  with  regard  to 
sharing  in  the  possible  profits  accruing  from  the  canal  after  completion,  and  with 
that  exception  you  confirm  and  stand  upon  the  figures  contained  in  your  letter  of 
October  4  and  the  accompanying  memorandum,  being: 

"A  study  concerning  the  estimated  value  of  the  French  company's  contribution 
to  the  canal  undertaking  in  case  of  a  transfer  of  our  concession  to  the  United  States 
Government." 

These  figures  I  understand  to  aggregate  565,500,000  francs,  or  $109,141,500. 
Without  replying  to  the  criticisms  contained  in  your  letter  of  the  2d  instant,  I 
have  to  say  that  the  Commission  will  take  pleasure  in  presenting  your  figures  and 
viewrs  to  the  President  in  its  report,  shortly  to  be  completed. 

Our  conference  with  regard  to  the  sale  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  of  its 
property  and  concessions  to  the  United  States  having  now  been  concluded,  I  desire 
to  thank  you  for  the  uniform  courtesy  which  has  attended  our  personal  intercourse 
and  correspondence;  and,  with  expressions  of  high  regard, 

Believe  me,  my  dear  Mr.  Hutin,  very  sincerely,  yours, 

J.  G.  Walker, 
President  of  Commission. 


Washington,  D.  C,  November  6,  1901. 
Admiral  J.  G.  Walker, 

President  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Mr.  President:  I  have  duly  received  your  letter  of  yesterday,  the  5th  of  Novem- 
ber, and,  as  was  subsequently  verbally  agreed,  1  have  the  honor  to  answer  it  in  order 
to  make  a  few  concluding  observations  and  explanations. 

First,  it  should  be  well  understood  that  the  English  translation  of  my  letter  of  the 
2d  of  November  which,  in  compliance  with  your  wishes,  I  sent  you  on  Monday 
evening,  has  value  merely  as  a  document  drawn  up  for  your  accommodation,  the 
French  text  alone  being  effective. 

Secondly,  I  notice  that  you  have  added,  according  to  the  paper  inclosed  with  our 
letter  of  the  4th  of  October  last — which  letter  itself  contains  no  figures — the  different 
amounts  which,  according  to  us,  represent  the  value  of  each  of  the  holdings  or 
S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 16 


242  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

pieces  of  property,  their  total  constituting  the  value  of  the  property  owned  by  our 
company.  The  total,  in  francs,  is  correct,  and  I  presume  also  the  rate  of  exchange 
you  have  adopted.  But  whether  each  of  these  amounts  is  singly  considered  or 
their  total  it  is  essential  to  preserve  their  true  character. 

They  represent,  as  has  already  been  explained  on  different  occasions,  verbally  and 
in  writing,  valuations  that  the  company  believes  just,  because  it  has  established 
them  with  the  greatest  care  and  regard  for  material  exactness.  But  the  company 
admits  that  they  may  be  criticised  and  that  it  would  make  reasonable  concessions,  if 
they  were  justifiable.  You  have  told  me  that  the  Commission  has  not  the  power 
even  to  enter  upon  a  discussion  of  this  nature  and  I  regret  it  very  much.  I  there- 
fore rely  upon  the  promise  you  were  kind  enough  to  make  me  to  submit  our  figures 
and  our  views  to  the  President  of  the  United  States  in  your  final  report.  I  would  be 
grateful  to  you,  Mr.  President,  if  you  would  be  kind  enough  to  confirm  your  own 
communication  by  that  of  all  the  documents,  letters,  and  papers  which,  I  believe, 
permit  of  our  intentions  and  our  aim  being  accurately  appreciated. 

I  desire  also,  Mr.  President,  to  confirm  the  fact  that  our  company  has  the  power, 
in  fact  as  in  right,  to  transfer  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States  its  concession 
and  its  holdings  by  a  legal  and  positive  title,  "free  of  all  difficulties  and  contentions, 
of  whatever  nature,  or  from  any  person  whatsoever,  and  particularly  from  the  stock- 
holders or  creditors  of  the  old  canal  company." 

In  conclusion,  I  consider  it  an  agreeable  duty,  Mr.  President,  to  express  to  you  in 
turn  my  thanks  for  the  constant  courtesy  that  has  presided  over  our  personal  relations. 

Have  the  kindness  to  accept,  Mr.  President,  the  assurance  of  my  high  esteem  and 
my  devoted  sentiments. 

M.  Hutin, 
President  and  Director- General. 


Chapter  IX. 

INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  VALUE  OF  CANAL. 

An  investigation  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  from  the  standpoint  of  its 
use,  aside  from  military  considerations,  has  two  phases — one  indus- 
trial and  the  other  commercial.  A  study  of  the 
ci^^i?eifftahedcan",rer*  resources  and  industries  of  the  United  States  and 
the  countries  of  the  Pacific  preceded  and  was  made 
the  basis  of  the  investigation  of  traffic  and  tolls,  because  a  knowledge 
of  industrial  conditions  is  essential  to  an  understanding  of  the  effects 
which  the  canal  will  have,  and  to  an  analysis  of  statistical  data  con- 
cerning commerce. 

From  the  nature  of  the  subject  investigated,  some  of  the  conclusions 
regarding  the  industrial  effects  of  the  canal  must  be  based  on  premises 
concerning  which  differences  of  opinion  may  exist.  Moreover,  the 
presentation  of  the  industrial  data  and  a  discussion  of  them  can  not 
be  made  as  brief  and  concise  as  a  mathematical  demonstration.  These 
limitations  apply  in  less  degree  to  the  statistical  material  used  in 
measuring  the  volume  of  traffic  available  for  the  use  of  the  canal. 
The  methods  employed  in  the  investigation,  the  data  used,  and  the 
deductions  made  are  presented  in  detail  in  Appendix  NN.  The  gen- 
eral conclusions  to  which  this  inquiry  has  led  are  here  given  without 
claiming  that  they  are  absolutely  correct  in  every  particular,  but  they 
are  close  approximations  to  the  truth  attained  by  careful  research, 
and  furnish  information  necessary  to  a  decision  as  to  whether  or  not 
the  canal  should  be  constructed  by  the  United  States. 

The  canal  will  assist  a  wide  range  of  industries, 
iHdustrCirlandAmerICan  agricultural,  mineral,  lumbering,  and  manufac- 
turing, and  will  promote  the  progress  of  all  sec- 
tions of  the  countiy.  The  expenses  and  delays  at  present  incurred  in 
the  commercial  intercourse  of  the  Central,  Southern,  and  Eastern 
States  with  the  Pacific  markets  of  our  own  and  foreign  countries,  and 
in  the  trade  of  our  Pacific  States  with  Europe,  impose  a  serious  limita- 
tion upon  the  progress  of  American  industries.  Cheaper  and  more 
expeditious  access  to  Pacific  markets  will  benefit  not  only  the  North- 
eastern States  by  giving  them  cheaper  raw  materials  and  larger 
markets  for  their  varied  manufactures.,  and  the  Southern  States  by 
increasing  their  exports  of  cotton,  cotton  goods,  forest  products,  iron 
and  steel  manufactures,  and  fertilizers,  but  also  the  Central  West. 

243 


244  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  Central  States  are  now  manufacturing  extensively  for  the  foreign 
and  domestic  trade;  the  isthmian  waterway  will  give  them  a  larger 
business  with  the  Pacific  coast  and  enhance  their  ability  to  meet  Euro- 
pean competition  in  western  South  America,  Australasia,  and  the 
Orient. 

The  natural  resources  of  the  Pacific  Coast  States 

The  canal  and  the  trade  of         i  ,1   <  <i   •   •  -,       .    • 

the  Pacific  toast  states.  are  sucn  that  their  industries  require  an  extensive 
commerce.  Manufacturing  activity  is  confined  to 
a  relatively  narrow  range,  and  large  quantities  of  manufactured  arti- 
cles must  be  secured  from  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  and 
from  foreign  countries.  The  major  share  of  the  exports,  which  con- 
sist mainty  of  food  stuffs  of  various  classes  and  of  forest  products,  is 
now  sent  to  Europe,*  the  annual  cargo  tonnage  of  the  maritime  com- 
merce with  that  continent  amounting  under  the  present  unfavorable 
conditions  of  shipment  to  about  a  million  and  a  half  tons.  The  domes- 
tic and  foreign  trade  of  the  Pacific  Coast  States  is  burdened  with 
especially  heavy  transportation  costs,  whether  the  shipments  be  made 
by  water  or  by  rail.  The  cost  of  rail  transportation  is  such  that 
the  tonnage  of  bulky  commodities  moved  across  the  country  for  sale 
in  American  and  European  countries  is  now  and  must  remain  compar- 
atively small.  Cheaper  transportation  by  an  all-water  route  for  the 
North  Atlantic  trade  of  the  Pacific  Coast  States  will  be  of  great  assist- 
ance to  the  development  of  that  section. 

The  canal  will  have  an  especiall}7  direct  and  important  effect  upon 
the  market  for  American  coal.  Vessels  engaged  in  our  own  or 
European  commerce  through  the  canal  will  find  it 
to  their  advantage  to  purchase  American  fuel  on 
our  Atlantic  or  Gulf  seaboards,  or  in  West  Indian  and  Central  Ameri- 
can stations.  The  larger  commerce  which  the  canal  will  cause  to  move 
across  the  North  Pacific  may  increase  the  demand  for  the  product  of 
the  Puget  Sound  mines.  The  low  cost  at  which  coal  can  be  placed  at 
tide  water  on  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  seaboards,  and  the  fact  that  there 
will  be  a  considerable  movement  of  vessels  in  ballast  or  with  part  car- 
goes westward  through  the  canal,  makes  it  probable  that  the  coal 
required  for  industrial  purposes  on  the  west  coast  of  South  and  Cen- 
tral America,  and  for  commercial  uses  in  those  regions,  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  coaling  stations  of  the  Pacific,  will  be  supplied  from  the 
mines  in  the  southern  and  eastern  sections  of  the  United  States.  The 
demands  at  home  for  the  coal  of  all  the  mining  centers  of  the  United 
States  will  be  enlarged  by  the  canal  in  proportion  to  its  effect  upon 
the  development  of  American  industries. 

The  effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  railroads  in  the 

Eireet  of  the  canai  upon  eastern  and  southern  sections  of  the  United  States 

will  be  favorable.     The  lines  in  the  central  West 

will  feel  the  competition  in  rates  somewhat  more  than  will  the  Eastern 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  245 

and  Southern  roads,  but  the  only  business  that  can  be  diverted  from 
them  is  the  low-class  transcontinental  traffic,  and  this  will  be  fully 
compensated  for  by  the  larger  traffic  due  to  the  canal's  effect  upon  the 
development  and  diversification  of  the  manufacturing  and  other  indus- 
tries of  the  section  they  serve.  The  railways  connecting  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  with  the  Pacific  ports  are  the  roads  with  which  the  canal's 
competition  will  be  strongest,  and  the  rates  on  a  large  share  of  their 
through  business  will  be  regulated  by  the  water  route.  The  through 
or  trans-Cordilleran  business  originating  or  terminating  at  Pacific  ports 
and  subject  to  diversion  to  the  canal  is  not  a  heavy  tonnage.  It 
constitutes  onlv  a  small  part  of  their  total  traffic,  and  during  recent 
years  has  contributed  less  than  the  growth  of  their  local  business  to 
the  increase  in  their  total  tonnage. 

Although  over  half  the  American  tonnage  now 
The  use  of  the  canal  by  engaged  in  coastwise  and  foreign  commerce  con- 

sailiii!?  vessels.  .  „         .,. 

sists  of  sailing  vessels,  steamers  are  taking  their 
place  so  rapidly  that  probably  only  a  small  portion  of  the  tonnage 
under  the  flag  of  the  United  States  will  consist  of  sailing  vessels  at 
the  time  of  the  completion  of  the  isthmian  waterway.  Moreover,  the 
canal  will  enlarge  the  demand  for  steamers,  and  hasten  their  substitution 
for  sailing  vessels.  The  Nicaragua  route  could  be  taken  by  the  latter 
more  advantageously  than  could  one  across  Panama,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  either  route  could  be  profitably  used  by  sailing  vessels  in 
competition  with  steamers  in  any  regular  line  of  trade.  There  will 
always  be  a  demand  for  sailing  vessels  for  a  part  of  our  coastwise 
traffic,  and  for  opening  up  foreign  commerce  with  regions  whose 
initial  trade  is  small  or  of  irregular  volume.  The  canal  will  not  elim- 
inate them  from  ocean  commerce,  but  will  restrict  the  field  of  their 
employment. 

The  canal  and  the  Indus-  The  Canal    wil1  effect  large  ^Sults  in  developing 

tries  and  trade  of  Pacific  the  industries  and  commerce  of  Pacific  countries 
and  increasing  their  trade.  Those  countries  pos- 
sess abundant  natural  resources,  produce  large  quantities  of  food 
products  and  raw  materials  indispensable  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  and  export  many  manufactured  articles  not  obtain- 
able elsewhere.  Although  the  people  of  most  Pacific  nations  other  than 
Australia  and  New  Zealand  have  small  purchasing  power  per  capita, 
their  numbers  are  so  great  that  their  total  imports  can  reach  a  large 
sum.  The  commerce  of  the  Pacific  at  the  present  time  is  of  great 
importance  to  the  United  States  and  Europe  and  is  rapidly  increasing. 
Our  commerce  with  Pacific  countries  is  growing  at  a  larger  rate  per 
cent  per  annum  than  is  our  trade  with  Europe,  and  the  isthmian  canal 
will  enable  the  United  States  to  control  a  greater  share  of  the  Pacific 
trade  than  could  otherwise  be  obtained.  The  canal  will  be  especially 
beneficial  to  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  western  South  America, 


246  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

where  Europe  now  controls  most  of  the  foreign  commerce.  The  new 
route  will  give  a  decided  advantage  as  regards  distance  over  Europe 
in  the  commerce  of  that  section. 

Our  ability  to  manufacture  for  the  markets  of  the  trans-Pacific  coun- 
tries is  evidenced  by  our  steadily  increasing  sales  to  them  in  spite  of 
the  present  high  cost  of  transportation.  The  canal  will  place  Europe 
and  the  United  States  on  a  basis  of  equality  in  distance  for  the  trade 
of  the  Orient  and  Australasia.  At  the  present  time  the  advantages 
are  greatly  with  Europe. 

A  detailed  study  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States  for 

the  year  ending  June  30,  1899,  and  of  the  commerce  of  Europe  with 

the  western  part  of  the  American  continents  during  the  calendar  year 

1899,  has  been  made  to  ascertain  the  tons  of  cargo 

t  T°nuaf™faTaIlablecanal  or  freight  and  the  net-register  tonnage  of  the  ves- 

traffic,  1899.  =>  a  a 

sels  that  might  have  passed  through  an  isthmian 
canal  had  one  been  in  existence.  The  cargo  tonnage  was  found  to 
amount  to  6,702,541.  This  total  does  not  include  the  comparatively 
small  amount  of  freight  that  passed  by  water  between  our  two  sea- 
boards, the  statistics  of  which  are  not  obtainable.  It  comprises 
277,640  tons  for  the  commerce  between  the  Eastern  seaboard  of  the 
United  States  and  western  South  and  Central  America,  Hawaii,  and 
British  Columbia;  1,528,860  tons  for  the  commerce  of  our  Eastern 
seaboard  with  Australasia,  Oceania,  Japan,  China,  and  Siberia; 
1,629,387  tons  for  the  trade  between  the  West  coast  of  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  and  3,266,654  tons  for  the  commerce  between 
Europe  and  western  South  and  Central  America,  western  Mexico, 
Hawaii,  and  British  Columbia.  It  does  not  include  an}7  of  Europe's 
trade  with  other  parts  of  the  Pacific. 

The  tonnage  of  the  vessels  that  might  have  used  an  isthmian  canal 
in  1899  was  ascertained  by  an  examination  of  the  statistics  of  entrances 
and  clearances  kept  by  the  United  States  and  European  countries. 
The  entrances  and  clearances  for  the  commerce  of  the  Eastern  seaboard 
of  the  United  States  with  Pacific  America  and  with  Australia,  Oceania, 
the  Philippines,  Japan,  China,  and  Siberia,  and  the  vessel  movements 
between  the  western  coasts  of  the  American  continents  and  the  North 
Atlantic  American  and  European  ports,  were  found  to  amount  to 
4,074.852  vessel-tons  net  register,  including,  336,998  tons  for  the 
commerce  now  crossing  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

This  total  was  compared  with  the  results  of  a  traffic  investigation 
made  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company.  The  records  of  vessel 
movements  kept  by  that  compan}7  show  a  traffic  for  the  calendar  year 
1899  of  3,848,577  tons  net  register  for  the  commerce  between  Europe 
and  the  western  coast  of  the  American  continent,  between  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  of  America  and  trans-Pacific  countries,  and  between  the  two 
A.inerican  seaboards.     The  total  obtained  from  the  records  kept  by  the 


EEPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  247 

Panama  Company  docs  not  include  any  vessel  tonnage  for  the  com- 
merce now  crossing  the  Isthmus.  The  addition  of  that  tonnage, 
336,998  tons,  raises  the  total  to  4,185,575. 

In  addition  to  this  tonnage,  which  comprises  only  traffic  originating 
or  terminating  in  America,  there  should  be  included  most  of  the  com- 
merce of  northwestern  Europe  with  New  Zealand  and  the  other  islands 
of  the  Pacific  east  of  Australia.  New  Zealand  will  be  1,503  miles 
nearer  Liverpool  by  the  isthmian  canal  than  via  the  Suez  route,  and 
2,405  miles  nearer  than  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  dis- 
tances to  Liverpool  from  the  important  groups  of  South  Pacific  islands 
north  of  New  Zealand  will  be  from  500  to  5,500  miles  less  via  the 
isthmian  canal  than  by  way  of  Suez.  The  entrances  and  clearances  of 
New  Zealand's  trade  with  northwestern  Europe  amounted  to  481,178 
tons  net  register  in  1899,  and  the  European  commerce  of  the  other 
islands  east  of  Australia  to  181,743  tons.  Of  this  total  traffic  of  662,921 
tons,  500,000  might  have  advantageously  used  an  isthmian  canal,  and 
this  amount  should  be  added  to  the  canal  tonnage  originating  or  termi- 
nating in  America.  This  makes  the  total  obtained  by  the  Commission's 
investigation  of  the  tonnage  that  might  have  used  an  isthmian  canal 
in  1899,  4,574,852  tons  net  register;  and  the  total  obtained  by  adopt- 
ing the  New  Panama  Canal  Company's  figures  for  the  traffic  originat- 
'.ng  or  terminating  in  America,  4,685,575  tons. 

Tables  prepared  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  show  that  the 
vessel  tonnage  of  the  commerce  between  Europe 

Growth  of  traffic.   Prob-       d  p    ifi   America  and  between  the  Atlantic  sea- 

able  tonnage,  1914. 

board  of  America  and  the  eastern    and   western 
sides  of  the  Pacific  increased  25.1  per  cent  during  the  decade  1888- 

1898,  and  this  rate  has  been  adopted  in  estimating  the  traffic  that  will 
be  available  for  the  isthmian  canal  in  1914,  by  which  year  it  is  assumed 
that  the  waterway  will  have  been  completed  and  put  in  operation. 
This  rate  of  increase  would  raise  the  available  traffic  of  1899,  obtained 
by  adding  to  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company's  figures  for  tonnage 
originating  or  terminating  in  America  the  present  traffic  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  and  500,000  tons  of  the  commerce  of  New  Zealand 
and  other  South  Pacific  islands  with  Europe — 4,685,575  tons — to 
5,861,654  tons  in  1909  and  to  6,556,260  tons  in  1914.  A  growth  of 
25.1  per  cent  per  decade  would  increase  the  total  of  4,574,852  tons  for 

1899,  obtained  by  the  Commission's  investigation  of  the  statistics  of 
entrances  and  clearances,  to  5,723,140  tons  in  1909  and  6,401,332  tons 
in  1914 — the  tonnage  being  net  register  in  each  case. 

In  all  probability  the  future  increase  in  that  part  of  the  world's 
commerce  that  would  <use  an  isthmian  canal  will  be  more  rapid  than 
the  past  growth  has  been,  because  in  the  Pacific  countries  of  America, 
in  Australasia,  and  in  the  Orient  the  industrial  progress  of  the  next 
two  decades  promises  to  be  much  greater  than  that  of  the  past  twenty 


248 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


years  has  been.  The  rate  of  increase,  25.1  per  cent  per  decade,  prior 
to  the  opening-  of  the  canal  probably  undervalues  what  will  occur.  It 
is  certainly  a  conservative  estimate. 

While  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  traffic  of 

Estimated  traffic,  1924.       , ,         .    ,,  .  3       .  , ,  ,  £ 

the  isthmian  waterway  during  the  ear ty  years  or 
its  operation  will  increase  as  rapidly  as  did  the  tonnage  passing  the 
Suez  Canal,  the  growth  in  the  commerce  using  the  Suez  route  consti- 
tutes the  best  basis  for  estimates  regarding  the  rate  of  increase  in  the 
tonnage  of  the  commerce  that  will  use  the  American  canal.  This 
growth  is  shown  by  the  following  table  in  which  the  total  tonnage  for 
each  five-year  period  is  given: 

Number  of  vessels  and  tonnage  of  the  Suez  Canal  by  quinquennial  periods. 


Years. 

Number 
of  vessels. 

Net  tonnage, 
Danube 
measure- 
ment. 

Per  cent 
increase. 

Percentage 
which  ton- 
nage of  each 
5-year  period 
is  of  tonnage. 
1875-1879. 

1870  1874                                            

4,770 
7,684 
14, 542 
16, 726 
17, 848 
16, 939 

5,358,237 

10, 995. 214 
23,916,373 

31.430,454 
39, 899, 143 
44, 042, 274 

1875  1879                                                        

105 

117 

31 

27 

10 

18S0  1S84                                        

217 

1N.S.V  lNS'l                                                                   

286 

1890  1894                                    

363 

1895-1899                                      

401 

The  tonnage  of  the  second  five-year  period  was  205  per  cent  that  of 
the  first,  and  the  total  for  the  third  period  217  per  cent  that  of  the 
second.  The  traffic  in  1880  was  3,057,422  tons,  that  of  1890,  6,890,094, 
an  increase  of  125  per  cent.  That  of  1900  was  9,738,152  tons,  a  growth 
of  2,848,058  tons,  or  41  per  cent  during  the  past  decade.  The  initial 
tonnage  of  the  Suez  Canal  being  small,  the  rate  of  increase  during  the 
first  decade  was  large.  Should  1914  be  the  first  year  of  the  operation 
of  the  American  canal,  and  the  rate  of  increase  in  the  traffic  during 
the  first  ten  years  be  62£  per  cent— half  that  of  the  Suez  waterway 
during  the  second  decade  of  its  use — the  estimated  tonnage  of  the  year 
1914,  in  round  numbers  6,500,000  tons  net  register,  would  be  raised 
to  approximately  10,500,000  tons  in  1924. 

The  above  totals  for  the  tonnage  that  might  have  used  an  isthmian 
canal  in  1899  do  not  include  any  of  Europe's  trade  with  Australia  and 
Japan,  a  part  of  which  would  probably  use  an  isthmian  waterway. 
The  distances  from  Great  Britain  to  Sydney  and  Yokohama  by  the 
Suez  and  isthmian  canal  routes-are  approximately  equal,  and  vessels 
going  by  America  in  cither  direction  en  route  between  Europe  and 
Japan  or  Australia  will  pass  regions  from  which  there  isa  heavy  export 
tonnage.  If  it  be  assumed  that  10  per  cent  of  the  vessel  tonnage  of 
the  Australian  trade  with  the  ports  of  northwestern  Europe  and  5 
per  cent  of  the  tonnage  of  the  Japanese  commerce  with  those  ports 
would  have  taken  an  American  canal  route,  the  totals  for  1899  should 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  249 

be  increased  316,223  tons,  and  be  raised  from  4,574,852  to  4,891,075 
tons,  and  from  4,685,575  to  5,001,798  tons,  or  to  approximately  5,000,- 
000  tons.  An  increase  of  25.1  percent  per  decade  would  raise  a  traffic 
of  5,000,000  in  1899  to  6,996,217,  or,  in  round  numbers,  7,000,000  tons 
in  1914,  and  a  growth  of  C>2£  per  cent  during  the  succeeding-  ten  years 
would  make  the  tonnage  of  1924  11,375,000. 

The  extent  to  which  the  isthmian  canal  is  used 
will  depend  in  part  upon  the  tolls  charged.  The 
commerce  of  western  South  America  with  Europe  will  continue  to 
pass  the  Straits  of  Magellan  or  to  round  Cape  Horn,  the  trade  of  the 
American  Atlantic  seaboard  with  Australia  will  keep  to  the  Good 
Hope  route,  and  the  traffic  between  our  eastern  seaboard  and  the  Phil- 
ippines and  southern  China  will  remain  tributary  to  the  Suez  route,  if 
the  charges  for  passing  the  American  canal  are  made  greater  than  the 
saving  to  be  effected  by  using  that  waterway.  A  toll  of  about  $1 
per  ton  net  register  could  profitably  be  paid  by  the  commerce 
between  Europe  and  western  South  America,  and  by  that  of  our  east- 
ern seaboard  with  Australia;  a  much  higher  charge  would  probably 
cause  a  large  share  of  the  business  to  continue  to  be  done  by  the 
routes  now  used.  For  the  commerce  of  our  eastern  ports  with  the 
Philippines  and  the  mainland  of  Asia  between  Singapore  and  Shanghai 
the  distances  by  way  of  the  Suez  and  isthmian  canals  will  be  so  nearly 
equal  that  the  route  chosen  will  depend  largely  upon  tolls.  Light 
charges  at  the  American  canal  will  give  that  waterway  a  large  share  of 
the  tonnage;  high  tolls  will  cause  the  Suez  route  to  be  used. 

The  Suez  tolls  at  the  present  time  are  9  francs  per  ton  net  regis- 
ter, "Danube"  measurement,  and  this  charge  amounts  to  somewhat 
more  than  $2  per  ton  net  register,  British  or  American  measurement. 
The  Suez  tolls  are  levied  by  a  corporation  whose  object  is  to  secure 
the  maximum  revenue  obtainable.  With  the  exception  of  the  trade 
between  Europe  and  Australia,  the  commerce  served  by  the  Suez  Canal 
can  be  charged  a  high  toll  without  much  restricting  the  tonnage  using 
the  waterway;  consequently  a  large  reduction  in  charges  would  not  be 
compensated  for  by  an  increase  in  traffic,  and  the  revenue  would  be 
less.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  Suez  Canal  Company  would  find  it 
profitable  to  reduce  its  tolls  largely  for  the  purpose  of  competing 
with  the  American  waterway. 

In  fixing  the  charges  for  the  use  of  an  isthmian  canal  owned  and 
operated  by  the  United  States  Government,  the  principle  of  maximum 
revenue  could  not  wisely  be  followed.  The  revenue-producing  func- 
tion of  the  canal  will  be  a  minor  one  as  compared  with  its  services  in 
promoting  the  industrial  and  commercial  progress  and  general  welfare 
of  the  United  States.  The  exaction  of  tolls  that  would  much  restrict 
the  benefits  derivable  from  the  canal  would  not  be  to  the  advantage  of 
the  American  people. 


250  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

An  annual  traffic  of  7,000,000  tons,  at  $1  per  ton,  will  produce  a 
revenue  of  $7,000,000.  The  expenses  of  operating  and  maintaining 
the  Panama  Canal  are  estimated  at  about  $2,000,000  per  annum,  and 
those  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  at  about  $3,300,000.  Upon  this  basis 
the  net  revenue  by  either  route  would  not  be  sufficient,  at  the  opening 
of  the  canal,  to  pay  a  rate  of  interest  upon  the  capital  invested,  which 
would  compensate  a  corporation  for  the  risks  involved.  A  large 
increase  of  traffic  in  the  future  is  probable,  and  the  revenue-producing 
value  of  the  canal  would  be  proportionately  greater.  It  is  the  opinion 
of  the  Commission,  however,  that  there  are  considerations  more  impor- 
tant than  revenue.  It  may  even  be  expedient  for  the  United  States  to 
reduce  the  tolls  to  an  amount  which  will  barely  cover  the  expenses  of 
operation  and  maintenance. 

With  the  exception  of  the  trade  between  west- 
The  relative  commercial  ern  South  America  and  our  eastern  seaboard,  for 

advantages  of  1  he  Nicaragua         ,  .    ,       .       T-,  „  ,  ,  ,      ~       ,     ,  , 

and  Panama  routes.  which  the  Panama  Canal  would  afford  the  shorter 

route,  the  distances  for  American  commerce,  both 
foreign  and  domestic,  would  be  less  by  way  of  Greytown  and  Brito 
than  by  way  of  Colon  and  Panama.  Including  in  each  instance  the 
length  of  the  canal  expressed  in  nautical  miles,  the  distance  between 
New  York  and  San  Francisco  by  way  of  Nicaragua  would  be  378  nau- 
tical miles  less  than  via  Panama.  For  New  Orleans  and  San  Francisco 
the  difference  is  580  miles,  and,  in  general,  the  distances  between  our 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports  and  between  our  eastern  seaboard  and  trans- 
Pacific  countries  are  shorter  by  the  Nicaragua  route.  The  distances 
from  Europe  to  western  South  America  would  be  less  by  way  of 
Panama.  From  Europe  to  the  North  Pacific  the  Nicaragua  route 
would  be  shorter. 

Exclusive  of  the  length  of  the  canals,  the  sea  distance  between  New 
York  and  San  Francisco  is  498  nautical  miles  less  via  Nicaragua  than 
by  way  of  Panama,  and  for  New  Orleans  and  San  Francisco  the  differ- 
ence is  700  miles.  A  part  of  the  saving  in  distance  at  sea  effected  by 
using  a  Nicaragua  canal  instead  of  one  at  Panama  would  be  offset  by 
the  longer  time  of  transit  at  Nicaragua.  An  average  steamer  would 
require  twelve  hours  to  make  the  passage  through  the  Panama  Canal, 
and  thirty-three  hours  through  one  across  Nicaragua.  For  a  10-knot 
steamer  this  difference  of  twenty-one  hours  would  be  equivalent  to  210 
knots  difference  in  distance  at  sea,  and  for  a  15-knot  steamer  the 
difference  in  time  of  transit  would  be  equivalent  to  315  knots. 

The  Nicaragua  route  would  be  the  more  favorable  one  for  sailing 
vessels,  but  this  advantage  is  not  important,  because  sailing  vessels 
would  probably  be  unable  to  compete  with  steamers  to  any  consider- 
able extent  by  either  canal.  They  would  certainly  not  be  able  to 
compete  with  steamers,  both  using  the  Panama  Canal. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  251 

As  compared  with  Europe,  the  United    States 

CnifcfsL*  ^"p«re<Td  win  deriye  from  the  canal  greater  benefits,  both 
commercially  and  industrially.  The  commerce  of 
Europe  with  the  Pacific  coast  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America, 
under  existing  conditions,  is  about  as  large  as  the  total  volume  of  the 
present  traffic  of  the  United  States  that  may  be  considered  tributary 
to  the  canal;  but  this  fact  does  not  indicate  the  relative  advantages 
which  the  canal  will  possess  for  the  trade  of  Europe  and  that  of  the 
United  States.  As  soon  as  it  has  been  opened,  our  trade  with  the  west 
coast  of  South  America  will  increase  more  rapidly,  as  will  also  the 
volume  of  our  trade  with  the  Orient.  An  Isthmian  canal  will 
strengthen  the  unity  of  the  national  and  political  interests  of  the 
United  States,  develop  its  Pacific  territory,  and  promote  the  commerce 
and  industries  of  the  entire  country.  The  benefits  which  Europe  will 
derive  from  the  canal  will  be  commercial.  In  addition  to  this,  ours 
will  be  political  and  industrial. 


Chapter  X. 

MILITARY   VALUE. 

In  time  of  peace  an  isthmian  canal  would  afford 

Military  valae  In  time  of  1        ,  e  p  „        ±„ 

„„   „  a  short  passage  tor  our  cruisers  from  one  ocean  to 

peace.  i  » 

the  other,  and  would  enable  the  necessary  patrol 
duty  of  the  Navy  to  be  more  efficiently  performed,  or  performed  by 
a  smaller  number  of  vessels.  It  would  also  have  the  same  kind  of 
value  to  the  military  arm  of  the  Government  that  it  has  to  the  general 
commercial  interests  of  the  country,  in  facilitating  the  transportation 
of  heavy  ordnance  and  military  stores,  as  well  as  troops  and  supplies. 
In  time  of  war  a  canal  would  offer  a  shortened 

line  of  communication,  and  might  be  of  immense 
advantage  to  the  power  controlling  it.  When  war  is  threatening,  or 
in  its  earlier  stages,  the  scattered  ships  could  more  readily  and  easily 
be  collected;  and  subsequently,  a  fleet  in  the  Pacific  could  be  much 
more  quickly  reenforced  from  the  Atlantic  and  vice  versa.    The  canal, 

however,  is  but  one  link  in  a  chain  of  communiea- 

Canal  one  link  In  a  chain    ^  f        y   h    adjacent   Unk  th      Caribbean 

of  communications.  •> 

Sea  on  the  east  and  the  waters  of  the  Pacific, 
near  the  canal  entrance,  on  the  west.  Unless  the  integrity  of  all  the 
links  can  be  maintained,  the  chain  will  be  broken.  The  power  hold- 
ing any  one  of  the  links  can  prevent  the  enemy  from  using  the  com- 
munication, but  can  itself  use  it  only  when  it  holds  them  all. 

The  canal  itself  would  be  available  to  the  United  States,  but  not 
to  its  enemies,  so  long  as  its  citizens  remain  in 

Canal  operated  by  Amer-    cnarge    of   it,  filling    the    positions    of    pilots,    lock 
lean  citizens  not  available    ,to  -,,  ,  .  i  *    -  ± 

for  the  enemy.  keepers,  and  others  upon  whom  the  safety  ot  a 

ship  in  transit  depends.  No  commander  would 
rely  upon  his  enemies  to  the  extent  of  trusting  his  vessel  in  such  a 
position.  The  responsible  authorities  might  do  everything  in  their 
power  to  give  safe  passage  to  an  enemy's  vessel,  as  would  be  their 
duty  if  their  Government  had  promised  it;  but  among  several  hundred 
employees  of  every  grade  of  character  the  chances  are  that  there 
would  be  some  one  with  the  power  and  the  will  to  so  disable  the  canal 
that  communication  would  be  as  effectually  closed  to  the  enemy  as  if 
it  had  never  been  opened. 
252 


EEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  253 

The  ability  of  the  United  States  to  hold  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the 

western  approaches  to  the  canal  against  all  comers 

c«nai    useless    to   the  depends  upon  the  future  development  of  its  naval 

United  States  unless  It  con-  *  ,  .  *  , 

trois  the  sea.  resources,  and  is  for  the  present  at  least  question- 

able. There  are  several  powers  in  the  world  any 
one  of  which  might  dispute  the  command  of  the  approaches,  and  com- 
binations of  two  or  more  powers  might  effect  the  same  object.  If  suc- 
cessful, they  would  render  the  canal  useless  to  the  United  States. 

It  would  be  useless  also  to  them  unless  they 
unieThe8  ££  S"  ™m  canld  occupy  it  and  replace  American  citizens  with 
citizens  of  their  own  or  some  friendly  country. 
Assuming  for  the  moment  that  the  canal  is  subject  to  the  operations 
of  war,  and  that  the  enemy  is  free  to  attempt  its  occupation,  it  must 
be  defended  by  the  United  States. 

Fortification  is  of  the  nature  of  insurance.     In 

Defense  by  fortification.       .  ,  i  •  1  •    1 

its  practice,  then,  are  several  maxims  which  may 
here  be  noted.  One  is  that  the  greater  the  value-  of  the  prize,  the 
greater  the  temptation  to  the  enterprise  of  the  enemy  and  the  greater 
the  amount  of  effort  to  be  applied  to  the  defenses.  Another  is  that  the 
farther  the  place  to  be  defended  is  from  supplies  and  reenforcements, 
the  stronger  must  be  the  fortifications.  Still  another  is  that  the  less 
the  natural  features  of  the  ground  are  favorable  to  defense,  the  more 
must  strength  be  supplied  by  works  of  construction.  From  all  three 
of  these  points  of  view  the  canal  would  require  the  maximum  amount 
of  fortification.  It  would  be  a  prize  of  extraordinary  value;  it  would 
be  beyond  the  reach  of  reenforcements  if  the  enemy  control  the  sea; 
and  the  low,  flat  shore  on  the  Atlantic  side,  as  well  as  the  great  length 
of  the  canal,  are  unfavorable  to  defense.  To  defend  it  b}^  fortifications 
on  land  would  be  a  costly,  difficult,  and  uncertain  undertaking,  and  by 
absorbing  resources  which  could  better  be  employed  elsewhere  would 
be  a  source  of  weakness. 

If  defended  at  all,  the  canal  should  be  defended 

Defense  by  Pfayy.  .. 

at  sea  by  the  JNavy.  But  that  again  would  be  a 
source  of  weakness,  because  it  would  hamper  the  movements  of  the 
Navy,  which  is  essentially  the  arm  of  attack.  If  a  large  force  of  the 
Navy  is  to  be  employed  in  guarding  the  canal,  its  power  for  offensive 
action,  which  is  its  normal  employment,  is  diminished.  If  from  force 
of  circumstances  the  Navy  be  compelled  to  abandon  the  offensive,  its 
services  will  be  more  valuable  upon  our  coasts  than  in  the  Carib- 
bean Sea. 

A  much  more  certain  and  easy  method  of  secur- 

Defense  by  neutrality.  J  . 

ing  the  use  of  the  canal  to  ourselves,  while  closing 
it  to  our  enemies,  is  to  remove  it  from  the  operations  of  war  by  mak- 
ing it  neutral. 


254  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

It  is  always  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  during  the 

Vulnerability  of  canal.  .  »  .1  i-n  j.i_  £ 

excitements  or  war  the  canal  will  not  be  a  sate 

place  for  the  men-of-war  of  any  nation,  no  matter  who  is  nominally 

in  control.     A  small  party  of  resolute  men,  armed  with  a  few  sticks 

of  d}rnamite,  could  temporarily  disable  it  without  very  great  difficulty. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  use  by  her  enemies 

canal  managed  by  for-  0f  a  canai  operated  by  citizens   of  the   United 

pltriiors. 

States  would  be  equally  applicable  to  the  use  by 
the  United  States  of  a  canal  operated  by  citizens  of  a  country  with 
which  we  were  at  war.  The  Panama  Canal,  for  example,  if  operated 
by  citizens  of  France,  would  not  be  available  for  the  United  States 
in  a  war  with  France,  while  it  would  be  available  for  French  vessels. 
While  there  seems  no  doubt  that  the  presence 
canai  free  to  enemy's  0f  American  citizens  in  charge  of  the  canal  would 

be  an  adequate  defense,  it  is  proper  to  inquire 
what  part  it  would  play  in  war  if  the  opposite  theory  were  adopted, 
and  the  enemy's  vessels  were  able  to  pass  as  freely  as  our  own.  This 
would  be  possible  if  the  canal  were  under  the  control  of  foreigners, 
as  well  as  in  the  supposition  that  all  the  persons  engaged  in  operating 
a  canal  belonging  to  the  United  States  were  actuated  by  perfect  self- 
restraint.  In  this  case,  as  before,  if  the  United  States  controls  the 
sea,  the  shortened  communication  is  to  her  advantage,  but  the  advan- 
tage is  with  the  enemy  if  he  controls.  A  highwa}^  to  our  Pacific 
States  and  Territories  is  opened  for  the  fleets  of  Europe,  which  does 
not  now  exist.  It  is  not  probable  that  they  would  often  wish  to  use 
it,  because  only  one  or  two  of  them  have  coaling  stations  so  situated 
as  to  make  that  possible,  and  they  would  have  richer  game  elsewhere. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  canal  would  to  some  extent  weaken  the 
defense  of  the  United  States. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  the  Commission  that  a  neu- 
canai  managed  by  Amer-  ^ral  canal,  operated  and  controlled  bv  American 

lean   citizens  a  source   of       .   .  -  ...  ,  ,  f  ... 

strength  if  neutral;  a  citizens,  would  materially  add  to  the  military 
source  of  weakness  if  not  strength  of  the  United  States;  that  a  canal, 
whether  neutral  or  not,  controlled  by  foreigners 
would  be  a  source  of  weakness  to  the  United  States  rather  than  of 
strength;  and  that  a  canal  not  neutral,  to  be  defended  by  the  United 
States,  whether  by  fortifications  on  land  or  by  the  Navy  at  sea,  would 
be  a  source  of  weakness. 


Chapter  XI. 

COST  OF  MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION. 

In  order  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  main- 
taining and   operating  the   Isthmian    Canal,    the 
Commission  obtained  data  bearing  on  this  point  from  the  Suez,  Man- 
chester, Kiel,  and  St.  Marys  Falls  canals. 

There  are  no  locks  on  the  Suez  Canal,  but  the  channel  is  through 
drifting  sand  for  a  great  part  of  its  length.     The  entrance  to  the  har- 
bor of  Port  Said  on  the  Mediterranean  intercepts  the  drift  of  sand 
discharged  from  the  Nile  and  carried  along  the  coast  by  the  easterly 
current.     The   maintenance    of   the    Suez   Canal 

^SiSSST-  t*"*rf°™  req™es  a  lal^e  amount  of  dred^ 

and  consists  mainly  of  this  class  of  work.  The 
operating  expenses  are  also  large,  the  great  traffic  involving  heavy 
costs  for  pilotage.  The  general  expenses  for  administration  have  nec- 
essarily been  greater  for  the  Suez  Canal  than  for  the  Kiel  or  Man- 
chester canals,  on  account  of  the  distance  of  the  work  from  the  point 
of  central  control,  a  disadvantage  which  would  also  attend  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Isthmian  Canal.  The  annual  cost  of  maintenance  and 
operation  of  the  Suez  Canal  is  about  $1,300,000,  or  about  $13,000  per 
mile. 

The  annual  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation  of 
cost  of  maintenance  and    the  Kiel  Canal  is  $8,600  per  mile.     The  cost  of 

operation  of  Kiel  and  Man-  .  .  *     .  ■.  •    a> 

Chester  canals.  maintenance  only  of  the  Manchester  Canal  is  $9,500 

per  mile.  These  canals  have  locks  and  other  me- 
chanical structures,  and  therefore  might  be  expected  to  have  a  higher 
cost  of  maintenance  than  the  Suez  Canal,  which  has  none,  but  this 
appears  to  be  more  than  offset  by  reduced  cost  of  maintaining  the 
prism  and  more  economical  central  control.  The  traffic  being  light  on 
these  canals,  the  cost  of  pilotage  and  port  service  is  small.  The 
mechanical  structures  are  now  nearly  new,  and  will  soon  require  larger 
annual  outlays  for  maintenance,  while,  with  the  increase  of  traffic, 
operating  expenses  will  become  larger. 

The    St.   Marys  Falls    Canal,    when  compared 
cost  of  maintenance  and  wj^n  tnose  iust  mentioned,  is  remarkable  by  reason 

operation  of  the  St.  Marys  ' *  *>  . 

Fans  Canal.  or  its  short  length,  large  proportion  of  mechanical 

structures,   and  immense   traffic.     Its    length    is 

about  1£  miles.     Its  annual  traffic,  limited  by  the  severity  of  the 

winter  to  a  period  of  about  eight  months,  is  nearly  three  times  that  of 

255 


256  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  Suez  Canal,  eight  times  that  of  the  Kiel  Canal,  and  ten  times  that 
of  the  Manchester  Canal.  Both  maintenance  and  operating-  expenses 
are  therefore  very  large,  amounting  to  from  $70,000  to  $90,000  per 
year,  or  $46,000  to  $60,000  per  mile. 

A  more  detailed  examination  would  show  still  more  clearly  why  the 
cost  of  maintenance  and  operation  varies  so  widely  in  the  several 
canals.  The  differences  in  the  waterways  and  in  the  climatic  and  other 
conditions  render  it  extremely  difficult  to  derive  from  them  an  esti- 
mate applicable  to  the  Isthmian  Canal.  This  method,  however,  has 
been  followed  by  the  Commission  d'Etudes,  appointed  by  the  liquida- 
tor of  the  old  Panama  Canal  Company,  the  study  being  based  on  the 
corresponding  costs  at  the  Suez  Canal  and  consideration  being  given 
to  the  radical  differences  in  the  waterwa}7s  and  the  climates. 

This  Commission  has  approached  the  problem  in 
Basis  of  estimate  of  cost  a  SOmewhat  different  way.     A  project  has  been 

of  maintenance  and  opera-  .         .  -       _         _  , 

tiou  for  isthmian  Canal.  developed  tor  an  organization  or  the  force  and 
plant  required  for  maintaining  the  prism  and 
harbors,  operating  the  canal,  and  providing  for  sanitary  and  police  con- 
trol. This  has  been  worked  out  in  much  detail,  and  is  intended  to 
cover  all  expenses  except  the  maintenance  of  masonry  and  metal 
structures,  which  are  provided  for  by  percentages  on  their  cost.  The 
damp  climate  of  the  isthmus,  with  its  mild  temperature,  is  very  favor- 
able for  masonry  structures,  but  unfavorable  for  those  of  iron  and 
steel.  The  allowances  for  the  maintenance  of  these  structures  are  | 
per  cent  on  the  first  cost  for  masonry  and  7i  per  cent  for  metal 
structures,  including  machinery. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation  for  the 
Nicaragua  Canal  would  be  much  greater  than  for  the  Panama  Canal. 
The  former  has  four  times  the  total  length  of  the  latter,  or,  excluding 
the  deep-water  portions  of  both  routes,  three  and  one-fourth  times  the 
length  of  excavated  channel.  It  has  also  more  locks,  weirs,  and  other 
.structures.  In  Grey  Town  harbor  it  has  the  most  difficult  harbor  to 
maintain,  and  it  is  in  the  region  of  greatest  rainfall.  On  the  other 
hand,  its  magnitude  can  not  be  measured  h}7  length  only.  The  total 
cost  of  construction  gives  a  better  idea  of  relative  magnitudes.  More- 
over, the  study  given  to  the  project  of  organization  shows  that  the 
central  control  and  general  supervision,  which  form  a  large  part  of 
the  total  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation,  differ  but  little  in  the  two 
cases. 

The  resulting  estimates  of  the  annual  cost  of 

Estimates  of  cost  of  n,a.».   maintenance  and  operation  are  as  follows: 

tenauce  and  operation.  * 

For  the  Nicaragua  Canal $3,  300,  000 

For  the  Panama  Canal 2,000,000 

The  Commission  d'Etudes,  using  a  different  method,  estimated  the 
cost  for  the  Panama  Canal  at  10,000,000  francs,  ($1,940,000).  The 
agreement  is  as  close  as  could  bo  expected  in  estimates  of  this  kind. 


Chapter  XII. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The  investigations  of  this  Commission  have  shown  that  the  selection 
of  "the  most  feasible  and  practicable  route"  for  an  isthmian  canal 
must  be  made  between  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  locations.  Further- 
more, the  complete  problem  involves  both  the  sea-level  plan  of  canal 
and  that  with  locks.  The  Panama  route  alone  is  feasible  for  a  sea- 
level  canal,  although  both  are  entirely  practicable  and  feasible  for  a 
canal  with  locks.  The  time  required  to  complete  a  sea-level  canal  on 
the  Panama  route,  probably  more  than  twice  that  needed  to  build  a 
canal  with  locks,  excludes  it  from  favorable  consideration  aside  from 
other  serious  features  of  its  construction.  It  is  the  conclusion  of 
this  Commission,  therefore,  that  a  plan  of  canal  with  locks  should  be 
adopted. 

A  comparison  of  the  principal  physical  features,  both  natural  and 
artificial,  of  the  two  routes,  reveals  some  points  of  similarity.  Both 
routes  cross  the  continental  divide  less  than  ten  miles  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  the  Panama  summit  being  about  double  the  height  of  that  in 
Nicaragua.  For  more  than  half  its  length  the  location  of  each  route  on 
the  Atlantic  side  is  governed  by  the  course  of  a  river,  the  flow  from 
whose  drainage  basin  is  the  only  source  of  water  supply  for  the  pro- 
posed canal;  and  the  summit  levels,  differing  but  about  20  feet  in 
elevation,  Panama  being  the  lower,  are  formed  by  lakes,  natural  in 
the  one  case  and  artificial  in  the  other,  requiring  costly  dams  and 
wasteways  for  their  regulation  and  for  the  impounding  of  surplus 
waters  to  reduce  the  effect  of  floods  and  to  meet  operating  demands 
during  low- water  seasons. 

The  investigations  made  in  connection  with  the  regulation  of  Lake 
Nicaragua  have  demonstrated  that  that  lake  affords  an  inexhaustible 
water  supply  for  the  canal  bjr  that  route.  The  initial  proposition,  on 
the  other  hand,  for  the  Panama  route  is  to  form  lake  Bohio  so  as  to 
yield  a  water  supply  for  a  traffic  of  10,000,000  tons,  which  can  be  sup- 
plemented when  needed  by  an  amount  sufficient  for  more  than  four 
times  that  traffic,  by  means  of  the  Alhajuela  reservoir.  For  all  prac- 
tical purposes  this  may  be  considered  an  [unlimited  supply  for  the 
Panama  route.  So  far  as  the  practical  operation  of  a  ship  canal  is 
concerned,  therefore,  the  water-supply  features  on  both  lines  are  sat- 
isfactory. 

S  D— 57-1— Vol  7 17  257 


258  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  difficulties  disclosed  and  likely  to  be  encountered  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  dams  are  less  at  Conchuda  on  the  Nicaragua  line  than 
at  Bohio  on  the  Panama  route.  Both  dams,  however,  are  practicable, 
but  the  cost  of  that  at  Bohio  is  one-half  more  than  that  at  Conchuda. 
A  less  expensive  dam  at  Bohio  has  been  proposed,  but  through  a  por- 
tion of  its  length  it  would  be  underlaid  by  a  deposit  of  sand  and  gravel 
pervious  to  water.  The  seepage  might  not  prove  dangerous,  but  the 
security  of  the  canal  is  directly  dependent  upon  this  dam,  and  the  pol- 
icy of  the  Commission  has  been  to  select  the  more  perfect  structure, 
even  at  a  somewhat  greater  cost.  The  wasteways  at  both  locations 
present  no  serious  difficulties.  The  advantages  in  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  the  dams  are  in  favor  of  the  Nicaragua  route. 

The  system  of  regulation  at  Lake  Bohio  consists  onty  of  the  dis- 
charge of  water  over  the  crest  of  a  weir,  as  the  lake  level  rises  under 
the  influence  of  floods  in  the  Chagres  River.  The  plan  of  regulating 
the  level  of  Lake  Nicaragua  is  less  simple,  though  perfectly  prac- 
ticable. It  involves,  the  operation  of  movable  gates  at  such  times  and 
to  such  extent  as  the  rainfall  on  the  lake  basin  may  require.  The 
experience  and  judgment  of  the  operator  are  essential  elements  in  the 
effective  regulation  of  this  lake.  The  regulation  of  Lake  Bohio  is 
automatic. 

The  only  means  of  transportation  now  found  on  the  Nicaragua  route 
art1  the  narrow-gauge  Silico  Lake  Railroad,  about  6  miles  in  length, 
and  the  limited  navigation  of  the  San  Juan  River  and  the  lake,  but  the 
Nicaraguan  Government  is  now  building  a  railroad  along  the  beach 
from  Greytown  to  Monkey  Point,  about  45  miles  to  the  northward, 
where  it  proposes  to  establish  a  commercial  port.  By  means  of  a  pier, 
in  the  area  protected  by  the  point,  goods  and  material  for  canal  pur- 
poses can  readily  be  landed  and  transported  by  rail  to  Greytown. 
Such  piers  are  in  constant  use  on  our  Pacific  coast.  This  railroad  and 
port  would  be  of  great  value  during  the  period  of  preparation  and 
harbor  construction,  and  should  materially  shorten  that  period.  A 
well-equipped  railroad  is  in  operation  along  the  entire  length  of  the 
Panama  route,  and  existing  conditions  there  afford  immediate  accom- 
modation for  a  large  force  of  laborers. 

The  Nicaragua  route  has  no  natural  harbor  at  either  end.  At  both 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  termini,  however,  satisfactory  harbors  maybe 
created  by  the  removal  of  material  at  low  unit  prices,  and  by  the  con- 
>t  ruction  of  protective  works  of  well-established  design.  An  excellent 
roadstead,  protected  by  islands,  already  exists  at  Panama,  and  no  work 
need  lie  done  there  for  cither  harbor  construction  or  maintenance. 
At  Colon,  the  Atlantic  terminus  of  the  Panama  route,  a  serviceable 
harbor  already  exists.  It  has  afforded  harbor  accommodations  for 
many  years,  hut  it  is  open  to  northers,  which  a  few  times  in  each  year 
tic  liable  to  damage  ships  or  force  them  to  put  to  sea.     Considerable 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  259 

work  must  be  done  there  to  create  a  suitable  harbor  at  the  entrance  of 
I  he  canal,  which  can  be  easily  entered,  and  will  give  complete  protec- 
tion to  shipping  lying  within  it.  The  completion  of  the  harbors  as 
planned  for  both  routes  would  yield  but  little  advantage  to  either,  but 
the  balance  of  advantages,  including  those  of  maintenance  and  opera- 
tion, is  probably  in  favor  of  the  Panama  route. 

The  existence  of  a  harbor  at  each  terminus  of  the  Panama  route, 
and  a  line  of  railroad  across  the  isthmus,  will  make  it  practicable  to 
commence  work  there,  after  the  concessions  are  acquired,  as  soon  as 
the  necessary  plant  can  be  collected  and  put  in  place,  and  the  working 
force  organized.  This  period  of  preparation  is  estimated  at  one  year. 
In  Nicaragua  this  period  is  estimated  at  two  years,  so  as  to  include 
also  the  construction  of  working  harbors  and  terminal  and  railroad 
facilities. 

The  work  of  excavation  on  the  Nicaragua  route  is  distributed;  it  is 
heaviest  near  Conchuda,  at  Tamborcito,  and  in  the  divide  west  of  the 
lake.  On  the  Panama  route  it  is  largely  concentrated  in  the  Culebra 
and  Emperador  cuts,  which  are  practically  one.  As  a  rule  distributed 
work  affords  a  greater  number  of  available  points  of  attack,  contribut- 
ing to  a  quicker  completion;  but  in  either  of  these  cases  such  difficul- 
ties as  may  exist  can  be  successfully  met  with  suitable  organization 
and  efficient  appliances. 

The  time  required  for  constructing  the  Nicaragua  Canal  will  depend 
largely  on  the  promptness  with  which  the  requisite  force  of  laborers 
can  be  brought  to  Nicaragua,  housed  and  organized  at  the  locations  of 
heaviest  work  along  the  route.  The  cut  through  the  divide  west  of 
the  lake  probably  will  require  the  longest  time  of  any  single  feature 
of  construction.  It  contains  about  18,000,000  cubic  yards  of  earth 
and  rock  excavation,  or  a  little  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  total  mate- 
rial of  all  classes  to  be  removed.  With  adequate  force  and  plant  this 
Commission  estimates  that  it  can  be  completed  in  four  years.  This 
indicates,  under  reasonable  allowance  for  ordinary  delays,  that  if  force 
and  plant  enough  were  available  to  secure  a  practically  concurrent 
execution  of  all  portions  of  work  on  the  route,  the  completion  of  the 
entire  work  might  be  expected  within  six  years  after  its  beginning, 
exclusive  of  the  two  years  estimated  for  the  period  of  preparation. 

The  securing  and  organizing  of  the  great  force  of  laborers  needed, 
largely  foreigners,  so  as  to  adjust  the  execution  of  the  various  portions 
of  the  work  to  such  a  definite  programme  of  close-fitting  parts  in  a 
practically  unpopulated  tropical  country,  involves  unusual  difficulties 
and  would  prolong  the  time  required  for  completion. 

The  greatest  single  feature  of  work  on  the  Panama  route  is  the  exca- 
vation in  the  Culebra  section,  amounting  to  about  43,000,000  cubic 
yards  of  hard  cla}T,  much  of  which  is  classed  as  soft  rock,  or  nearly  45 
per  cent  of  all  classes  of  material  to  be  removed.     It  is  estimated  that 


260  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

this  cut  can  be  completed  in  eight  years,  with  allowance  for  ordinary 
delays,  but  exclusive  of  a  two-}Tear  period  for  preparation  and  for 
unforeseen  delays,  and  that  the  remainder  of  the  work  can  be  finished 
within  the  same  period.  The  great  concentration  of  work  on  this  route 
and  its  loss  amount  will  not  require  so  great  a  force  of  laborers  as  on 
the  Nicaragua  route;  hence  the  difficulties  and  delays  involved  in 
securing  them  will  be  correspondingly  diminished. 

The  total  length  of  the  Nicaragua  route  from  sea  to  sea  is  183.66 
miles,  while  the  total  length  of  the  Panama  route  is  49.09  miles.  The 
length  in  standard  canal  section  and  in  harbors  and  entrances  is  73.78 
miles  for  the  Nicaragua  route  and  36.41  miles  for  the  Panama  route. 
The  length  of  sailing  line  in  Lake  Nicaragua  is  70.51  miles,  while  that 
in  Lake  Bohio  is  12.68  miles.  That  portion  of  the  Nicaragua  route 
in  the  canalized  San  Juan  is  39.37  miles. 

The  preceding  physical  features  of  the  two  lines  measure  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  work  to  be  done  in  the  construction  of  waterways  along 
the  two  routes.  The  estimated  cost  of  constructing  the  canal  on  the 
Nicaragua  route  is  $15,630,701  more  than  that  of  completing  the 
Panama  Canal,  omitting  the  cost  of  acquiring  the  latter  property. 
This  sum  measures  the  difference  in  the  magnitude  of  the  obstacles  to 
be  overcome  in  the  actual  construction  of  the  two  canals  and  covers 
all  physical  considerations,  such  as  the  greater  or  less  height  of  dams, 
the  greater  or  less  depth  of  cuts,  the  presence  or  absence  of  natural 
harbors,  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  railroad,  and  the  amount  of 
work  remaining  to  be  done. 

The  estimated  annual  cost  of  maintaining  and  operating  the  Nica- 
ragua Canal  is  $1,300,000  greater  than  the  corresponding  charges  for 
the  Panama  Canal. 

The  Panama  route  would  be  131.57  miles  shorter  from  sea  to  sea 
than  the  Nicaragua  route.  It  would  have  less  summit  elevation,  fewer 
locks,  1,568  degrees  and  26.11  miles  less  curvature.  The  estimated 
time  for  a  deep-draft  vessel  to  pass  through  is  about  twelve  hours  for 
Panama  and  thirty-three  hours  for  Nicaragua.  These  periods  are  prac- 
tically the  measure  of  the  relative  advantages  of  the  two  canals  as 
waterways  connecting  the  two  oceans,  but  not  entirely,  because  the 
risks  to  vessels  and  the  dangers  of  delay  are  greater  in  a  canal  than 
in  the  open  sea. 

Except  for  the  items  of  risks  and  delays,  the  time  required  to  pass 
through  the  canals  need  be  taken  into  account  only  as  an  element  in 
the  time  required  by  vessels  to  make  their  voyages  between  terminal 
ports.  Compared  on  this  basis,  the  Nicaragua  route  is  the  more 
advantageous  for  all  transisthmian  commerce  except  that  originating 
or  ending  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America.  For  the  commerce 
in  which  the  United  States  is  most  interested,  that  between  our  Pacific 
ports  and  Atlantic  ports,  European  and  American,  the  Nicaragua 
route    is   shorter   by   about  one   day.     The   same  advantage   exists 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  261 

between  our  Atlantic  ports  and  the  Orient.  For  our  Gulf  ports  the 
a  I  vantage  of  the  Nicaragua  route  is  nearly  two  days.  For  commerce 
between  North  Atlantic  ports  and  the  west  coast  of  South  America 
the  Panama  route  is  shorter  by  about  two  days.  Between  Gulf  ports 
and  the  west  coast  of  South  America  the  saving  is  about  one  day. 

The  Nicaragua  route  would  be  the  more  favorable  one  for  sailing 
vessels  because  of  the  uncertain  winds  in  the  Bay  of  Panama.  This 
is  not,  however,  a  material  matter,  as  sailing  ships  are  being  rapidly 
displaced  by  steamships. 

A  canal  by  the  Panama  route  will  be  simply  a  means  of  communica- 
tion between  the  two  oceans.  That  route  has  been  a  highway  of  com- 
merce for  more  than  three  hundred  years,  and  a  railroad  has  been  in 
operation  there  for  nearly  fifty  years,  but  this  has  effected  industrial 
changes  of  but  little  consequence,  and  the  natural  features  of  the 
country  through  which  the  route  passes  are  such  that  no  considerable 
development  is  likely  to  occur  as  a  result  of  the  construction  and  opera- 
tion of  a  canal. 

In  addition  to  its  use  as  a  means  of  communication  between  the  two 
oceans,  a  canal  by  the  Nicaragua  route  would  bring  Nicaragua  and 
a  large  portion  of  Costa  Rica  and  other  Central  American  States 
into  close  and  easy  communication  with  the  United  States  and 
with  Europe.  The  intimate  business  relations  that  would  be  estab- 
lished with  the  people  of  the  United  States  during  the  period  of  con- 
struction by  the  expenditure  of  vast  sums  of  money  in  these  States 
and  the  use  of  American  products  and  manufactures  would  be  likely 
to  continue  after  the  completion  of  the  work,  to  the  benefit  of  our 
manufacturing,  agricultural,  and  other  interests. 

The  Nicaragua  route  lies  in  a  region  of  sparse  population  and  not  in 
a  pathway  of  much  trade  or  movement  of  people;  conditions  produc- 
tive of  much  sickness  do  not  exist.  On  the  other  hand,  a  considerable 
population  has  long  existed  on  the  Panama  route  and  it  lies  on  a  path- 
way of  comparatively  large  trade  along  which  currents  of  moving 
people  from  infected  places  sometimes  converge,  thus  creating  con- 
ditions favorable  to  epidemics.  Existing  conditions  indicate  hygienic 
advantages  for  the  Nicaragua  route,  although  it  is  probable  that  no 
less  effective  sanitary  measures  must  be  taken  during  construction  in 
the  one  case  than  in  the  other. 

The  cost  of  constructing  a  canal  by  the  Nicaragua  route  and  of  com- 
pleting the  Panama  Canal,  without  including  the  cost  of  acquiring  the 
concessions  from  the  different  Governments,  is  estimated  as  follows: 

Nicaragua $189,864,062 

Panama. 144,233,358 

For  a  proper  comparison  there  must  be  added  to  the  latter  the  cost 
of  acquiring  the  rights  and  property  of  the  new  Panama  Canal  Com- 


262  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

pany.  This  Commission  has  estimated  the  value  of  these  in  the  pro- 
ject recommended  by  it  at  $40,000,000. 

In  order  to  exercise  the  rights  necessary  for  the  construction  of  the 
canal  and  for  its  management  after  completion,  the  United  States 
should  acquire  control  of  a  strip  of  territory  from  sea  to  sea  sufficient 
in  area  for  the  convenient  and  efficient  accomplishment  of  those  pur- 
poses. Measures  must  also  be  taken  to  protect  the  line  from  unlawful 
acts  of  all  kinds,  to  insure  sanitary  control,  and  to  render  police  juris- 
diction effective.  The  strip  should  be  not  less  than  5  miles  wide  on 
each  side  of  the  center  line  of  the  canal  or  10  miles  in  total  width. 

No  treaties  now  exist  with  any  of  the  states  within  whose  territory 
the  two  routes  lie  authorizing  the  United  States  to  occupy  its  terri- 
tory for  the  construction  and  operation  of  a  canal.  When  it  has 
been  determined  to  undertake  the  work  and  the  route  has  been  selected, 
the  consent  of  Colombia,  or  of  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica,  for  such 
occupation  must  be  obtained  before  the  inauguration  of  the  enterprise, 
and  one  or  more  conventions  must  be  entered  into  by  the  United 
States  to  secure  the  necessary  privileges  and  authority. 

The  Republics  of  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  are  untrammeled  by  any 
existing  concessions  or  treaty  obligations  and  are  free  to  grant  to  the 
United  States  the  rights  necessaiy  for  the  attainment  of  these  ends; 
and  in  December,  1900,  demonstrated  their  willingness  to  have  their 
territory  so  occupied  by  the  United  States  by  executing  protocols  by 
which  it  was  agreed  that  they  would  enter  into  negotiations  to  settle 
in  detail  the  plan  and  agreements  necessary  to  accomplish  the  con- 
struction and  provide  for  the  ownership  of  the  proposed  canal  when- 
ever the  President  of  the  United  States  is  authorized  b}Tlaw  to  acquire 
the  necessary  control  and  authority. 

The  Government  of  Colombia,  on  the  contrary,  in  whose  territory 
the  Panama  route  lies,  has  granted  concessions  which  belong  to  or  are 
controlled  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  and  have  many  years 
to  run.  These  concessions,  limited  in  time  and  defective  in  other 
ways,  would  not  be  adequate  authority  for  the  purposes  of  the  United 
St  sites,  but  while  they  exist  Colombia  is  not  free  to  treat  with  this 
Government.  If  the  Panama  route  is  selected  these  concessions  must 
be  removed  in  order  that  the  two  Republics  may  enter  into  a  treaty  to 
enable  the  United  States  to  acquire  the  control  upon  the  isthmus  that 
will  be  necessary  and  to  fix  the  consideration. 

An  agreement  with  the  Panama  Canal  Company  to  surrender  or 
transfer  its  concessions  must  include  a  sale  of  its  canal  property  and 
unfinished  work,  and  the  Commission  undertook,  soon  after  its  organi- 
zation, to  ascertain  upon  what  terms  this  could  be  accomplished. 
Much  correspondence  and  many  conferences  followed,  but  no  proposi- 
tion naming  a  price  was  presented  until  the  middle  of  October,  1901, 
and  after  prolonged  discussion  it  was  submitted  to  the  Commission  in 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  263 

a  modified  form,  on  the  4th  of  November,  to  be  included  in  its  report 
to  the  President.  The  itemized  statement  appears  in  an  earlier  chap- 
ter of  the  report,  The  total  amount  for  which  the  company  offers  to 
sell  and  transfer  its  canal  property  to  the  United  States  is  $109,141,500. 
This,  added  to  the  cost  of  completing-  the  work,  makes  the  whole  cost 
of  a  canal  by  the  Panama  route  $253,374*858,  while  the  cost  by  the 
Nicaragua  route  is  $189,864,062,  a  difference  of  $63,510,796  in  favor 
of  the  Nicaragua  route.  In  each  case  there  must  he  added  the  cost  of 
obtaining  the  use  of  the  territory  to  be  occupied  and  such  other  privi- 
leges as  may  be  necessary  for  the  construction  and  operation  of  the 
canal  in  perpetuity.  The  compensation  that  the  different  States  will 
ask  for  granting  these  privileges  is  now  unknown. 

There  are  certain  physical  advantages,  such  as  a  shorter  canal  line, 
a  more  complete  knowledge  of  the  country  through  which  it  passes, 
and  lower  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation  in  favor  of  the  Panama 
route,  but  the  price  fixed  by  the  Panama  Canal  Company  for  a  sale  of 
its  propert}7  and  franchises  is  so  unreasonable  that  its  acceptance  can 
not  be  recommended  by  this  Commission. 

After  considering  all  the  facts  developed  by  the  investigations  made 
by  the  Commission  and  the  actual  situation  as  it  now  stands,  and  hav- 
ing in  view  the  terms  offered  by  the  new  Panama  Canal  Company,  this 
Commission  is  of  the  opinion  that  "the  most  practicable  and  feasible 
route"  for  an  isthmian  canal,  to  be  "under  the  control,  management, 
and  ownership  of  the  United  States,"  is  that  known  as  the  Nicaragua 
route. 

We  have  the  honor  to  be,  sir,  with  great  respect,  your  obedient 
servants, 

J.  G.  Walker, 
Rear- Admiral .  United  States  Navy, 

President  of  Commission. 

Samuel  Pasco. 

Alfred  Noble. 

Geo.  S.  Morison. 

Peter  C.  Hains, 
Colonel,  United  States  Corps  of  Engineers. 

Wm.  H.  Burr. 

O.  H.  Ernst, 
Lieutenant-  Colonel,  United  States  Corps  of  Engineers. 

Lewis  M.  Haupt. 

Emory  R.  Johnson. 

O 


57th  Congress,  I  SENATE.  j  Doc.  No.  54, 

1st  Session.       \  I        Part  2. 


REPORT 


OF  THE 


ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION, 


1899-1901. 


Rear-Admiral  JOHN  G.  WALKER, 

United  States  Navy, 

President. 

Hon.  SAMUEL  PASCO.  ALFRED  NOBLE,  C.  E. 

Mr.  GEORGE  S.  MORISON.  Col.  PETER  C.  HAINS, 
Lieut.  Col.  OSWALD  H.   ERNST,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army. 

Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army.  WILLIAM   H.  BURR,  C.  E. 

LEWIS  M.  HAUPT,  C.  E.  Prof.  EMORY  R.  JOHNSON. 

Lieut.  Commander  SIDNEY  A.  STAUNTON, 

United  States  Navy, 

Secretary. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 

1902. 


In  the  Senate  of  the  United  States, 

February  18,  1902. 
Ordered,  That  the  following  appendixes  attached  to  the  report  of  the  Interoceamc 
Canal  Commission  be  printed: 

B.  Historical  note3  relative  to  the  Universal  Interoceanic  Canal  Company,  1880-1 894, 
prior  to  the  organization  of  the  new  company. 

C.  List  of  documents  furnished  to  the  Commission  by  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company. 

D.  Report  of  the  hydrography  of  the  Panama  Canal  route,  by  Mr.  A.  P.  Davis, 
chief  hydrographer. 

E.  Waste  weir  dimensions  and  discharges  of  Lake  Bohio. 

F.  Description  of  alternate  location  for  canal  between  Gatun  and  Bohio. 

G.  Discussion  of  the  time  required  for  transit  through  an  isthmian  canal  by  the 
two  routes.- 

H.  Discharge  of  the  canalized  San  Juan  River. 

I.  Report  of  hydrographic  investigations  in  Nicaragua,  by  Mr.  A.  P.  Davis,  chief 
hydrographer. 

J.  Survey  from  the  upper  San  Juan  to  the  Indio  River,  by  Mr.  A.  B.  Nichols, 
division  engineer. 

U.  Contract  between  Nicaragua  and  the  Atlas  Steamship  Company. 

CC.  Treaties  between  France  and  New  Granada,  1856,  and  France  and  Colombia, 
1892. 

DD.  Treaty  between  Spain  and  Colombia,  1831. 

FF.  Amended  contract  between  Colombia  and  the* Panama  Railroad  Company. 

GG.  Contract  between  Colombia  and  Interoceanic  Canal  Association,  March  20, 
1878.     ( Wyse  concession. ) 

HH.  Additional  contract  modifying  that  of  May  20,  1878,  December  10,  L890. 

II.  Contract  granting  extension  to  the  Panama  Canal  Company  in  liquidation, 
April  4,  1893. 

JJ.  Contract  granting  further  extension  of  time  to  the  New  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany, April  25,  1900. 

KK.  Memorandum  showing  legal  status  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  with 
laws,  decrees  of  court,  and  charter. 

MM.  Contract  between  Nicaragua  and  the  American  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship 
Canal  Company,  August  27,  1849. 

NN.  Report  on  industrial  and  commercial  value  of  canal,  by  Prof.  Emory  B. 
Johnson. 

Attest: 

Charles  <i.   Bennett,  Secretary. 


ISTHMIAN    CANAL 


Appendix  B. 


HISTORICAL  NOTES  RELATIVE  TO  THE  UNIVERSAL  INTER- 
OCEANIC  CANAL  COMPANY  (1880-1894)  UNTIL  THE  ORGANIZA- 
TION OF  THE  NEW  COMPANY. 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

The  great  excitement  which  followed  the  downfall  of  the  old  Panama 
Canal  Company  can  be  explained  only  by  the  universal  character  of 
the  enterprise,  the  distinction  of  the  man  who  directed  it,  and  the 
importance  of  the  interests  involved. 

That  downfall,  however,  was  so  unfortunate  as  to  be  subservient  to 
political  passion.  Hence,  the  attention  of  the  public  was  turned  aside 
from  the  work  itself.  Exaggeration,  ignorance,  and  also  bad  faith 
finally  destroyed  confidence  in  the  future  of  an  enterprise  which  the 
excessive  optimism  and,  we  must  add,  the  errors  of  Mr.  de  Lesseps 
had  seriously  jeopardized. 

A  little  reflection  and  dispassionate  reasoning  will  convince  anyone 
that  the  construction  of  an  interoceanic  canal  is,  all  proportions  being 
observed,  an  industrial  affair  like  any  other.  In  order  to  be  properly 
planned  and  regular^  carried  out,  it  had  to  be  previously  studied  with 
care  in  all  its  details. 

The  solution  to  be  adopted  should  not  have  been  based  upon  pre- 
conceived ideas,  however  flattering  they  appeared,  but  upon  serious 
and  practical  observation  of  the  facts.  Such  a  method  was  especially 
necessary  for  a  work  of  such  magnitude,  difficulty,  and  perplexity. 

Now,  the  real  cause  of  the  downfall  of  the  old  Panama  Company  was 
the  lack  of  the  serious  studies  which  should  have  preceded  its  organi- 
zation. In  view  of  the  results  that  would  have  been  secured  by  such 
studies,  in  view  of  the  enormous  amount  of  work  to  be  performed  and 
the  proportionate  expense  to  be  incurred,  we  may  believe  that  the 
enterprise  would  have  been,  from  the  outset,  based  upon  a  plan  and 
directed  according  to  a  programme  different  from  those  which  were 
adopted  by  Mr.  dc  Lesseps.  It  was  only  under  the  pressure  of  cir- 
cumstances that  Mr.  de  Lesseps  decided  to  modify  his  original  plan. 
It  was,  however,  too  late  and  success  had  become,  for  him,  impossible. 

In  order  to  give  a  correct  idea  of  the  events  which  succeeded  each 
other,  it  is  necessary  briefly  to  review  the  history  of  the  old  company. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  original  errors  were  followed  by  a  succession 
of  mistakes,  the  inevitable  consequence  of  which  was  the  final  disaster. 

3 


4  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Chapter  I. 
THE  UNIVERSAL  INTEROCEANIC  CANAL  COMPANY. 

(1880-1889.) 

I. — BRIEF  SKETCH  OF  THE  DISCOVERIES,  EXPLORATIONS,  AND  PLANS  FOR 
MARITIME   CANALS   ON   THE    AMERICAN    ISTHMUS   UNTIL    1879. 

When  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  in  1513,  had  seen  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
he  ardently  sought  for  a  natural  passage  between  the  two  oceans.  At 
the  very  outset  his  idea  was  to  utilize  the  course  of  the  wide  rivers  of 
the  Isthmus  of  Darien. 

After  his  death,  in  1520,  Don  Angel  Saavedra,  interpreting  his  views, 
proposed  to  Charles  V  to  construct  a  canal  through  that  isthmus. 

A  few  years  later,  Hernan  Cortez,  then  master  of  Mexico,  desired  to 
dig  a  maritime  canal  through  the  Isthmus  of  Tehauntepec,  and  in  his 
letters  to  Charles  V  he  laid  great  stress  upon  the  necessity  of  accom- 
plishing that  project. 

Finally,  in  1550,  the  Portuguese  navigator  Antonio  Galvao  published 
a  book  designed  to  show  that  it  was  possible  to  construct  a  ship  canal 
through  the  isthmuses  of  Mexico,  Nicaragua,  Panama,  and  southern 
Darien. 

Thus,  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  four  principal  routes 
for  an  interoceanic  canal  were  known. 

Many  explorations  succeeded  each  other;  but  no  serious  effort  was 
made,  and  none  could  be  made,  in  a  practical  manner,  at  that  time. 

The  interoceanic  canal  question  was  neglected  and  almost  forgotten 
during  the  entire  seventeenth  century,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
eighteenth. 

It  was  England  that,  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
attached  to  this  question  its  full  political  and  commercial  importance. 
The  British  Government,  with  characteristic  foresight,  thought  that 
the  national  interest  rendered  it  imperative  for  it  to  secure  possession 
of  that  part  of  the  American  isthmus  which  then  seemed  to  offer  the 
best  route  for  the  establishment  of  communication  between  the  Atlan- 
tic and  Pacific  oceans.  This  was  the  cause  of  Nelson's  unfortunate 
expedition  against  Nicaragua  in  1778. 

After  that  time,  except  during  the  Revolution  and  the  first  years  of 
the  Empire,  explorations  were  multiplied.  That  of  1780  deserves 
special  mention.  It  was  organized  by  order  of  Charles  III,  King  of 
Spain,  and  its  object  was  the  construction  of  a  canal  through  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  Humboldt,  who  visited  the  American  isthmus 
in  1(S()4,  declared  his  preference  for  a  route  via  the  Isthmus  of  Darien. 
From  1814  to  1842  numerous  surveys  were  made  on  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehauntepec. 

Finally,  in  1844,  a  Frenchman,  Napoleon  Garella  by  name,  engineer 
in  chief  of  mines,  first  made  an  accurate  report  concerning  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  which  he  had  surveyed  both  with  a  view  to  the  const  ruction 
of  a  canal  and  of  a  railway.  He  had  been  sent  by  a  Frcn/h  company 
which  had  received  a  concession  for  these  two  routes,  and  which,  in 
pursuance  of  his  report,  decided  in  favor  of  the  construction  of  a  rail- 
way.    But  the  events  of  1848  came.     The  concession  of  the  French 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  5 

company  Lapsed,  and  the  railway  was  built,  from  1850  to  1855,  by  an 
American  company,  which  is  still  operating  it. 

At  this  same  time  the  grave  diplomatic  incidents  occurred  between 
England  and  the  United  States  which  had  reference  to  the  control  and 
the  neutrality  of  the  future  interoceanic  route,  and  which  were  termi- 
nated in  L818  by  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty. 

From  1850  to  1870  new  explorers,  most  of  whom  were  Americans, 
made  new  surveys  in  various  parts  of  the  Isthmus.  Public  opinion  in 
the  United  States  was  passionately  in  favor  of  some  of  these  routes; 
then  the  American  Government  resolved  (1870)  to  cause  the  Isthmus 
to  be  surveyed,  at  its  own  expense,  from  Tehauntepec  to  Darien.  The 
explorations  lasted  three  years,  and  were  still  incomplete. 

The  Congress  of  Geographical  Science,  which  met  at  Antwerp  in 
1871  and  at  Paris  in  1875,  gave  its  attention  to  the  subject  of  an  inter- 
oceanic canal.  At  this  latter  meeting  Mr.  de  Lesseps  declared  that,  in 
Ms  opinion,  the  authors  of  all  the  plans  entertained  up  to  that  time 
had  committed  a  serious  error  by  examining  only  routes  for  canals  with 
locks,  lie  declared  that  an  interoceanic  canal,  in  orde?'  to  meet  all  the 
requirements  of  commercial  navigation,  must  be  constructed  on  a  level, 
as  the  Sues  Canal  had  been. 

This  formal  and  absolute  opinion  of  Mr.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  was 
destined  to  prevail,  four  years  afterwards,  before  the  International 
Congress  of  Surveys.  It  was  not  fully  adopted,  however,  by  the  con- 
gress of  1875,  which  confined  itself  to  expressing  the  following  wish: 

The  congress  expresses  the  wish  that  the  governments  interested  in  the  construc- 
tion of  an  interoceanic  canal  will  have  the  surveys  for  such  a  canal  made  with  as 
much  activity  as  possible,  and  that  they  will  adhere  to  the  routes  which  offer  to 
navigation  the  greatest  facilities  for  access  and  traffic. 

But,  pending  the  intervention  of  the  Powers,  which  might  have 
caused  a  very  long  deky,  the  Society  of  Commercial  Geography  at 
Paris  saw  fit  actively  to  pursue  the  solution  of  the  problem.  It  had 
ascertained,  from  the  debates  of  the  recent  congress,  that  the  world 
was  not  in  possession  of  full  topographical  information  concerning  the 
American  isthmus.  It  was  convinced,  moreover,  that  it  was  impossible, 
without  supplementary  surveys,  to  make,  intelligently,  a  choice  of  a 
route  that  should  be  based  upon  proofs  and  reasons.  Only,  the  society 
had  neither  the  resources  nor  the  credit  necessary  to  enable  it  to  under- 
take the  costly  explorations  which  had  to  be  made.  It  thought  proper 
to  place  its  work  in  more  powerful  hands,  and  to  that  end  it  organ- 
ized, March  24,  1876,  a  French  committee  to  examine  the  subject  of  the 
construction  of  an  Interoceanic  canal.  Mr.  de  Lesseps  was  chosen 
president  of  the  committee;  Admiral  de  la  Ronciere  le  Noury  and 
Admiral  Meurand  were  chosen  vice-presidents;  Messrs.  Daubree, 
Levasseur,  and  Delesse  (of  the  institute),  Count  Foucher  de  Careil, 
and  Messrs.  Malte-Brun,  Cotard,  Maunoir,  Hertz  (Charles)  were  mem- 
bers; Mr.  Bionne  was  secretary. 

At  the  same  time,  General  Turr  and  Lucien  Napoleon  Bonaparte- 
Wyse  organized  a  civil  association,  which  undertook  to  defray  the 
expense  of  the  explorations,  and  before  the  close  of  the  year  1876  an 
international  expedition,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  L.  N.  B.  Wyse, 
was  operating  on  the  ground.  It  finished  its  surveys  in  1878.  In  the 
month  of  May,  1878,  Mr.  L.  N.  B.  Wyse,  in  the  name  of  the  Civil 
Association,  secured  from  the  Government  of  Colombia  the  concession 
of  the  ship  canal  to  be  constructed  through  the  territory  of  that 
country. 


6  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  French  committee  was  then  able  to  convoke  a  special  congress, 
to  which  it  submitted  all  the  data  which  it  had  collected.  We  will 
briefly  review  the  work  of  that  congress,  which  adopted  the  name  of 
"The  International  Congress  of  Surveys  for  an  Interoceanic  Canal." 

II. — THE  INTERNATIONAL  CONGRESS  OF  SURVEYS  FOR  AN  INTEROCEANIC 

CANAL. 

(May  15-29,  1879.) 

The  International  Congress  of  Surveys  for  an  Interoceanic  Canal 
held  its  sessions  at  Paris  from  the  15th  to  the  29th  of  May,  1879. 

The  135  members  who  composed  it  were  divided  up  into  five  large 
commissions,  whose  titles  were  the  following:  (1)  Statistics;  (2)  Eco- 
nomical and  commercial  questions;  (3)  Navigation;  (1)  Technical  ques- 
tions; (5)  Ways  and  means. 

We  will  not  discuss  here  anything  but  the  conclusions  which  were 
formulated  by  the  first  and  fourth  commissions. 

M.  Levesseur,  member  of  the  institute,  was,  at  the  same  time, 
president  and  reporter  of  the  commission  of  statistics,  which  made  the 
following  predictions  concerning  the  traffic  of  the  canal: 

In  ten  years  (in  1889),  before  which  time  the  canal  will,  in  all  probability,  not  be 
opened  to  traffic,  5,250,000  tons  at  least  will  probably  represent  the  commercial  move- 
ment of  the  two  oceans,  and  about  2,000,000  tons  will  represent  that  fraction  of  the 
commercial  movement  between  the  East  and  Europe  which,  as  it  seems,  may  be 
diverted  from  the  route  now  followed,  in  order  to  take  that  of  the  American  Isthmus; 
7,250,000  tons  in  the  aggregate. 

M.  Levasseur  took  care  to  forestall  any  voluntarily  optimistic  or 
erroneous  interpretation  of  his  conclusions.  He  called  attention  to  the 
fact  that  they  did  not  mean  that  7,250,000  tons  would  necessarily  take 
the  route  of  the  canal  within  a  year  from  its  opening,  or  even  in  the 
3Tears  following.  What  he  desired  to  ascertain  and  establish  was  the 
capacity  of  the  double  reservoir  by  which  the  canal  was  to  be  supplied, 
ottering  to  navigation  incontestable  advantages  over  the  rival  routes 
through  the  continent  or  to  the  south  of  the  American  continent, 

M.  de  Lesseps  was,  afterwards,  much  more  positive.  He  did  not 
hesitate  to  consider  the  estimates  made  by  M.  Levasseur  as  represent- 
ing the  certain  traffic  of  the  canal  as  soon  as  it  should  be  put  into 
operation. 

The  fourth  commission,  which  was  specially  charged  with  the  tech- 
nical examination  of  the  various  routes,  had  M.  Daubree,  member  of 
the  institute,  for  its  president,  and  Voisin  Bey,  formerly  director- 
general  of  the  work  on  the  Suez  Canal,  for  its  reporter.  It  carefully 
examined  all  the  plans  that  were  submitted  to  it,  Unfortunately, 
those  plans  were  based  upon  incomplete  data.  For  none  of  them 
could  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done  be  accurately  determined.  As 
to  prices  and  terms  of  construction,  no  standard  of  comparison  and  no 
precedent  were  available  in  order  to  fix  them. 

When  one  reads  the  reports  of  the  sessions  of  that  commission,  one 
constantly  recognizes  the  inspiration  of  M.  de  Lesseps,  one  perceives 
the  action  of  his  will,  so  persistent  in  forming  a  general  opinion  hi 
favor  of  a  plan  for  a  canal  on  a  level.  The  discussions  of  the  commis- 
sion were  long,  and  sometimes  very  heated.  It  clearly  appears,  how- 
ever, that  opposition  to  the  views  of  M.  de  Lesseps  was  manifested 
mainly  by  abstaining  from  voting.     Thus,  at  the  time  of  formulating 


KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  ( 

their  opinion  concerning  the  conclusions  readied  in  the  report  of 
Voisin  Bey,  40  members  absented  themselves,  10  abstained  from  voting, 
and  only  19  voted,  16  of  whom  voted  in  the  affirmative.  And  still, 
those  conclusions  were  not  yet  wholly  absolute.     They  were  as  follows: 

The  Technical  Commission  is  of  opinion  that  the  route  of  the  interoceanic  canal 
Bhould  be  from  the  Gulf  of  Limon  to  the  Bay  of  Panama;  and  it  particularly  recommends 
the  construction  of  a  ship  canal  on  a  level  in  that  direction. 

The  prediction  was  made  that  the  time  necessary  for  the  construction 
of  the  canal  would  be  twelve  years,  and  that  the  cost  of  the  work  would 
be  1  milliard  (billion)  and  70  millions.  Supposing  that  the  interest  pay- 
able in  the  meantime  would  amount  to  130,000,000,  the  total  expenditure 
was  to  be  1,200,000,000. 

The  conclusions  adopted  by  the  congress  in  full  session  secured  the 
complete  triumph  of  M.  de  Lesseps.     They  were  as  follows: . 

The  congress  thinks  that  the  construction  of  an  interoceanic  canal  on  a  constant 
level,  which  is  so  desirable  in  the  interest  of  commerce  and  navigation,  is  possible, 
and  that  such  ship  canal,  in  order  to  meet  the  indispensable  facilities  of  access  and 
utilization  which  should  be  offered,  ^specially,  by  a  communication  of  this  kind, 
should  be  directed  from  the  Gulf  of  Limon  to  the  Bay  of  Panama. 

However,  in  order  to  appreciate  the  bearing  of  these  conclusions, 
the  manner  in  which  the  votes  were  divided  must  be  examined. 

Of  the  135  members  who  composed  the  congress,  37  were  absent  at 
the  time  when  the  vote  was  taken  and  only  98  voted.  The  votes,  for 
almost  all  of  which  reasons  were  given,  were  as  follows:  Not  voting, 
12;  noes,  8;  ayes,  78. 

By  considering  the  names  of  those  who  abstained  from  voting,  of 
those  who  were  absent,  and  of  those  who  voted  no,  it  is  seen  that  M. 
de  Lesseps  had  against  him  a  majority  of  the  engineers  and  of  the  con- 
tractors who  were  members  of  the  congress.  One  of  them,  Mr.  Kleitz, 
inspector- general  of  bridges  and  roads,  presented  in  support  of  his 
negative  vote  the  following  remarkable  observations: 

I  dc  not  adhere  to  the  conclusions  submitted  to  the  vote  of  the  congress,  because 
they  seem  to  me  to  be  too  positive  and  too  absolute. 

The  only  conclusions  which  thus  far  seem  to  me  to  be  justified  by  the  discussion 
of  the  various  plans  are  the  following: 

1.  The  interoceanic  canal  should  extend  from  the  Gulf  of  Limon  to  the  bay  of 
Panama. 

2.  The  surveys  submitted  to  the  congress  are  not  sufficiently  thorough  to  render 
it  possible,  without  fuller  information,  to  declare  the  possibility  of  the  construction 
and  operation  of  a  canal  on  a  level,  and  to  make  a  choice,  based  upon  reasons  and 
proofs,  between  that  system  and  that  of  a  canal  with  locks. 

3.  The  solution  which  should,  if  possible,  be  accomplished,  is  that  of  a  canal  on  a 
level,  because  such  a  solution  is  better  adapted  to  a  large  increase  of  traffic,  and  to 
securing  the  safety  and  rapidity  of  the  passage. 

4.  In  case  the  construction  of  a  canal  on  a  level  should  give  rise  to  uncertainty  to 
too  serious  difficulties  or  to  excessive  expense,  a  canal  with  locks  would  probably 
meet  the  requirements  of  maritime  navigation. 

These  sensible  observations  of  Mr.  Kleitz  were,  unfortunately,  not 
listened  to.  The  International  Congress  of  Surveys  for  an  Interoceanic 
Canal  closed  its  sessions  May  29,  1879.  M.  de  Lesseps  announced 
that  he  would  agree  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  new  enterprise, 
and,  confiding  in  his  lucky  star,  he  uttered  these  words: 

If  a  general  who  has  won  his  first  battle  is  asked  whether  he  desires  to  win 
another,  he  can  not  refuse. 

It  is  interesting  to  remember,  after  what  has  just  been  quoted  of 
the  observations  of  Mr.  Kleitz,  and  especially  in  view  of  the  present 


8  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

plans,  that  the  idea  of  a  canal  through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
comprising  an  inner  lake  formed  by  a  dam  across  the  Chagres  Val- 
ley, had  already  been  mentioned  and  submitted  for  discussion  to  the 
Congress  of  1879. 

On  the  Panama  line  the  route  leaves  the  Chagres  Valley  at  Matachin;  the  height 
of  the  water  course  is  14.60  meters  at  that  point;  taking  about  that  level  for  the  bottom 
of  the  basin,  we  may  fix  the  water  plane  at  level  24;  that  is  to  say,  a  little  below  the 
height  of  the  highest  waters,  and  we  get  rid  of  the  Chagres,  whose  presence  near 
the  trenches  constitutes  an  increase  of  expense  and  a  considerable  augmentation  of 
the  time  required  for  the  work. 

It  is  useless  to  raise  the  summit  level  any  higher;  it  is  doubtful  whether  that  rep- 
resents any  saving,  owing  to  the  cost  of  the  feeders,  which  will  always  be  very  far 
from  securing  the  full  flow  of  the  river  for  the  requirements  of  navigation,  as  is  done 
by  the  arrangement  aforesaid. 

This  point  being  established,  we  might  doubtless  take  the  ordinary  canal  system 
and  go  down  the  valley,  cutting  its  spurs. 

Here,  however,  the  abundance  of  water  offers  resources  that  are  unknown  in  the 
temperate  zones.  It  is,  furthermore,  very  dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  men 
employed  in  the  works  to  dig  up  the  earth;  this  is  certainly  the  greatest  difficulty 
presented  by  this  work. 

The  establishment  of  an  artificial  lake  at  the  height  of  the  summit  level  does  away 
with  all  these  inconveniences,  while  it  replaces,  for  a  great  length,  a  canal  with  a 
narrow  waterway  by  a  route  of  more  than  1,000  meters  of  minimum  width,  in  which 
vessels  may  sail  at  any  rate  of  speed  desired,  and  may  pass  each  other  without  the 
turning  out  places. 

We  should  thus,  at  this  low  altitude,  have  a  real  Bosphorus  (Bosporus) ,  extending 
from  one  ocean  to  the  other,  which  would  be  approached  through  short  stretches  of 
water  and  flights  of  locks  that  could  be  easily  and  rapidly  passed. 

This  system  of  retention  of  water  was  proposed  at  La  Tuyra  by  Mr.  Celler,  engi- 
neer in  chief  of  bridges  and  roads;  it  has  been  proposed  by  M.  Blanchet,  in  Nicaragua, 
and  by  others,  since  1860,  for  the  passages  of  Tehuantepee  and  Darien;  but  it  is  here 
much  better  indicated  by  the  nature  of  the  locality  and  the  facilities  offered  by  the 
Chagres  Valley  and  River. 

It  is,  we  repeat,  the  natural  method,  because  it  does  away  with  labor  and  with  the 
unhealthiness  of  the  soil,  and  because  it  is  most  advantageous  to  navigation. 

Taking  the  plan  of  Messrs.  Wyse  and  Reclus  for  greater  practicability,  we  reach 
the  conclusion,  according  to  the  above  data,  that  the  time  required  for  passage  through 
such  a  canal  would  be  twelve  hours,  while  in  a  canal  with  a  narrow  waterway  and 
on  a  level  it  would  be  ten  hours  and  a  half — that  is  to  say,  vessels  would  lose  an 
hour  and  a  half  in  the  passage,  with  much  less  chance  of  suffering  damage.  Follow- 
ing up  this  calculation,  the  conclusion  is  reached  that  the  loss  of  time  represents,  for 
the  navigation  of  the  globe,  a  capital  of  1,500,000  francs,  and  as  regards  the  cost  of 
construction  a  saving  of  money  of  nearly  600,000,000  francs,  together  with  a  saving  of 
six  years,  at  least,  in  the  construction. 

It  is  evident  that  the  dams  in  the  valley  raising  the  water  plane  to  level  24  should 
be  as  near  as  possible  to  the  two  oceans;  the  desirable  points  are  the  mouth  of  the 
Gatun  River,  kilometer  8  and  kilometer  64,  where  they  seem  possible.  In  all  cases, 
kilometers  22  and  62,  which  are  the  termini  of  the  first  and  sixth  sections  of  the  plan, 
are  perfectly  practicable. 

The  maximum  depth  of  the  trench  would  be  72  meters,  that  is,  12  meters  more 
than  the  drain  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  which  is  placed  in  volcanic  tufa  the  nature  of 
which  is  by  no  means  good;  its  average  depth  is  39.50  meters;  here,  on  the  contrary, 
the  hardness  of  the  rocks  furnishes  complete  security.  Its  cube  is  8,553,000  meters, 
about  253,000  meters  being  of  surface  earth. 

The  dams  fixed  at  level  26  have  their  foundations  on  a  level  with  the  oceans  and 
1.50  meters  below  the  bed  of  the  river.  They  have  a  height  of  retention  of  22.50 
meters,  which  is  much  less  than  that  of  the  dams  of  the  Sig  and  of  the  Habra  in 
Algeria.  Several  valley  dams  in  France,  and  particularly  in  Spain,  are  much  higher, 
especially  those  of  Saint-Etienne  and  Madrid. 

At  this  height  it  is  possible  to  construct  with  earth,  which  work  is  both  econom- 
ical and  durable.  The  Tledat  dam,  in  Algeria,  is  of  the  same  height,  but  it  is  well 
to  make  provision  for  concrete  dams,  mainly  for  the  avoidance  of  unhealthiness  of 
construction. 

The  Chagres  drains  20  meters  in  five  months.  Its  deflection  for  the  purpose  of 
allowing  dredging  and  the  establishment  of  foundations  in  its  bed  presents  no 
difficulties. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  9 

A  series  of  five  locks  would  be  attached  to  the  dam.  By  this  means  the  maneu- 
vering would  be  very  rapid.  A  set  of  machines  would  be  established  there,  audit 
is  probable  that,  with  the  aid  of  a  reduction  of  the  number  of  gates,  the  passage 
would  be  made  in  an  hour  and  a  quarter.  If  this  were  so,  less  trouble  and  loss  of 
time  would  be  met  with  than  with  a  canal  on  a  level  and  with  a  narrow  waterway. 

The  ebb  locks  would  form  the  six  locks  of  the  series,  which  would  reduce  the 
time  lost  in  the  canal  and  the  amount  of  the  work  on  the  short  lengths  with  a 
narrow  waterway. 

Two  weirs  of  the  total  length  of  800  meters  would  be  established  near  the  dams, 
probably  by  means  of  small  trenches  in  the  neighboring  valleys;  their  absolute 
security  can  always  he  guaranteed  by  the  riprap  and  piles  at  their  foot. 

In  extraordinary  freshets,  giving  1,300  meters  per  second,  the  layer  of  outflowing 
water  would  lie  less  than  1  meter  thick;  the  current  in  the  trench  would  be  regulated 
by  the  length  of  the  dam  toward  the  Pacific. 

If  things  are  established  in  this  manner  the  water  plane  is  kept  at  its  maximum, 
its  variations  being  prevented.  This  is  obeying  natural  laws  while  profiting  by  them 
and  regulating  them. 

III. — THE    FIRST    ISSUE. 

In  order  to  construct  a  canal  on  a  level  through  the  Isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama, the  route  for  which  had  been  fixed  upon  in  a  general  way  by  the 
International  Congress  of  Surve}rs,  an  association  was  immediately 
organized  under  the  name  of  "The  Universal  Interoceanic  Canal  Com- 
pany;" its  capital  was  to  be  400,000,0<>0  francs,  represented  by  800,000 
shares  of  500  francs  each. 

The  public  subscription  was  opened  in  Europe  and  America  on  the 
6th  and  7th  of  August,  1879.  It  was  not  a  success.  Only  30,000,000 
were  subscribed  for. 

Bitter  attacks  had  been  made  upon  the  enterprise.  The  amount  of 
cost  estimated  was  criticised  as  being  too  small,  and  the  amount  of  the 
receipts  estimated  was  criticised  on  the  ground  that  it  was  too  large. 
From  a  political  point  of  view  it  was  sought  to  arouse  fears  of  hostil- 
ity on  the  part  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

While  under  prosecution  Mr.  Charles  de  Lesseps  explained  the 
causes  of  this  violent  opposition,  and  showed  how  his  father  had  suc- 
ceeded in  putting  a  stop  to  it.  He  was  obliged  to  consent  to  put  the 
financial  management  of  the  enterprise  in  the  hands  of  a  group  of  per- 
sons connected  with  journalism  and  finance,  who  undertook  to  render 
public  opinion  favorable  to  the  enterprise.  It  is  not  for  us  to  dwell 
upon  this  point. 

On  the  other  band,  however,  in  order  to  meet  the  repeated  criticisms 
of  the  insufficiency  and  inaccuracy  of  the  first  estimates,  Mr.  de  Lesseps 
decided  that  new  surveys  should  be  made.  In  a  letter  bearing  date  of 
August  14,  1879,  in  which  he  admitted  that  the  issue  of  the  6th  and  7th 
of  that  month  had  not  been  successful,  he  announced  that  those  sup- 
plementary surveys  would  be  made  with  the  approval  of  Mr.  Couvreux 
and  his  associates,  and  that  it  would  not  be  until  his  return  from  the 
isthmus  that  he  would  definitel}"  organize  the  Interoceanic  Canal 
Company. 

IV. — THE   INTERNATIONAL   SURVEY   COMMISSION. 

M.  de  Lesseps  embarked  December  8, 1879,  at  St.  Nazaire  for  Colon, 
where  he  landed  on  the  30th  of  that  month. 

An  international  technical  commission  accompanied  him.  The  organ- 
ization of  this  commission  had  been  provided  for  and  the  work  to  be 
done  by  it  had  been  defined  by  the  concession  law.     According  to 


10  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

article  1,  section  3,  of  that  law,  it  was  to  make  the  linal  surveys  on 
the  ground,  and  to  fix  upon  the  route  of  the  line  of  the  canal.  It  was, 
moreover,  charged  with  replying,  by  the  results  of  its  surve3rs,  to  the 
criticisms  of  the  opponents  of  the  new  enterprise,  or  simply  to  the 
observations  of  those  who  did  not  look  without  fear  into  a  dark  future. 

On  the  14th  of  February,  1880,  the  International  Survey  Commis- 
sion decided  upon  the  conclusions  of  its  report  determining  the  final 
conclusions  concerning  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

Notwithstanding  our  desire  to  state  nothing  but  facts,  we  can  not 
help  here  referring  to  the  haste  with  which  the  supplemental  surveys 
of  the  colossal  work  that  was  about  to  be  undertaken  were  made. 

The  estimates  for  the  work  proper,  prepared  by  the  international 
commission,  amounted  to  813,000,000  francs.  The  commission  at  the 
same  time  expressed  the  opinion  that  with  a  good  and  judicious  organ- 
ization the  work  could  be  finished  in  eight  years.  It  was,  as  compared 
with  the  conclusions  of  the  congress,  a  reduction  of  200,000,000  francs  in 
the  total  cost  and  a  saving  of  four  years  in  the  time  to  be  employed  in 
the  construction. 

M.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  however,  thought  that  he  could  still 
further  reduce  the  estimates  of  the  international  commission,  although 
they  were  already  notably  lower  than  those  of  the  technical  commis- 
sion of  the  congress  of  1879.  He  stated  the  reasons  of  the  reductions 
made  by  him,  in  a  note  written  on  the  22d  of  February,  1880,  on  the 
steamer  which  took  him  from  Colon  to  New  York.  It  was  necessary, 
according  to  him,  to  provide  for  an  expenditure  of  only  658,000,000 
francs;  and,  in  his  opinion,  the  amount  that  would  be  saved  in  the  ex- 
cavation ''would  fully  offset  the  interest  payable  to  the  shareholders 
on  the  capital  expended  during  the  construction." 

Now,  if  we  refer  to  the  conclusions  reached  b}r  the  congress,  we 
find  that  the  estimates  furnished  by  them,  viz,  1,200,000,000  francs 
and  twelve  years,  appeared  insufficient  to  many  of  its  members,  who 
were  experienced  engineers  and  contractors,  for  the  construction  of  a 
canal  on  a  level.  Nevertheless,  Mr.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  thought 
that  he  could  reduce  them  nearly  50  per  cent. 

If  we  further  observe,  as  we  shall  hereafter  show,  that  the  amount 
of  work  to  be  done  had  been  inaccurately  estimated,  the  events  about 
to  follow,  together  with  all  their  consequences,  can  easily  be  forseen. 

V. — THE      COUVREUX      AND      HERSENT       CONTRACT — SUCCESS       OF     THE 
SECOND   ISSUE    OF    SHARES. 

Let  us  now  briefly  refer  to  the  journeys  made  by  Mr.  de  Lesseps, 
on  his  return  from  the  isthmus  with  a  view  to  promoting  the  enter- 
prise, to  the  United  States,  England,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  in  France. 

The  speeches  delivered  in  these  different  countries  clearly  show  the 
views,  or,  more  accurately,  the  state  of  mind  of  Mr.  de  Lesseps  and 
his  partisans  whom  he  bad  caused  .to  share  bis  faith,  his  enthusiasm, 
and  his  temerity.  As  we  wish  to  forget  and  conceal  nothing,  we  must 
point  out,  at  the  same  time,  in  these  public  demonstrations,  the  part 
taken  by  self-esteem  and  by  interests  supercxcitcd  by  such  an  enter- 
prise. 

The  previous  successes  of  Mi-,  de  Lesseps,  and  his  personal  prestige, 
seemed  to  justify  his  optimism  and  boldness. 

We  must  cite,  as  an  instance,  a  speech  delivered  at  Brussels,  May  6, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  1  1 

L880,  iii  which  Mr.  A  Couvreux,  jr.  stated  that  his  firm  would  under- 
take the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal,  the  cost  of  which  it  esti- 
mated at  only  512,000,000  franc*. 

This  new  reduction  of  the  estimates  of  the  international  commission 
was  the  result  of  an  estimate  made  upon  the  following  basis :  It  had 
been  supposed  that  the  new  surveys  made,  and  even  the  results  of  the 
first  preparatory  work,  would  confirm  the  amount  of  work  as  estimated 
by  the  international  commission. 

Messrs.  Couvreux  &  Hersent  likewise  thought  that  the  application 
of  the  improvements  recently  made  in  machinery  for  boring  and 
digging  would  render  it  possible  to  reduce  the  unit  prices  fixed  by  the 
congress  of  Paris  and  accepted  by  the  international  commission. 

The  total  of  512,000,000  francs  represented  the  cost  of  extraction 
and  of  the  partial  employment  in  the  construction  of  dams,  of  the 
75,000,000  cubic  meters,  which  expense  was  estimated  at  466,098,000 
francs,  increased  by  45,902,000  francs  for  contingent  work  and  acces- 
sories not  specified. 

At  the  time  to  which  we  are  now  referring,  viz,  in  1880,  no  one  can  be 
accused  of  bad  faith.  It  is,  moreover,  with  a  real  feeling  of  sadness 
that  we  now  read  the  following  passage  of  the  speech  which  we  are 
considering: 

It  is  certain  that  these  prices  are  still  in  excess  of  the  truth,  and  if  the  future 
shows  that  the  estimates  now  adopted  have  not  been  reached,  the  wisdom  of  those 
who  have  prepared  them  must  not  be  impugned,  but  their  wise  foresight  must  be 
recognized  in  the  performance  of  so  gigantic  a  task,  which  is  to  be  accomplished  in 
such  new  and  almost  unknown  regions. 

M.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  was,  in  fact,  in  full  accord  with  Messrs. 
Couvreux  &  Hersent.  These  gentlemen  had  expressed  to  him  their 
readiness  to  organize  the  enterprise  and  to  do  the  work  for  the  account 
of  the  company  until  the  ship  canal  should  be  entirely  completed. 

The  performance  of  the  work  was  divided  into  two  parts: 

1.  The  period  of  organization,  which  was  to  last  about  two  }rears, 
and  during  which  the  greater  part  of  the  material  was  to  be  prepared, 
as  was  the  greater  part  of  the  installations;  the  work,  moreover,  was 
to  be  commenced  at  several  points,  so  that  an  exact  estimate  of  the 
cost  would  render  it  possible  to  fix  the  unit  prices. 

2.  The  period  of  enterprise  proper,  which  was  to  last  six  years, 
and  was  to  be  regulated  by  a  special  agreement  based  upon  the  unit 
prices  resulting  from  the  work  already  done,  and  to  be  definitely 
decided  upon  by  the  company  and  Messrs.  Couvreux  &  Hersent. 

Consequently,  Messrs.  Couvreux  &  Hersent,  acting  writh  the  regular 
powers  of  the  company,  were  to  form,  both  at  Paris  and  Panama,  an 
organization  for  the  direction  of  surveys,  and  afterwards  for  the 
direction  of  work.  After  having  made  the  surveys  and  caused  to  be 
constructed  the  plant,  prepared  the  work  yards,  etc.,  they  were  to 
decide  the  technical  or  other  questions  connected  with  the  execution 
of  the  works  themselves. 

Before  the  expiration  of  the  two  years  fixed  upon  as  the  period  of 
organization,  installation,  construction  of  plant  and  useful  tests, 
Messrs.  Couvreux  &  Hersent  were  to  submit  to  the  company  the  unit 
prices  that  were  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  organization  of  a  joint- 
stock  enterprise. 

The  unit  prices  being  fixed  by  common  consent,  the  wTork  was  to  be 
done  by  Messrs.  Couvreux  &  Hersent  for  the  account  of  the  company, 


12  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN"    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

and  when  the  work  should  be  finished  the  following  settlement  was  to 
be  made:  A  total  and  exact  addition  was  to  be  made,  but  without 
interest,  of  all  sums  expended,  with  the  exception  of  the  expenses  of 
the  superior  management  of  the  company  and  those  of  the  service  of 
inspection.  Furthermore,  the  general  amount  of  all  the  work  done 
was  to  be  computed,  and  the  unit  prices  fixed  upon  were  to  be  applied 
to  the  quantities  ascertained.  The  difference  between  the  two  results 
was  to  be  the  profit  realized  by  the  joint-stock  enterprise,  and  that 
profit  was  to  be  wholly  divided,  according  to  a  special  agreement  to 
be  made  for  that  purpose  by  the  company  and  the  contractors.  In 
the  meantime,  and  for  the  first  period  only,  the  contractors  were  to 
receive  a  bounty  of  6  per  cent  on  the  total  amount  of  the  expenditures. 

In  this  situation  the  issue  of  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th  of  December, 
1880,  took  place;  it  was  for  300,000,000  francs,  represented  by  600,000 
shares  at  500  francs  each. 

The  issue  was  subscribed  for  twice. 

In  order  to  attain  this  end  what  declarations  and  assertions  had  been 
made  to  the  public? 

It  had  been  told  that —  * 

An  international  technical  commission  having  met  on  the  spot  (at 
Panama),  had  declared  that  a  ship  canal  was  practicable. 

The  contractors,  Messrs.  Couvreux  &  Hersent,  had  presented  their 
estimates  and  declared  that  the  construction  of  the  canal  would  not 
cost  500,000,000  francs,  and  would  last  eight  years. 

The  estimate  of  an  annual  traffic  assuring  a  revenue  of  90,000,000 
francs  on  6,000,000  tons  was  to  be  considered  as  below  the  reality,  and 
the  revenue  would  be  larger  than  had  been  supposed. 

The  Americans  had  recognized  that  the  work  of  piercing  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  would  be  an  essentially  international  work,  done  for  the 
benefit  of  all,  and  that  its  neutrality  would  be  guaranteed  by  the  con- 
cession itself,  and  would  be  absolute,  which  would  secure  the  unre- 
stricted cooperation  of  the  wealthy  and  powerful  American  banks. 

Until  the  close  of  the  year  1882,  Messrs.  Couvreux  &  Hersent  pros- 
ecuted the  surveys  and  the  preliminary  work  of  the  canal.  On  the 
31st  of  December,  1882,  they  wrote  to  Mr.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  pro- 
posing to  him  the  annulment  of  their  contract,  declaring,  however, 
that  they  were  prepared  to  inaugurate  the  second  period,  the  period 
of  construction  proper,  on  the  terms  provided  in  the  contract;  that  is 
to  say,  on  the  basis  of  the  unit  prices  resulting  from  the  work  which 
had  already  been  done.  The}T  added,  however,  that  it  was  their  duty 
to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  such  an  agreement  would  he  onerous 
to  the  company.  It  had  happened,  as  ought  to  have  been  foreseen, 
that  during  the  period  of  preliminary  organization  and  installation  the 
cost  price  of  the  work  performed,  burdened  with  a  large  amount  of 
general  and  divers  expenditures,  increased  by  groping  in  the  dark  and 
by  special  inexperience  with  regard  to  the  conditions  prevailing  on  the 
isthmus,  was  found  to  be  very  hig'h. 

Messrs.  Couvreux  &  Hersent  observed,  moreover,  that  thej"  had 
found  that  the  system  of  the  division  of  contracts  would  meet,  better 
than  any  other,  the  actual  requirements  of  the  situation,  in  that  it 
would  permit,  first,  a  test  of  the  different  methods,  and  consequently 
a  more  speedy  performance  of  the  work.  It  was  this  system  of  small 
contracts  that  was  adopted  on  the  terms  which  we  will  mention  here- 
after, from  1883  up  to  the  close  of  1885. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  13 

VI. THE   SUPERIOR  ADVISORY   COMMISSION    FOR  THE   WORK. 

Early  in  the  year  1881,  Mr.  de  Lesseps,  thinking  that  the  new  and 
detailed  surveys  which  had  been  going  on  since  the  organization  of 
the  company  were  sufficiently  far  advanced  to  render  it  possible  to 
decide  upon*  definite  plans  for  certain  sections  of  the  canal,  created  a 
superior  advisory  commission  for  the  work,  which  was  to  act  as  a 
technical  board,  and  to  give  its  opinion  with  regard  to  all  plans.  This 
commission  was  composed  of : 

Mr.  Lefebure  de  Fourcy,  inspector-general  ot  bridges  and  roads, 

Mr.  Daubree,  inspector-general  of  mines,  director  of  the  school  of 
mines,  member  of  the  institute,  vice-president.  _ 

Mr.  Dirks,  engineer  in  chief  of  the  Waterstaat  in  Holland,  vice- 
president. 

Mr.  Boutan,  engineer  of  the  corps  of  mines. 

Commander  Gioia,  an  Italian  engineer. 

Mr.  de  la  Gournerie,  inspector-general  of  bridges  and  roads,  member 
of  the  institute.  . 

Admiral  Jurien  de  la  Graviere,  member  of  the  institute. 

Mr.  Lalanne,  inspector-general  of  bridges  and  roads,  member  of 

the  institute. 

Mr.  Laroche,  engineer  in  chief  of  bridges  and  roads,  formerly  engi- 
neer of  the  Suez  Canal.  t  . 

Mr.  Larousse,  hydrographic  engineer,  formerly  engineer  ot  the 

Suez  Canal. 

Mr.  Oppermann,  engineer  in  the  corps  of  mines. 

Mr.  Pascal,  inspector-general  of  bridges  and  roads,  engineer  in  chief 
of  the  port  of  Marseilles. 

Mr.  Ruelle,  engineer  in  chief  of  bridges  and  roads,  director  ot  con- 
struction of  the  railroads  of  P.  L.  M. 

Voisin  Bey,  inspector-general  of  bridges  and  roads,  formerly  director- 
general  of  work  on  the  Suez  Canal. 
3  Mr.  Dauzats,  consulting  engineer  of  the  company,  secretary. 

Subsequently,  several  new  members  were  designated,  and  in  particu- 
lar Mr.  Jacquet,  inspector-general  of  bridges  and  roads,  who  made, 
on  his  return  from  the  isthmus,  whither  he  went  in  1886,  contempora- 
neously with  Mr.  A.  Roussau,  an  important  report. 

We  "desire  to  call  to  mind  that  the  functions  of  the  commission  were 
of  a  purely  advisory  character.  The  engineers  who  composed  it  took 
no  part  whatever  in  the  construction,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  preparation 
and  control  of  the  contracts  and  of  the  works. 

We  have  thought  proper  to  give  their  names  and  to  point  out  the 
importance  of  their  positions  and  functions,  in  order  to  have  an  oppor- 
tunity to  show  once  more  that  Mr.  de  Lesseps  was  able  to  cause 
eminent  engineers  to  share  his  views  regarding  the  practicability  of 
the  construction  of  a  canal  on  a  level.  His  personal  influence  was  so 
great  that  none  of  these  men,  and  none  among  them  could  be  sus- 
pected, was  willing  or  bold  enough,  perhaps,  to  concern  himself 
about  the  financial  consequences  of  the  work. 

VII. — PURCHASE   OF   THE   SHARES   OF   THE   PANAMA  RAILROAD  COMPANY. 

We  must  call  attention  to  an  important  act  of  the  company  which 
took  place  at  this  time.     It  was  the  purchase  of  almost  all  the  shares 


14  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  the  American  company  owning  the  railroad  from  Colon  to  Panama. 
On  this  subject  a  few  retrospective  explanations  are  necessary. 

An  American  company,  organized  in  New  York  in  April,  1S49, 
secured  from  the  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  April 
15,  1850,  a  concession  for  a  railroad  between  Colon  and  Panama.  That 
first  concessson  was  modified  in  1867  so  as  to  guarantee  to  the  Ameri- 
can company,  with  certain  reservations,  the  exclusive  monopoly  of 
any  means  of  communication  (canals,  roads,  etc.)  crossing  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  from  one  ocean  to  the  other  as  far  as  the  limits  of  a  certain 
determinate  zone. 

The  ship  canal  which  was  to  connect  the  two  oceans  passed  into  the  zone 
reserved  for  the  railroad  company;  but  among  the  reservations  made 
by  the  Government  of  Colombia  was  the  right  to  grant  a  concession 
for  piercing  a  ship  canal,  the  terms  being  specified  on  which  that  right 
should  be  exercised. 

In  short,  the  railroad  company  could  not  oppose  the  opening  of  the 
canal,  but  it  had  a  right  to  demand  from  the  owners  of  that  competing 
thoroughfare  an  indemnity  which  it  was  obliged  to  share  with  the 
Colombian  Government.  Mr.  de  Lesseps  thought  that  the  procedure 
provided  for  by  the  law  governing  the  concession,  with  a  view  to 
enabling  the  two  companies  to  reach  an  arrangement,  would  cause  the 
loss  of  a  great  deal  of  time.  Now,  it  was  indispensable  that  such  an 
arrangement  should  be  made,  for  not  only  was  the  practical  use  of  the 
railroad,  which  follows  the  line  of  the  canal  almost  exactly,  necessary 
to  the  progress  of  the  work,  but  also  the  land,  the  wharves,  and  quays 
belonging  to  the  railroad  had  to  be  utilized  on  the  best  terms  by  the 
canal  company. 

Mr.  F.  de  Lesseps  preferred  to  negotiate  the  purchase,  pure  and 
simple,  of  the  majority  of  the  shares  of  the  railroad  company,  as  the 
American  law  gave  the  most  ample  powers  to  the  owner  of  the  majority 
of  the  shares  of  the  company.  He  thought  that  he  found,  in  this 
manner  of  proceeding,  two  important  advantages:  In  the  first  place, 
no  modification  was  made  in  the  American  constitution  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  Company,  and  in  the  second  place,  the  canal  company  secured, 
in  the  most  simple  and  speedy  manner,  the  necessary  influence  over 
the  railroad  company. 

VIII. — THE    SMALL   CONTRACTS. 

(1883-1885.) 

We  have  seen  how  the  contract  of  Messrs.  Couvreux  &  Hersent 
came  to  an  end.  The  company  was  obliged,  in  consequence,  to  secure 
some  one  to  take  charge  of  the  direction  of  the  work.  It  assigned 
this  task  to  Mr.  Dingier,  engineer  in  chief  of  bridges  and  roads,  who 
went  to  Panama  in  the  month  of  February,  1883. 

This  was,  in  reality,  the  second  period  provided  for  from  the.  outset, 
the  period  of  construction,  properly  so  called,  of  the  canal  which  was 
then  beginning  to  be  built.  Numerous  work  yards  were  opened  or 
prepared  all  along  the  line  of  the  canal.  The  highest  peaks  that  tin1 
canal  met  with  were  attacked.  Thus  was  to  be  obtained,  following 
the  route,  a  succession  of  platforms,  more  or  less  extensive,  and  of 
various  heights.     Thus  was  prepared  the  installation  of  large  work 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  15 

yards  best  suited  to  permitting  the  most  active  and  regular  operation 
possible. 

While  he  was  organizing  the  work  yards,  Mr.  Dingier  examined  the 
entire  plan  for  a  sea-level  canal.  His  report  is  the  only  full  statement 
of  the  question  that  has  been  made.  It  is  a  voluminous  document,  and 
can  not  be  readily  analyzed.  It  received  the  approval  of  the  superior 
advisory  commission. 

The  general  provisions  of  the  plan  were  the  following:  The  canal, 
which  had  its  origin  in  Limon  Bay,  at  Colon,  on  the  Atlantic,  was 
established  as  far  as  Obispo,  for  about  45  kilometers,  at  the  very  bot- 
tom of  the  Chagres  Valley;  it  then  crossed  the  chain  of  the  Cordil- 
leras, which  separates  the  Atlantic  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  between 
kilometers  45  and  56,  and  finally,  beyond,  developed  itself  in  the  valley 
of  the  Rio  Grande  as  far  as  deep  water  in  the  Pacific,  near  the  island 
of  Naos,  in  the  Ba}T  of  Panama. 

The  length  of  the  line  was  74  kilometers.  The  width  of  the  canal  at 
bottom  was  to  be  22  meters,  and  it  was  to  be  9  meters  deep. 

In  order  to  moderate  and  regulate  the  floods  in  the  Chagres,  the 
flow  of  which  may  rise  from  20  cubic  meters  at  low  water  to  2,000 
cubic  meters  when  there  is  a  high  flood,  a  large  dam  had  been  pro- 
jected at  Gamboa  across  the  valley  of  the  Chagres,  creating  a  reservoir 
capable  of  storing  a  part  of  the  water  of  the  floods.  Their  flow  being 
thus  reduced,  the  water  of  the  Chagres  and  its  affluents  were  to  be 
borne  to  the  sea  by  deflections  opened  on  each  side  of  the  canal. 

The  cube  of  the  excavations  to  be  made  was,  at  least,  120,000,000 
meters,  or  45,000,000  meters  more  than  had  been  estimated  by  the 
international  commission,  and  75,000,000  more  than  the  congress  had 
indicated.  Notwithstanding  this  enormous  increase  in  the  amount  of 
work,  M.  de  Lesseps  adhered,  in  1883  and  1884,  to  his  assertion  that 
the  canal  would  be  finished  in  1888. 

It  was  not  until  the  meeting  of  the  shareholders  took  place,  July  29, 
1885,  that  M.  de  Lesseps  began  to  modify  his  preceding  declarations. 
The  date  of  the  completion  of  the  canal  was  deferred  until  the  month 
of  July,  1889,  and  the  estimate  of  the  congress  of  1879  was  again 
adopted  for  fixing  the  total  expense  at  about  $1,200,000,000. 

Still,  notwithstanding  the  reiterated  assertions  and  assurances,  it 
became  evident  that  the  organization  and  progress  of  the  work  would 
not  permit  the  programme  which  had  been  established  on  the  preced- 
ing basis  to  be  carried  out.  While  it  was  declared  that  the  yield  of 
the  work  yards  was  increasing  progressively,  it  began  to  be  realized 
that,  notwithstanding  the  greatest  efforts,  it  woulcT  be  impossible  to 
finish  the  work  within  the  time  and  with  the  capital  reckoned  upon. 
In  the  month  of  July,  1885,  hardly  one-tenth  of  the  total  cubic  amount 
of  earth  had  been  excavated;  that  is  to  say,  of  120,000,000  cubic 
meters,  but  12,000,000  cubic  meters  had  been  excavated. 

We  have  now  come  to  a  time  when  the  enterprise  was  severely  criti- 
cised and  and  passionately  discussed.  The  credit  of  the  company  began 
to  be  shaken.  M.  de  Lesseps  now  thought  necessary  to  appeal  to  the 
Government,  which  he  did  in  a  letter  bearing  date  of  May  27,  1885, 
whereby  he  asked  for  authority  to  issue  lottery  bonds.  This  first 
request  (which  had  no  result,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter)  was  the  begin- 
ning of  an  evolution  in  the  programme  for  the  construction  of  a  canal 
on  the  level. 


16  KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

IX. — THE    LARGE    CONTRACTS    (ENTERPRISES). 

(1885-1887-1889.) 

We  have  hitherto  seen  set  on  foot,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Ding- 
ier, a  numerous  series  of  contracts  of  varying  importance,  but  none  of 
which  was  charged,  within  its  limits,  with  the  complete  construction  of 
a  canal  on  a  level.  We  have  likewise  said  that  the  amount  yielded  by 
the  work  yards  of  these  different  enterprises  was  too  small,  notwith- 
standing their  progressive  increase,  to  render  it  possible  to  foresee  or 
hope  for  the  completion  of  the  canal  at  the  time  fixed. 

The  company  realized  that  it  must  make  a  great  effort  in  order  to 
retain  the  confidence  of  the  public.  On  the  one  hand,  it  sought  to  sup- 
port its  assertions  relative  to  the  performance  of  the  work  by  engage- 
ments entered  into  by  contractors.  It  endeavored,  on  the  other  hand, 
to  strengthen  its  credit  by  Governmental  intervention,  which  was 
manifested  by  the  grant  of  a  special  favor  which  had  already  been 
extended  to  the  Suez  Canal  Compan}T. 

Let  us  examine  in  the  first  place  the  organization  adopted  by  the 
company  in  order  to  secure,  as  it  thought,  the  completion  of  a  canal 
on  a  level  before  the  close  of  the  year  1889. 

The  canal  was  divided  into  five  large  sections,  each  of  which  was 
intrusted  to  a  general  enterprise,  except  on  the  first  25  kilometers  on 
the  Atlantic  side,  where  two  enterprises  were  working  side  by  side. 
These  were  the  American  Contracting  and  Dredging  Company  and  the 
Jacob  enterprise. 

Messrs.  Vignaud,  Barbaud,  Blanleuil  &  Co.  were  to  do  the  work 
between  kilometer  26  and  kilometer  11. 

The  Public  Works  and  Construction  Company  had  charge  of  that 
part  of  the  large  trench  comprised  between  kilometer  11  and  kilometer 
53.60,  as  well  as  of  the  Chagres  dam. 

The  deepest  trench,  that  of  the  Culebra  (from  kilometer  53.60  to 
kilometer  56),  was  conceded  to  an  Anglo-Dutch  enterprise,  whose  con- 
tract was  assumed  in  the  course  of  the  year  1886  by  the  firm  of 
Artigue,  Sonderegger  &  Co. 

Finally,  Messrs.  Baratoux,  Letellier  &  Co.  were  to  dig  the  canal 
from  kilometer  55.156  to  its  extremity  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

All  these  contractors  had  engaged  to  complete  the  work  intrusted 
to  them  before  the  close  of  the  year  1889. 

Mr.  Dingier  was  succeeded,  as  director  of  the  work,  by  Mr.  Leon 
Boyer.  A  mission  to  the  isthmus  was,  furthermore,  confided  by  the 
management  of  the  company  to  one  of  the  members  of  the  superior 
advisory  commission,  viz,  Mr.  Jacquet,  inspector-general  of  bridges 
and  roads. 

Finally,  early  in  the  year  1886,  M.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  himself 
went  to  Panama,  accompanied  by  M.  Charles  dc  Lesseps,  by  some  of 
the  high  officers  of  the  company,  by  delegates  of  the  chambers  of 
commerce  of  Marseilles,  Rouen,  Bordeaux,  and  St.  Nazaire,  and  by 
various  prominent  Englishmen  and  Americans.  Wcwill  also  mention 
Mr.  Pescheck,  an  engineer  attached  to  the  embassy  of  Germany  at 
Paris,  who  afterwards  became  a  member  of  the  superior  advisory 
commission  for  the  work. 

M.  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  returned  to  France  at  the  close  of  the 
month  of  March,  1886,  with  his  travelling  companions.     He  immedi- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  17 

ately  announced  that  he  felt  the  utmost  confidence  in  the  speedy  com- 
pletion of  the  canal. 

At  this  very  time  two  statements  were  made  in  favor  of  the  decla- 
rations made  and  the  hopes  entertained  by  M.  F.  de  Lesseps.  The 
first  was  a  report  of  the  commission  on  petitions  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  A  large  number  of  stockholders  and  bondholders  of  the 
Panama  Canal  Company  had  petitioned  that  that  company  should  be 
authorized,  as  the  Suez  Canal  Company  had  been,  to  issue  lottery 
bonds.  The  commission  was  unanimously  of  opinion  that  the  authority 
asked  for  should  be  quickly  granted  to  M.  de  Lesseps,  and  referred 
the  matter  to  the  competent  ministers. 

The-second  is  found  among-  the  very  favorable  reports  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  chambers  of  commerce  who  had  accompanied  M.  F. 
de  Lesseps  to  the  isthmus.  To  these  were  joined  indorsements  of 
those  same  chambers  of  commerce  and  of  various  general  boards. 

During  this  time  the  great  enterprises  recently  constituted  were 
organized  and  set  on  foot  on  the  isthmus.  It  was,  a  priori,  certain, 
and  it  was  soon  but  too  evident  that  they  would  be  powerless  to  meet 
their  engagements.  Three  experienced  engineers  charged,  under  dif- 
ferent titles,  with  a  distinct  mission  of  examination  and  inspection, 
were  then  on  the  isthmus.  Not  one  of  them  hesitated  to  declare  that 
the  hopes  entertained  by  M.  F.  de  Lesseps  were  without  foundation. 

The  first  was  Mr.  Armand  Rousseau,  then  engineer  in  chief  of 
bridges  and  roads,  ex-deputy,  ex-assistant  secretary  of  state  at  the 
ministry  of  public  works,  whom  the  Governmont,  before  formally 
complying  with  the  request  of  M.  de  Lesseps,  had  delegated  on  the 
Isthmus  to  make  a  report  to  it  on  the  situation  of  the  case. 

Mr.  Rousseau  did  not  conceal  the  fact,  in  the  whole  course  of  his 
report,  that  the  completion  of  the  canal  with  the  resources  estimated 
and  within  the  time  announced,  seemed  to  him  to  be  more  than  prob- 
lematical, unless  the  companj^  should  decide  to  make  important 
reductions  and  simplifications  in  its  plans,  that  is  unless  it  should  build 
the  canal  with  locks.  Although  Mr.  Rousseau  did  not  formally  give 
this  advice,  it  was  doubtless  because  he  thought  that  the  official  char- 
acter of  his  mission  did  not  permit  him  to  do  so. 

The  second,  Mr.  Jacquet,  inspector-general  of  bridges  and  roads, 
came  to  the  Isthmus,  having  been  sent  by  the  company  itself.  The 
conclusions  reached  by  him  in  his  report  are  very  clearly  stated,  and, 
it  must  be  admitted,  are  very  courageous  if  his  position  is  considered 
as  a  representative  of  the  company  and  if  the  state  of  mind  is  known 
which  still  prevailed  at  that  time  among  the  backers  and  friends  of 
M.  de  Lesseps. 

Mr.  Jacquet  declared  that,  after  having  visited  the  work  yards  and 
having  realized  the  difficulties  of  the  enterprise,  he  had  reached  the 
conviction  that  it  was  necessary  to  renounce  the  completion  of  the 
canal  on  a  level,  and  to  adopt  the  plan  of  a  canal  with  locks  on  the  very 
line  of  the  canal  in  course  of  construction. 

The  third  engineer  whose  opinion  we  must  mention  was  Mr.  Leon 
Boyer,  director  of  works  on  the  canal,  who  died  a  few  months  after 
his  arrival  in  Panama.  He  likewise  declared  that  the  construction  of 
a  canal  on  a  level  was  impossible  within  the  time  and  at  the  cost  esti- 
mated. He  laid  special  stress  upon  the  delay  that  would  certainly 
result  .from  the  excavation  of  the  great  trench*  Desiring,  doubtless, 
not  to  oppose  too  directly  the  very  positive  views  expressed  by  M. 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 2 


18  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

F.  de  Lesseps,  he  recommended  a  method  which  he  declared  to  be  pro- 
visional, and  which  consisted  in  crossing  the  central  mass  after  it  had 
been  sufficiently  lowered,  by  the  aid  of  hydraulic  elevators.  The 
deepening  of  the  great  trench  was  to  be  continued  after  the  canal  was 
in  operation. 

But  M.  F.  de  Lesseps  would  not  hear  a  word.  He  continued,  on 
the  contrary,  earnestly  to  declare  his  intention  to  pursue  the  construc- 
tion of  a  canal  on  a  level. 

The  Government  was  disposed,  at  that  time,  to  grant  him  its  aid. 
On  the  17th  of  July,  1886,  the  minister  of  public  works  laid  before 
the  chamber  a  bill  to  authorize  the  issue  of  lottery  bonds  by  the  Panama 
Company. 

The  commission  charged  with  the  examination  of  the  bill  of  the 
Government  declined,  early  in  the  month  of  July,  to  appoint  a 
reporter  before  the  recess  of  the  legislative  bodies. 

This  was  postponing  the  vote  for  several  months,  and  M.  de  Les- 
seps did  not  think  proper  to  agree  to  this  postponement.  He  with- 
drew the  request  which  he  had  made  to  the  Government,  and  obtained 
from  the  meeting  of  the  stockholders  permission  to  issue  a  new  series 
of  bonds,  which  succeeded  like  the  others. 

Notwithstanding  the  efforts  made,  the  true  state  of  the  case  began 
to  appear  in  all  its  gravity.  In  spite  of  the  attempts  made  during  the 
yeav  1886,  it  became  impossible  not  to  recognize  the  correctness  of  the 
estimates  made  by  the  engineers  of  the  company  themselves,  which 
were  at  variance  with  the  engagements  made  by  the  contractors. 

X. — THE   TEMPORARY   CANAL  WITH   LOCKS. 

(1887-1888.) 

A  new  evolution  was  preparing.  While,  in  principle,  the  superi- 
ority of  a  canal  on  a  level  over  anj^  other  remained  uncontested  and 
incontestable,  the  financial  situation  of  the  company  forced  it  to  seek 
for  a  more  speedy  and  less  costly  solution.  Could  a  dreadful  crisis  be 
thus  avoided?  It  was  hoped  so,  but  events  showed  that  such  a  crisis 
was  inevitable. 

The  manifest  desire  of  the  company  to  seek  its  salvation  in  a  new 
way  was  shown  very  early  in  1887.  It  is  proper  to  mention  here  a 
meeting  of  the  superior  advisory  commission  for  the  work,  which  was 
held  in  the  month  of  January,  1887,  and  at  which  the  question  of  a 
canal  with  locks  was  clearly  presented. 

At  the  same  time  a  new  delegation,  under  the  direction  of  M. 
Charles  de  Lesseps,  was  sent  to  the  Isthmus.  It  recognized  once 
more  the  impossibility  of  completing  the  excavation  of  the  central 
mass  within  the  short  time  that  had  been  announced. 

Unfortunately,  this  opinion,  although  it  was  not  new,  was  not  imme- 
diately announced  by  the  management  of  the  company  with  proper 
clearness  and  with  all  the  necessary  frankness.  Once  more  were  the 
difficulties  and  dangers  experienced  which  result  from  declarations 
which  have  become  sincere  too  late,  for  the  public  was  accustomed  to 
believe  assertions  of  a  different  character.  Too  energetic  protests  had 
been  made  against  the  opinions  of  the  engineers,  who,  in  L885and  L886, 
lead  pointed  out  the  p<*rils  of  the  situation,  and  proposed  solutions  that 
could  be  accomplished  more  speedily,  and,  what  was  more  important, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  19 

at  loss  expense.  It  was.  consequently,  necessary  to  prepare  a  move- 
ment of  public  opinion,  such  as  was  required  by  the  situation. 

In  his  report  to  the  meeting  of  the  stockholders,  which  was  held  in 
July,  1887,  M.  F.  de  Lesseps  gave  it  to  be  understood  that  the  com- 
pany was  seeking  for  new  solutions,  speedy,  and  such  as  would  render 
it  possible,  without  abandoning-  the  plan  of  a  canal  on  a  level,  to  open 
a  temporary  canal  for  operation  at  the  time  appointed. 

Time  was  passing,  but  the  decisive  action  which  the  situation  called 
for  was  not  taken.  Furthermore,  considerable  expense  was  being 
incurred  for  work  of  which  a  part  would  be  useless. 

The  superior  advisory  commission  which  met  in  the  month  of  Jan- 
uary, 1887,  had  charged  a  subcommission  to  examine  the  various  plans 
of  construction  or  of  temporary  operation  of  the  canal  which  were  laid 
before  it  by  the  company.  This  subcommission  met  only  in  the  month 
of  September,  1887.  The  superior  commission,  at  its  full  meeting  in 
the  month  of  October  following,  deliberated  concerning  the  conclusions 
of  its  subcommission  and  replied  in  the  affirmative,  unanimously,  to 
the  following  two  questions  of  principle  which  were  propounded  to  it 
by  the  management  of  the  compan}^: 

Is  it  possible  to  establish  in  the  central  mass  an  upper  level  which  would  permit 
the  work  of  a  canal  at  the  sea  level  to  be  finished  by  applying  the  method  of  dredg- 
ing to  the  excavation  of  this  portion? 

Will  it  be  possible,  as  soon  as  these  arrangements  shall  have  been  completed  and 
without  interrupting  the  work  of  deepening,  to  begin  the  operation  of  a  ship  canal 
between  the  two  oceans? 

In  accordance  with  these  conclusions,  and  with  new  engagements 
entered  into  at  the  same  time  by  the  various  contractors,  the  engi- 
neers of  the  company  were  charged  with  preparing  a  plan  whose  cost, 
increased  by  the  charges  for  interest  and  management  during  the 
periods  accepted  by  the  contractors,  and  at  the  rates  of  the  various 
contracts  concluded,  was  not  to  exceed  600,000,000  francs.  The  date 
for  the  completion  of  the  work  had  been  set  for  the  close  of  the  year 
1891.  It  is  impossible  to  avoid  being  struck  with  the  haste  and  rapidity 
with  which  this  new  plan  was  prepared. 

The  expenditures  entailed  by  the  plan  to  be  adopted  had  to  be  low 
enough  to  leave  ground  for  the  hope  that  the  public  would  lend  its 
assistance  to  the  last.  It  was  necessary  at  the  same  time  to  reduce, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  time  for  the  completion  of  the  work,  so  as  to 
remain  within  the  limit  of  the  period  allowed  by  the  law  granting  the 
concession. 

The  line  of  the  new  route  of  the  canal,  which  was  called  a  temporary 
canal  with  locks,  did  not  differ  from  the  line  adopted  for  the  canal  on 
a  level. 

The  canal  had  a  single  track  and  the  surface  of  its  summit  level  was 
19  meters  above  the  level  of  the  oceans.  The  effort  had  been  made  to 
reduce  the  depth  of  the  trench  as  far  as  possible,  for  the  double  pur- 
pose of  gaining  time  and  reducing  expenses.  It  had  thus  become  nec- 
essary to  admit  that  the  summit  level  would  have  to  be  fed  by  elevating 
machinery.  For  the  sake  of  econoury  also,  provision  had  been  made 
for  locks  with  a  single  chamber.  The  construction  of  these  locks  was 
intrusted  to  Mr.  Eiffel,  a  new  contractor. 

But  it  was  necessary,  furthermore,  to  create  the  necessary  financial 
resources.  The  situation  was  even  worse  than  it  had  been  in  1885.  In 
order  to  restore  the  damaged  credit  of  the  company  recourse  was  had 


20  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

to  the  same  means  as  at  that  time,  which  means  were  identical  with 
those  which  at  a  critical  period  had  rendered  the  completion  of  the 
Suez  Canal  possible. 

On  the  15th  of  November,  1887,  M.  de  Lesseps  again  requested  the 
Government  to  authorize  him  to  issue  lottery  bonds.  At  the  same 
time  petitions  signed  b}^  the  bondholders  of  the  company  were  sent 
from  all  parts  of  France  to  the  members  of  the  Senate  and  Chamber 
of  Deputies  soliciting  the  same  favor. 

On  the  1st  of  March,  1888,  M.  F.  de  Lesseps  called  an  extra  gen- 
eral meeting  of  the  stockholders  and  made  known  to  them  in  detail 
the  new  programme  for  the  completion  of  the  canal.  On  the  same  day 
a  bill  due  to  parliamentary  initiative  provided  that  the  Panama  com- 
pany should  be  authorized  to  issue  lottery  bonds.  This  bill  was  taken 
into  consideration  March  26,  1888,  and  on  the  next  day  a  special  com- 
mission of  11  members  was  appointed  to  examine  it. 

The  report  of  this  commission  was  laid  before  the  Chamber  in  its 
session  of  April  23,  1888.  The  debates  lasted  three  days  and  ended  on 
the  28th  of  April  by  the  passage  of  the  bill  by  a  majority  of  156  votes 
(281  ayes  and  128  noes).  The  bill  was  transmitted  to  the  Senate  on 
the  30th  of  April. 

The  committees  of  the  Senate  appointed,  on  the  17th  of  May,  the 
members  of  the  commission  charged  with  the  examination  of  the  bill 
passed  by  the  Chamber.  It  was  discussed  in  the  sessions  of  June  4 
and  5,  and  was  likewise  passed  by  the  Senate. 

It  now  only  remained  to  utilize  this  law.  On  the  9th  of  June  M. 
F.  de  Lesseps  made  known  the  terms  of  the  lottery  bond  loan,  which 
bonds  were  publicly  issued  on  the  26th  of  June  following. 

Two  million  lottery  bonds  were  issued,  the  price  of  each  being  360 
francs,  bearing  interest  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent  per  annum,  all  of  them 
being  payable  at  400  francs  each  by  a  civil  amortization  association 
and  sharing  in  semimonthly  drawings.  But  only  800,000  bonds  were 
subscribed  for. 

This  was  undeniable  proof  of  the  diminution  of  the  credit  of  the 
company  and  of  the  influence  of  M.  de  Lesseps. 

This  partial  failure  rendered  a  new  issue  necessary.  In  order  to 
make  preparations  therefor  Messrs.  Ferdinand  and  Charles  de  Lesseps, 
in  the  months  of  October  and  November,  1898,  made  visits  and  held 
conferences  in  different  parts  of  France. 

The  new  issue  took  place  on  the  29th  of  November.  It  was  condi- 
tional. The  balance  of  the  bonds,  or  about  L,200,000  bonds,  were 
offered  to  the  public,  but  the  subscription  was  not  to  become  irrevoca- 
ble until  400,000  of  the  bonds  should  have1  been  placed. 

Now,  less  than  200,000  bonds  were  subscribed  for. 

This  was,  for  the  company  then  existing,  a  demonstration  of  its 
inability,  from  a  financial  point  of  view,  to  continue  the  enterprise 
which  it  had  begun.  Consequently,  M.  de  Lesseps  and  his  cowork- 
ers resolved  to  withdraw,  and  to  yield  the  direction  of  the  affair  to 
others. 

They  stated  the  true  situation  to  the  Government,  which,  with  the 
laudable  intention  of  promoting  the  continuation  of  the  work  and  of  pre- 
venting the  definitive  downfall  of  the  company,  laid  before  the  com- 
mittee of  the  Chamber  December  14,  1888,  a  bill  authorizing  the 
postponement  for  three  months  of  the  payment  of  the  amounts  which 
the  company  owed,  including  the  coupons  of  the  shares  and  bonds.     It 


REPORT    OF    THE    [8THMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  21 

was  hoped  that  it  would  be  possible  during  that  time  to  find  some 
combinations  to  set  the  enterprise  on  its  feel  again.  But  the  very 
next  day.  December  L5,  the  Chamber  refused  to  take  up  the  discussion 
of  the  Government's  bill. 

M.  F.  do  Lesseps  himself  caused  the  adoption  of  another  measure 
which  the  situation  of  the  cast'  rendered  necessary. 

As  the  Panama  Company  was  considered  as  a  civil  association,  he 
petitioned,  on  the  14th  of  December,  the  presiding  judge  of  the  civil 
court  of  the  Seine  to  appoint  temporary  managers. 

By  an  order  issued  December  15  the  civil  court  of  the  Seine 
appointed  Messrs.  Denormandie,  Baudelot,  and  Hue  as  temporary 
managers,  with  the  most  ample  powers,  to  manage  and  administer 
temporarily  the  interests  of  the  company,  and  especially  to  secure 
the  continuation  of  the  work,  and  to  take,  to  that  effect,  all  necessary 
measures  which  the  situation  and  the  interests  of  the  creditors  called  for. 

The  temporary  managers  endeavored,  but  without  success,  to  reor- 
ganize the  enterprise  with  the  assistance  of  the  governor  of  the  Credit 
Fonder,  but  their  effort  was  unsuccessful.  They  then  decided  to  call 
a  general  meeting  of  the  shareholders  on  the  26th  of  January,  1889. 

They  considered  that  the  appointment  of  a  judicial  receiver  of  the 
company  was  necessary.  They  proposed  to  the  meeting,  for  the  dis- 
charge of  these  duties,  Mr.  Joseph  Brunet,  who  had  formerly  been  a 
magistrate,  a  senator,  and  a  minister. 

On  the  1th  of  February,  1889,  the  civil  court  of  the  Seine,  in 
accordance  with  the  desire  expressed  b}r  the  shareholders,  appointed 
Mr.  Joseph  Brunet  judicial  receiver  of  the  Universal  Interoceanic 
Canal  Company. 

Here  ends  the  first  part  of  the  historical  sketch  of  the  creation  of 
the  Panama  Canal. 


Chapter  II. 


RECEIPTS  AND  EXPENDITURES  OF  THE  UNIVERSAL 
INTEROCEANIC  CANAL  COMPANY. 

THE  WORK  DONE. 

We  think  proper  to  give  here  a  table  of  the  receipts  and  expendi- 
tures at  the  beginning  of  the  year  1890,  that  is  to  say,  after  the  private 
cancellations  and  the  settlement  of  the  account  of  the  various  enterprises. 

RECEIPTS. 

The  receipts  of  the  Panama  Company  from  the  day  of  its  organiza- 
tion until  the  8th  of  March,  1890,  consisted  of  the  following  elements: 

1.   Capital  of  the  company  and  loans. 

Francs. 

600,000  shares  of  500  francs  each,  having  produced 297,  70.5, 125.  00 

250,000  obligations  of  500  francs,  5  per  cent,  having  produced 109,  263, 197.  50 

600,000  obligations  of  500  francs,  3  per  cent,  having  produced 168,  251,  865.  00 

495,762  obligations  of  500  francs,  4  per  cent,  having  produced 144,  331,  713.  80 

458,802  new  obligations,  first  series,  1,000  francs  each,  having  pro- 
duced    205, 972,  430.  00 


22  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

258,887  new  obligations,  second  series,  1,000  francs  each,  having  Francs, 

produced 112,874,830.00 

89,802  new  obligations,  third  series,  1,000  francs  each,  having  pro- 
duced   -----  34,869,115.20 

849,249  new  obligations,  lottery,  having  produced 185,  871, 173.  78 

357,699  lottery  bonds  (lottery  "obligations  issued  by  the  receiver), 

having  produced 12,  543, 184.  29 

Proceeds  of  the  company's  capital  and  of  the  loans 1,  271,  682,  637. 57 

Various  receipts  and  yields 39, 666, 589.  24 

Expenses  not  yet  paid 18,  343,  851. 93 

Total  amount  of  the  sums  collected  or  remaining  due  by  the 

company '.....  1,329,693,078.74 

EXPENDITURES. 

2.  Expenditures  on  the  Isthmus. 

Francs. 

Expenditures  for  management  and  salaries  on  the  Isthmus 82,  704,  415.  065 

Rents,  expenditures  for  keeping  in  order,  etc 16, 505,  352.  72 

Purchase  of  articles  and  material  for  consumption 29,  239,  602.  22 

Purchase  and  transportation  of  heavy  material 119,  374, 679. 14 

Surveys  and  preparatory  work 1 ,  354,  733.  78 

Central  workshops  and  management 29,  947,  885. 18 

Various  constructions,  buildings,  and  general  installations 47,  038,  528.  74 

\V<  >rk  of  excavation  and  works  of  construction 443, 171, 124.  34 

Domain:  Purchase  of  lands 4,  753,  275.  27 

Sanitary  and  religious  service 9, 183,  841.  77 

Total  amount  of  expenditures  on  the  Isthmus 783,  273, 438.  225 

h.  Expenditure*  at  Paris. 

Francs. 
Price  of  the  concession  paid  to  the  International  Civil  Association  ...  10, 000,  000.  00 

Security  paid  to  the  Colombian  Government 750,  000.  00 

Expenses  incurred  before  the  formation  of  the  company 23, 061,  221.  35 

American  committee 12, 000,  000.  00 

Amount*  payable  by  the  company — Interest  paid. 

Francs. 

On  shares 67,  347,  494. 18 

( )n  5  per  cent  obligations  (bonds) 37,  264,  049.  866 

( )n  3  per  cent  obligations 40,  623,  743.  841 

On  4  per  cent  obligations 32, 761,  083.  596 

On  new  obligations,  first  series 27,  052,  is:',.  ,832 

<  )n  new  obligations,  second  series 6,  51 7,  882. 158 

( )n  new  obligations,  third  series 1,  753,  413.  367 

On  lottery  obligations 2,  301 ,  210.  04 

215,621,361.  18 
Amortizations. 

Francs. 

Payment  of  5  per  cent  obligations 965,  571.  25 

Payment  of  3  percent  obligations 4,215,931. 15 

Payment  of  4  per  cent  obligations 1,582,078.35 

Payment  of  new  obligations,  first  series 12,460,167.85 

Payment  of  new  obligations,  second  series 3,  304,  337.  11 

22,  528,  085.  71 

Taxes  on  bonds  payable  by  the  company 3, 207,  721.  022 

Sundry  expenditures  for  the  bond  service 1,  904,  951.  718 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


23 


( 'ost  of  issue. 

I  Kranes.] 


I  lesignation  of  the  loans. 

Costs  of  syn- 
dicate. 

Cost  of  adver- 
tising, etc. 

Commission 
for  placing. 

Signatures, 

bonds,  sup- 
plementary 
work,  print- 
ing, and  sun- 
dry outlays. 

Total. 

5, 000, 000. 00 
ft,  950, 000. 00 
4, 735, 200. 47 
5, 336, 412. 50 
3, 250, 354. 54 
1, 175, 166. 45 
11,000,000.00 

1,365,847.04 
2, 249, 994. 75 
] ,  088, 520. 85 
2, 992, 616. 40 
2, 359, 806. 31 
2,474,637.25 
7,301,131.55 

1,148,575.13 
2, 005, 230. 60 
1,926,552.18 
2, 750, 188. 23 

315, 232. 98 
502, 848. 24 
562,181.56 
684.915.35 

7,829,665.15 

::  per  cenl  bonds 

10, 708, 073. 59 
8,912,  155.06 

11,764,132.48 

New  bonds, second  series — 

New  l iniids,  third  series 

1,527,946.90        487,286.98 

639,374.46  |      704,533.35 

10, 900, 832. 84  |  2, 048, 816. 16 

7,625,394.75 

4,993,711.51 
31,250,780.55 

36, 447, 133. 96 

20, 432, 554. 15 

20, 898, 700. 34 

5, 305, 814. 62 

83, 084, 203. 07 

Francs. 

Agents  of  the  Colombian  Government __     213,  800. 00 

Cost  of  management  in  France: 

Boards  of  management  and  direction 6,  212,  291 .  97 

Salaries  of  employees  in  all  branches  of  the  service 5, 117,  221.  51 

Sundries 3,  713,  393.  81 

Building  of  the  company  and  furniture 2,  087,  397.  58 

Compensation  paid  to  Messrs.  Couvreux  &  Hersent  on  the  can- 
cellation of  their  contract 1,  200,  000.  00 

Total 18,  544, 104.  87 

Total  amount  of  expenditures  at  Paris 390,  701,  648.  925 

The  general  expenditures  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

Francs. 

Total  amount  of  expenditures  at  Panama 783,  273j.438.  225 

Total  amount  of  expenditures  at  Paris 390,  701,  648.  925 

Purchase  of  the  shares  of  the  Panama  Railroad 93,  268, 186.  73 

Payment  for  the  formation  of  the  civil  associations  of  lottery 

obligations 32,  264,  680.  71 

Advance  to  the  Colombian  Government 2, 455, 075. 00 

Amount  of  the  sums  paid,  but  in  litigation  or  advanced  and  left 

for  the  account  of  sundry  debtors 11, 455,  801 .  59 

Assets  of  the  company  March  8,  1890,  consisting-  of: 

Francs. 

Cash  in  safe  at  Panama 2,  200, 941 .  21 

Cash  in  safe  at  Paris 3,  823,  266.  03 

Notes  and  acceptances  at  Paris 10,  250, 031.  33 

16,  274,  238.  57 

Total  equal  to  the  receipts 1,  329,  693,  078.  75 

The  amount  of  work  done  is  furnished  by  the  tables  showing  the 
situation  of  the  various  enterprises. 
The  cube  of  the  excavations  is  as  follows: 

By  the  small  enterprises,  during  the  period  from  1883  to  1885  through-     Cubic  meters. 

out  the  whole  extent  of  the  canal 11,  729,  787.  013 

By  the  small  enterprises  which  existed  until'  1888 1,  893,  576.  968 

By  the  large  enterprises: 

From  Colon  0  to  kilometer  25 — 

Enterprise  American  Contracting  and  Dredging  Company..   16,  991,  797. 158 

The  Jacob  Enterprise '. . .     2,  324,  095.  402 

From  kilometer  25  to  kilometer  44 — 

Enterprise  Vignaud,  Barbaud,  Blanleuil  &  Co 3,  642,  986.  660 

From  kilometer  44  to  kilometer  53.60 — 

Enterprise  of  the  Public  Works  and  Construction  Companv     3,  421,  870.  590 


24  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

By  the  large  enterprises — Continued. 

From  kilometer  53.60  to  kilometer  55.486—  Cubic  meters. 

Anglo-Dutch  Enterprise 846,  824.  810 

Enterprise  Artigue,  Sonderegger  &  Co 2,  255,  401.  650 

From  kilometer  55.486  to  the  extremity  of  the  canal  in  the  bay 
of  Panama — 

Enterprise  Baratoux,  Letellier  &  Co 6,  691,  724.  870 

Excavations  for  the  Eiffel  Enterprise  locks 843,  004.  740 

Total 50,  641,  079.  861 

It  would  be  proper  to  add  to  this  total  cube  the  excavations  made 
by  hired  labor  either  in  the  canal  or  at  its  approaches  for  the  installa- 
tions, and  whose  cube  amounts  to  about  5,000,000  meters. 

The  metallic  parts  of  the  locks  which  were  supplied  by  the  Eiffel 
Enterprise  at  the  time  when  the  work  was  suspended,  comprised,  on  the 
spot,  at  the  Isthmus,  4,710  tons  of  iron  and  11,430  tons  of  cast  iron, 
and  in  France,  stored  at  various  factories,  5,755  tons  of  cast  iron, 
manufactured  or  unmanufactured. 

The  delegation  of  the  survey  commission  created  by  the  receiver, 
which  went  to  the  Isthmus  in  1890,  declared  that  the  amount  of  work 
done  was  very  considerable.  It  recognized  that  the  plant  provided  by 
the  old  company,  whose  purchase,  transportation,  and  putting-  into 
place  had  cost  150,0<>0,000,  was  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  and 
that,  with  the  exception  of  some  special  machinery,  it  seemed  likely 
to  be  sufficient,  in  great  part,  for  the  completion  of  the  work.  This 
machinery  has  been  kept  in  good  condition,  having  been  affected  only 
by  normal  wear  and  tear  and  deterioration.  Its  preservation  has  been 
comparatively  easy,  for  everything,  that  could  be,  was  housed  or 
sheltered,  that  is  to  say.  machines  used  in  dry  excavation  and  tools 
used  in  the  shops.  The  floating  plant,  however,  has  suffered  more, 
especially  that  which,  being  made  fast  in  the  channels  at  the  two  extrem- 
ities of  the  canal,  has  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  salt  water. 
The  commission  declared,  furthermore,  that  the  outfit  of  the  shops  was 
more  than  sufficient  for  the  repairs  of  the  plant,  and  that  the  number 
of  dwelling  houses  for  the  employees  and  the  workmen  was  enormous, 
and  even  seemed  excessive,  since  there  were  accommodations  for  from 
20,000  to  27,000  workmen. 

Finally,  the  commission  thought  that  leaving  out  of  consideration 
the  work  and  the  installations  which  had  been  rendered  useless  by  the 
abandonment  of  (ho  project  of  a  canal  on  a  level,  the  value  of  the 
useful  work  done  and  of  the  machinery  on  the  Isthmus  was  to  be  esti- 
mated at  450,000,000  francs. 


Chapter  111. 
THE   LIQUIDATION. 

(1889-1894.) 

We  have  already  said  that,  by  an  order  of  the  civil  court  of  the  Seine, 
bearing  date  of  February  4,  1889,  Mr.  Joseph  Brunei  was  appointed 
receiver  of  the  Universal  Interoceanie  Canal  Company,  with  the  most 
ample  powers,  "especialty  to  cede  or  transfer  to  any  new  company  the 
whole  or  a  part  of  the  assets  of  the  company,  in  order  to  conclude  or 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  25 

ratify  with  the  contractors  of  the  Panama  Canal  any  agreements  hav- 
ing for  their  object  the  securing  of  the  continuation  of  the  work,  and 
to  conclude,  for  this  purpose,  all  loans  and  to  furnish  all  security." 

The  condition  of  the  enterprise  was  then  highly  critical  on  the  Isth- 
mus. It  was  impossible  to  stop  work  immediately  in  the  work  yards, 
where  several  thousand  men  were  employed,  without  danger  of  giving 
rise  to  serious  disturbances.  The  contractors  were  likewise  obliged 
to  discharge  their  employees,  to  turn  their  machinery  over  to  the  com- 
pany, and  to  settle  their  accounts  with  it. 

Notwithstanding  the  dangers  and  difficulties  then  existing,  Mr. 
Brunet  thought  that  a  new  company  might  be  organized  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  canal. 

The  course  which  he  proposed  to  pursue  was  outlined  at  once.  With 
a  view  to  preventing  an}r  sudden  interruption  of  the  work,  he  ratified 
an  agreement  which  had  been  concluded  between  the  temporary  man- 
agers and  the  contractors,  whereby  the  latter  engaged  to  continue  the 
work,  although  reducing  its  amount  as  far  as  possible.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  agreements  the  work  was  continued  on  the  Isthmus  up 
to  various  dates,  running  from  March  15  to  May  15,  1889. 

Mr.  Brunet  likewise  thought  that  it  was  very  highly  important, 
whether  he  could  resume  the  work  directly  or  could  succeed  in  organ- 
izing a  company  to  complete  the  canal,  to  release  the  liquidation  from 
the  onerous  contracts  made  by  the  old  company.  The  cancellation  of 
these  various  contracts  took  place  in  the  course  of  the  year  1889. 

In  order  to  procure  the  necessary  capital  to  preserve  the  work  done, 
to  keep  the  plant  in  proper  condition,  and  to  provide  for  the  expenses 
of  a  survey  commission  which  he  proposed  to  organize  in  order  to 
examine  the  condition  of  the  canal  as  regarded  its  completion,  the 
receiver  secured  from  the  Chambers  the  passage  of  the  law  of  July  15, 
1889,  which  authorized  him  to  negotiate,  without  restriction  as  to  price 
and  without  interest,  the  lottery  obligations  not  placed  in  the  issue  of 
1889.  These  new  bonds  were  termed  lottery  bonds.  The  law  declared 
at  the  same  time  that  sums  accruing  from  the  sale  of  these  bonds  were 
undistrainable  to  the  amount  of  31,000,000. 

During  the  same  period  final  judgments  had  recognized  the  civil 
character  of  the  old  company  and  consolidated  the  powers  of  the 
receiver.  They  had,  moreover,  recognized  that  the  holders  of  encum- 
bered lottery  bonds  had  a  right  to  stop  payments  due  to  the  old  com- 
pany, which  would  have  been  a  serious  matter  for  the  liquidation  and 
would  have  deprived  it  of  all  its  resources,  if  it  had  not  secured  from 
the  legislative  branch  of  the  Government  the  passage  of  the  law  of 
July  15,  1889. 

Mr.  Brunet  organized  without  delay,  under  the  presidency  of  Mr. 
Guillemain,  inspector-general,  director  of  the  National  School  of 
Bridges  and  Roads,  the  survey  commission,  composed  of  French  and 
foreign  engineers,  whose  dut}^  it  was  to  proceed  to  a  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  exact  condition  of  the  work.  To  this  end  a  delegation  of 
live  members,  presided  over  by  Mr.  Germain,  hydrographic  engineer 
of  the  navy,  sailed  for  the  Isthmus  December  10,  1889. 

A  few  days  afterwards  Mr.  Brunet  contracted  the  germs  of  the 
disease  which  was  soon  to  carry  him  off. 

On  the  13th  clay  of  February,  1890,  he  secured  the  appointment  of 
Mr.  Achille  Monchicourt  by  the  civil  court  as  coreceiver.  As  he  con- 
stantly grew  worse,  Mr.  Brunet  was  obliged  to  hand  in  his  resigna- 


26  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

tion,  and  on  the  8th  of  March,  1890,  Mr.  Monchicourt  was  appointed 
sole  receiver,  with  the  powers  previously  conferred  upon  Mr.  Brunet. 

Mr.  Monchicourt  received  on  the  5th  of  May,  1890,  the  full  report 
of  the  survey  commission,  completed  b}7  seven  appendices, 

That  report  declared,  with  the  necessary  reservations,  that  in  the 
opinion  of  the  commission — 

1.  It  was  possible  to  complete  the  canal  in  eight  years,  with  a  system 
of  locks  having  a  lift  of  from  8  to  11  meters  united  in  groups  on  each 
slope. 

2.  That  the  plant  on  the  Isthmus  was  in  a  satisfactory  condition,  and 
might  suffice  for  the  completion  of  the  canal. 

3.  That,  as  the  work  to  be  done  might  be  estimated  at  580,000,000 
francs,  the  amount  to  be  asked  of  the  public  was  to  be  placed  at 
900,000,000.  The  cost  of  the  work  already  done  and  the  value  of  the 
plant  on  the  Isthmus  were  estimated  by  the  commission  at  150,000,000 
francs. 

Struck  by  this  report,  and  resting  upon  its  conclusions,  the  receiver 
designated,  without  delay,  Mr.  I/ucien  Napoleon  Bonaparte  Wyse  to  go 
to  Bogota  and  negotiate  with  the  Colombian  Government  an  extension 
of  the  time  granted  for  the  completion  of  the  maritime  canal  by  the 
law  governing  its  concession. 

After  conferences  which  lasted  from  July  25  to  December  10,  1S90, 
Mr.  L.  N.  B.  Wyse  signed  a  treaty  providing  for  an  extension  of  ten 
years. 

Thus  reassured  on  the  essential  point,  viz,  the  extension  of  the  time 
necessary  for  the  resumption  and  completion  of  the  interrupted  work, 
the  receiver  devoted  himself  to  the  organization  of  a  new  company. 
He  had,  in  fact,  realized,  like  Mr.  Brunet,  the  disastrous  character  of 
an  actual  liquidation,  the  difficulty  and  the  dangers  of  realizing  the 
assets,  the  difficulty  and  even  the  impossibility  of  distributing  them 
when  realized,  the  legal  formalities  being  duly  observed.  He  had 
understood  that  all  the  interests  involved,  both  material  and  moral, 
called  for  a  reorganization  of  the  enterprise. 

The  Colombian  Government,  by  a  contract  signed  April  14,1893, 
granted  a  new  extension  until  October  31,  1891,  to  organize  a  new 
company  which  should  have,  from  the  date  of  its  organization,  ten 
years  in  which  to  complete  the  ship  canal. 

During  these  years,  viz,  1891,  1892,  and  early  in  1S93,  the  receiver 
had,  by  a  scries  of  compromises  confirmed  by  the  civil  court,  settled 
most  of  the  lawsuits  then  existing  with  the  enterprises  of  the  old  com- 
pany. He  had  resisted,  amid  the  most  serious  legal  mfficulties,  the 
attempts  of  some  creditor*  and  some  bondholders,  who  did  not  hesitate, 
for  badly  understood  individual  interests,  to  disturb  a  work  that  was 
carried  on  in  the  general  interest.  He  had,  moreover,  to  struggle 
during  the  same  period  for  the  reorganization  of  the  work  against 
grave  judicial  events  that  were  determined  or  complicated  by  press 
polemics  and  parliamentary  discussions  on  which  we  do  not  consider  it 
necessary  to  dwell  here. 

The  receiver,  after  these  judicial  debates,  instituted  the  civil  proa  <  d- 
ingswbich  were  called  for  by  the  facts  revealed  by  the  two  examinations. 
He  had,  in  the  couse  of  the  same  year,  L893,  settled  by  compromises 
the  greater  part  of  the  suits  in  which  the  liquidation  was  interested. 
He  found  himself  early  in  that  year  (January  2(5,  1893)  in  presence 
of  a  series  of  judgments  pronounced  by  the  civil  court  of  the  Seine, 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  27 

complying  with  the  individual  petitions  of  bondholders  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  sums  paid  in  by  them,  for  that  of  all  damages,  of  unpaid 
coupons,  of  legal  interest,  and,  after  these  judgments,  pronounced 
notwithstanding  appeal,  the  interested  parties  had  made  a  series  of 
seizures  bearing  upon  the  lottery  bonds  that  had  not  been  placed  and 
upon  other  property  belonging  to  the  liquidation. 

Early  in  1892  Mr.  Monchicourt  had  foreseen  these  difficulties  which, 
in  the  name  of  private  interests,  seemed  likely  to  baffle  all  his  efforts 
and  to  imperil  forever  the  reorganization  of  the  work  by  rendering  its 
vast  assets  and  resources  unavailable, 

He  had  called  the  attention  of  the  governmental  authorities  to  the 
peril  of  the  legal  situation  as  regarded  such  suits,  and  had  proposed, 
with  a  view  to  the  transfer  of  the  assets  to  a  company  organized  for 
the  completion  of  the  canal,  or  at  least  with  a  view  to  an  equitable 
division  among  all  the  bondholders,  a  special  legislative  modification 
of  the  case  of  the  interoceanic  canal. 

He  actively  resumed  his  efforts  after  the  judgment  of  January  26, 
1893,  and  soon  won  his  case. 

The  very  important  law  of  July  1,  1893  (article  2),  provided  that 
"actions  of  any  kind  which  the  bondholders  of  the  Universal  Inter- 
oceanic Canal  Company  had,  whether  against  the  legally  appointed 
receiver  or  against  the  managers  as  being  responsible,  or  for  restitu- 
tion for  an}T  other  cause,  should  be  brought  by  an  attorney  appointed 
at  the  request  of  the  procurator  of  the  Republic  practicing  before 
the  civil  court  of  the  Seine  b}^  a  judgment  rendered  in  the  council 
chamber. " 

The  court  of  the  Seine  thus  appointed,  July  4,  1893,  Mr.  Lemarquis 
attorney  for  the  Panama  bondholders. 

According  to  this  law  (article  1)  all  similar  proceedings  then  before 
the  courts  were  suspended. 

By  securing,  April  4,  1893,  at  Bogota  the  contract  authorising  a 
second  extension,  and,  July  1,  1893,  by  the  agreement  of  the  govern- 
mental authorities  in  France,  the  special  law  for  the  liquidation  of  the 
Interoceanic  Canal  Company,  Mr.  Monchicourt  had,  notwithstanding 
the  extreme  difficulties  of  that  time,  prepared  the  way  for  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  work.  Illness  did  not  long  permit  him  to  enjoy  the 
success  of  his  efforts. 

-  On  the  21st  of  July,  1893,  the  state  of  his  health  compelled  him  to 
secure  from  the  court  of  the  Seine  the  appointment  of  Mr.  Gautron  as 
coreceiver.  Messrs.  Monchicourt  and  Gautron  worked  together  until 
March  14,  1891,  on  which  day  Mr.  Monchicourt  died. 

There  remained  but  a  short  time  to  effect,  before  October  31,  1894, 
the  actual  reorganization  of  the  enterprise. 

To  this  end,  Mr.  Gautron,  the  receiver,  and  Mr.  Lemarquis,  the 
attorney  for  the  bondholders,  secured,  by  a  series  of  compromises,  from 
the  managers  of  the  old  company,  from  the  credit  companies,  from  the 
contractors,  and  from  a  certain  number  of  persons  to  whom  various 
securities  had  been  assigned,  their  cooperation  in  the  new  work,  in  the 
form  of  a  sul)xerip>tion  to  shares  of  the  company  for  the  completion  of 
the  canal;  the  amount  necessary  to  complete  the  full  sum  was  to  be 
asked  of  the  bondholders  and  shareholders  of  the  old  company. 

The  by-laws  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  were  regularly 
filed  on  the  26th  of  June,  1894. 

The  capital  of  the  companj'  was  divided  into  650,000  shares  of  100 


28  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

francs  each,  000,000  of  which  were  to  be  subscribed  for;  50,000,  wholly 
unincumbered,  were  to  be  sent  to  the  Colombian  Government  in  pur- 
suance of  the  laws  and  contracts  authorizing1  the  extensions. 

The  assets  of  the  old  company  were  transferred  by  the  receiver  to 
the  new  company,  with  precise  enumerations  and  on  terms  which  were 
clearly  defined  by  the  by-laws.  These  arrangements  relative  to  the 
transfer  of  the  assets  were  confirmed  by  the  civil  court.  The  court 
set  aside  objections  of  third  parties  which  had  been  presented  either 
with  a  view  to  protecting  the  general  interest,  by  Mr.  Lemarquis,  or 
in  behalf  of  private  interests. 

The  new  company  was  thus  definitely  established. 


Appendix  C. 

LIST    OF   DOCUMENTS   RECEIVED   BY    THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL 
COMMISSION  FROM  THE   NEW  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY. 


Fifteen  copies  Dossier  C,  containing  27  subdossiers,  in  8  volumes; 
total  number  of  maps  and  documents  in  one  dossier,  157.  (Litho- 
graphed.) 

Fifteen  copies  Dossier  D,  containing  10  subdossiers,  in  6  volumes; 
total  number  of  maps  and  documents  in  one  dossier,  65.  (Litho- 
graphed.) 

Ten  tiles,  each  containing  1  lithographed  documents  treating  of  the 
method  to  be  followed  in  making  excavation  at  Culebra. 

Fifteen  copies  "Notes  techniques."     (Printed.) 

Fifteen  copies  atlas  to  accompany  foregoing,  each  containing  17 
lithographed  plates. 

Ten  copies  note  by  General  Abbot  on  the  Regime  of  the  Chagres. 
(Lithographed.) 

Ten  copies  note  by  General  Abbot  on  the  Feeding  of  the  Canal. 
(Lithographed.) 

Ten  copies  note  b}*-  General  Abbot  on  the  Ratios  of  the  Discharges 
of  the  Chagres  at  Gamboaand  Bohio,  and  the  Ratio  of  these  Discharges 
to  the  Rainfall  in  the  Drainage  Areas  above  these  points.  (Litho- 
graphed.) 

Ten  copies  pamphlet  containing:  I.  "  Geological  investigation  on  the 
Isthmus,"  by  Marcel  Bertrand  and  Philippe  Zurcher.  II.  "Volcanic 
phenomena  and  earthquakes  of  Central  America,"  by  Marcel  Ber- 
trand.    (Printed.) 

Eleven  copies  report  of  1898  of  the  "Comite  technique,"  in  French. 
(Printed.) 

Eleven  copies  English  translation  of  the  report  of  1898  of  the  "  Comite 
technique."     (Printed.) 

Fourteen  copies  of  the  charter  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company, 
in  French.     (Printed.) 

Ten  copies  English  translation  of  the  charter  of  the  New  Panama 
Canal  Company.     (Printed.) 

Fourteen  copies  treaty  of  1816  between  the  United  States  and  the 
Republic  of  Colombia.     (Printed.) 

Eleven  copies  "Aetes  de  concession."     (Printed.) 

Twelve  copies  English  translation  of  the  concessions  granted  to  the 
canal  company.     (Printed.) 

Fourteen  copies  Political  Relations  of  the  United  States  and  the 
Republic  of  Colombia  to  the  Panama  Canal.     (Printed.) 

Fourteen  copies  International  Convention  for  Securing  the  Free 
Navigation  of  the  Suez  Canal.     (Printed.) 

29 


30  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Ten  copies  of  the  forty-ninth  annual  report  of  the  board  of  directors 
of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company.     (Printed.) 

Thirteen  copies  general  map  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  scale  1 :  96000, 
by  Colonel  Totten.     (Lithographed.) 

Three  copies  of  the  harbor  of  La  Boca,  scale  1:5000.  (Litho- 
graphed.) 

Twelve  copies,  on  parchment  paper,  of  the  general  topographic  map, 
scale  1 :  5000.     (Lithographed. ) 

Ten  copies  of  the  above  map,  on  linen,  in  detached  sheets.  (Litho- 
graphed.) 

Ten  files,  each  containing  the  following  documents  relative  to  the 
constitution  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company:  Reports  of  the  board 
of  directors  and  of  the  commissioners,  and  balance  sheets  for  the  vears 
1894,  1895,  1896,  1897,  1898,  and  1899  (printed);  charter  (printed); 
judgment  of  the  civil  court  of  the  Seine,  rendered  February  4,  1889 
(manuscript);  law  of  the  1st  of  July,  1893  (printed);  judgment  of  the 
civil  court  of  the  Seine,  of  the  29th  of  June,  1891,  confirming  the 
charter  of  the  company  (manuscript). 

Six  manuscript  copies,  in  French,  of  the  proces-verbal  of  the  meet- 
ings of  the  commission  at  Paris. 

1  copy  hydrographic  map  of  Colon  Harbor,  scale  1:5000,  made  by 
the  old  company  in  1883.     (Tracing.) 

1  copy  hydrographic  map  of  Colon  Harbor,  scale  1:5000,  made  by 
the  new  company  in  1895.     (Tracing.) 

1  copy  geological  profile  of  the  Panama  Canal,  made  b}r  the  old  com- 
pany.    Scales:  Horizontal,  1:5000;  vertical,  1:500.     (Lithographed.) 

1  copy  plan  showing  the  location  of  the  test  pits  sunk  at  Culebra. 
Scale  if 2000.     (Tracing.) 

1  cop3r  drawing  showing  the  geological  sections  of  the  test  pits  sunk 
at  Culebra.  Scales:  Vertical,  0.005  to  1  meter;  horizontal,  0.01  to  1 
meter.     (Tracing.) 

One  copy  plan  showing  the  location  of  the  test  pits  at  Emperador. 
Scale  1 :  5000.     (Tracing. ) 

One  cop3r  drawing  showing  the  geological  sections  of  the  test  pits 
sunk  at  Emperador.  Scales:  Vertical,  0.005  to  1  meter;  horizontal, 
0.04  to  1  meter.     (Tracing.) 

One  copy  drawing  showing  the  profile  of  the  preparatory  cunette  at 
the  Emperador.  Culebra  cut  on  1st  of  Jul v,  1899.  Scales:  Vertical, 
1:500;  horizontal,  1:5000.     (Black  print.) 

One  copy  drawing  showing  the  cross  sections  of  the  preparatory 
cunette  at  the  Emperador.  Culebra  cut  on  the  1st  of  .July,  1899. 
Scales:  Vertical,  1:500;  horizontal,  1:5000.     (Black  print.) 

One  copy  profile  on  the  center  line  of  the  canal,  La  Boca  section, 
showing  the  various  surveys  made  since  the  suspension  of  work  by  the 
oldcompany  (1889),  L895,  L897,  and  1S98.  Scales:  Horizontal,  1:5000; 
vertical,  1:1000.      (Tracing.) 

One  copy  plan  of  the  harbor  of  La  Boca,  scale  1:1000,  showing  the 
soundings  made  l>y  the  new  company  in  conjunction  with  the  Panama 
Railroad  Company.     (Tracing.) 

One  copy  drawing  showing  the  locks  at  Bohio;  genera!  plan  and 
geological  profile,  showing  borings.  Scales:  Vertical,  I  :."><»<>;  hori- 
zontal, L:1000.     (Tracing.) 

One  copy  plan  of  the  borings  at  Bohio,  scale  1:1000,  made  on  the 
sites  of  the  dam  across  the  valley  of  the  Chagres,  of  the  spillway,  and 
of  the  discharge  channel  leading  from  the  spillway.     (Tracing.) 


REPORT    OP    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  31 

One  copy  drawing  showing  the  geological  section  across  the  valley 
of  the  Cnagres,  following  the  center  line  of  a  dam  at  Bohio.  Scales: 
Horizontal,  1:1000;  vertical,  1:500.     (Tracing.) 

One  copy  plan  showing  the  location  of  the  borings  at  Obispo,  and 
geological  profiles  of  the  dams.  Scales:  Plan,  1:5000;  profiles,  hori- 
zontal 1:2000,  vertical  1:500.     (Tracing.) 

One  copy  plan  and  geological  sections  showing  the  borings  for  the 
locks  at  Paraiso,  Pedro-Miguel, and  Miraflores.  Scales:  Plan,  1:5000; 
general  profile,  horizontal  1:5000,  vertical  1:500.     (Tracing.) 

One  copy  plan  and  geological  sections  from  the  borings  at  Gamboa, 
made  by  the  old  company  and  by  the  new  company  in  1896.  Scales: 
Plan,  1:2000;  geological  sections,"  1:500  and  1:200.  *  (Tracing.) 

One  manuscript  copy  of  the  curve,  showing  the  discharge  of  the 
Chagres. 

One  manuscript  cop}7  of  the  inventory  of  the  new  Panama  Canal 
Company's  property  on  the  Isthmus. 

Two  manuscript  copies  of  the  June  report  of  the  engineer  in  charge 
at  Culebra. 

One  copy  tabular  statement  of  expenses  at  Emperador  section,  from 
July  1,  1897,  to  June  30,  1898.  _  (Manuscript.) 

C*ne  copy  tabular  statement  of  the  expenses  at  Culebra  section,  from 
July  1,  1897,  to  June  30,  1898.     (Manuscript.) 

One  copy  tabular  statement  of  expenses  at  Emperador  section,  from 
July  1,  1898,  to  June  30,  1899.     (Manuscript.) 

One  copy  tabular  statement  of  expenses  at  Culebra  section,  from 
July  1,  1898,  to  June  30,  1899.     (Manuscript.) 

One  manuscript  copy  of  Mr.  Choron's  analysis  of  the  cost  per  cubic 
meter  of  concrete. 

One  manuscript  copy  note  giving  the  areas  of  Lake  Bohio  at  eleva- 
tions 17  and  20. 

One  manuscript  copy  note  giving  the  areas  of  Lake  Alhajuela  at 
elevations  55,  61,  and  68. 

One  file  containing  the  following  documents  relative  to  the  study  of 
the  probable  traffic  of  an  interoceanic  canal:  (1)  Note  on  the  above 
stud}^  with  nine  appendices  (manuscripts);  (2)  dictionary  of  the  ports 
of  the  Pacific  (manuscript);  (3)  results  of  the  years  1888,  1895,  1896, 
1897,  and  1898  (manuscript);  (1)  resume  of  the  report  of  Mr.  Michel, 
Chevalier — 1814  (manuscript);  (5)  resume  of  the  report  of  Mr.  Napo- 
leon Garella — 1815  (manuscript);  (6)  resume  of  the  report  of  Prince 
Napoleon — 1816  (manuscript);  (7)  resume  of  the  report  of  Mr.  F. 
Belly — 1858  (manuscript);  (8)  resume  of  the  report  of  Mr.  Kelly  and 
of  Admiral  Davis — 1876  (manuscript);  (9)  resume  of  the  report  of  Mr. 
Joseph  Nimmo — 1880  (manuscript);  (10)  text  and  resume  of  the  report 
of  Mr.  Levasseur — Congress  of  1879  (text  in  print,  resume  in  manu- 
script); (11)  resume  of  the  report  of  the  second  and  third  commissions 
of  the  international  congress  (manuscript);  (12)  resume  of  the  report 
of  the  "Commission  d'Etudes" — Mr.  Dajmiard,  1890  (manuscript); 

(13)  resume  of  the  report  of  Mr.  P.  Bunau-Varilla — 1892  (manuscript); 

(14)  resume  of  the  report  of  Mr.  Keasby  (manuscript);  (15)  Note  on 
the  tonnage  of  ships  (manuscript);  (16)  two  numbers  of  the  Shipping 
and  Mercantile  Gazette  (specimens)  (printed);  (17)  one  number  Lloyd's 
Weekly  Shipping  Index  (specimen)  (printed). 

One  copy  Instructions  and  Regulations  Relating  to  the  Measurement 
of  Ships  and  Tonnage  under  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  1891.  (In 
print.) 


32  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

One  copy  manuscript  note  (attached  to  the  above)  giving  references 
to  be  consulted  for  the  method  of  obtaining  American  tonnage. 

One  copy  index  map  showing  the  canal  company's  original  arrange- 
ment of  sheets  for  the  large  topographic  map,  scale  1:5000.  (Litho- 
graphed and  mounted  on  linen.) 

File  containing  manuscript  copies  of  the  following  communications 
addressed  by  the  representatives  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company 
to  the  representatives  of  the  United  States  Government:  The  compan}^ 
to  President  McKinley,  November  18, 1898;  Mr.  Cromwell  to  Secretary 
Hay,  December  2,  1898;  Mr.  Cromwell  to  Secretary  Ha}r,  December 
3,  1898;  Mr.  Cromwell  to  Secretary  Hay,  December  21,  1898;  the 
company,  by  Director-General  Hutin  and  General  Counsel  Cromwell, 
to  the  President,  February  28,  1899;  the  company,  by  the  same,  to 
Chairman  Burton,  of  the  Rivers  and  Harbors  Committee,  February 
27,  1899;  the  company,  by  the  same,  to  the  President,  March  11, 1899. 

Records  of  tide  observations  at  Colon. 

Records  of  tide  observations  at  Panama. 

Tabular  statement  of  freight  rates,  prepared  by  Mr.  Maurel  in  his 
investigations  of  savings  to  shippers. 

General  statement  by  Mr.  Hutin,  giving  past  history  of  canal,  a 
statement  of  the  amounts  of  money  raised  and  expended,  and  the 
results  accomplished  b}r  both  the  old  and  the  new  companies. 

Plan  of  borings  at  site  of  diversion,  Upper  Gigante.     (Tracing.) 

Longitudinal  section  of  same.     (Tracing.) 

Port  de  la  Boca,  soundings,  September,  1899,  and  February,  1900. 
(Tracing.) 

Port  de  la  Boca,  port  and  maritime  channel,  scale  1:2000.  (Trac- 
ing.) 

Port  de  la  Boca,  longitudinal  profile.     (Tracing.) 

Sketch  and  description  of  the  Transporteurs  de  Deblais  a  lame 
d'acier,  inspected  b}^  the  Commission  near  Tavernilla.     (Manuscript.) 

Proceedings  and  report  of  the  International  Consultative  Commis- 
sion upon  the  Suez  Canal,  1884, 1885,  in  French.  (Printed.)  (Returned 
by  request):  Extracts  from  the  report  of  the  Commission  d1  Etudes, 
giving  estimates  of  cost  of  maintenance  of  Panama  Canal;  cost  of 
maintenance  of  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  1895-1899;  regulations 
for  the  navigation  of  the  Suez  Canal. 

Longitudinal  profile,  Atlantic  maritime  section,  showing  rock. 

Cross  sections,  Atlantic  maritime  section,  showing  rock. 

Recapitulation  of  quantities  of  rock  to  be  excavated  in  Atlantic 
maritime  section. 

Tabular  statement  showing  operating  expenses  of  the  Kiel  ('anal  for 
the  years  1897,  1898,  1899. 


Appendix  *D. 

REPORT  ON  HYDROGRAPHY  OF  PANAMA  CANAL  ROUTE,  MADE 
FOR  THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION  BY  ARTHUR  P. 
DAVIS,  CHIEF  HYDROGRAPHER. 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal '33 

Hydrography  of  Panama 34 

The  Chagres  River 34 

Alhajuela  station  on  Chagres  River 36 

Gamboa  station  on  Chagres  River 37 

Bohio  station  on  Chagres  River 40 

Minor  streams  on  the  isthmus 43 

The  floods  of  the  Chagres  River 43 

Low  water  of  the  Chagres  River , 45 

Rainfall  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 48 

Report  of  W.  W.  Schlecht 52 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fig.    1.  Scene  on  Upper  Chagres  River. 

2.  Fluviograph  at  Bohio. 

3.  Overhanging  ledge  on  Chagres  River. 

4.  Cristobal  Colon. 

5.  Alhajuela. 

6.  Comparison  of  gauging  curves. 

7.  Hydrographs  of  Chagres  River  at  Gamboa. 

8.  Comparative  hydrographs  of  Chagres  River. 

9.  Rating  curves  of  floods. 

10.  Obispo  lock  site. 

11.  Fluviograph  at  Alhajuela. 

12.  Fluviograph  at  Gamboa. 


Washington,  D.  C.    March  IS,  1901. 
Rear- Admiral  J.  G.  Walker, 

President  Tsthmda/n  Canal  Commission. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  on  the  hydrog- 
raphy of  the  Panama  Canal  route.  It  includes  a  full  account  of  the 
work  prosecuted  by  me  under  your  authority,  and  also  the  most  impor- 
tant portions  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  Panama  Canal  Company, 
together  with  a  discussion  of  the  same  and  the  conclusions  derivable 
from  all  the  information  at  hand. 

Yours,  with  respect,  Arthur  P.  Davis, 

Chief  Ilydi'ixj /'if pla  r. 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 3  33 


34  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

THE  HYDROGRAPHY  OF  PANAMA. 

The  hydrographic  problem  of  the  Panama  Canal  project  requires  a 
knowledge  of  the  magnitude  and  habit  of  the  flood  discharge  of  the 
Chagres  River  and  also  in  a  minor  degree  of  the  tributaries  of  the 
Chagres  and  of  the  Rio  Grande  on  the  southern  end  of  the  line.  It 
also  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  minimum  flow  of  the  Chagres  River 
considered  as  a  feeder  to  the  summit  level  and  the  locks  of  the  canal. 
Incidental  to  these  matters  the  determination  of  rainfall  is  important, 
considered  both  as  a  source  of  water  supply  and  as  a  hindrance  to 
construction. 

Some  observations  upon  these  points  were  taken  by  the  old  Panama 
Canal  Company,  and  since  the  organization  of  the  new  company  the 
records  have  been  much  more  thorough  and  complete  of  the  discharge 
of  the  Chagres  at  Gamboa  and  Bohio.  Since  April,  1899,  measure- 
ments have  also  been  made  at  Alhajuela,  where  it  is  proposed  by  the 
canal  company  to  construct  a  reservoir  to  serve  as  a  regulator  of  the 
floods  of  the  river  and  to  store  water  for  the  use  of  the  canal.  The 
measurements  of  rainfall  taken  by  the  company  were  made  at  points 
where  stream  measurements  were  being  made,  and  at  La  Boca,  the 
southern  end  of  the  canal  line,  this  record,  however,  being  very  short. 
These  data  are  supplemented  by  rainfall  records  kept  at  Colon  by  the 
Panama  Railway  Company.  This  is  the  oldest  record  of  rainfall  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Panama  Canal,  and  is  of  great  value  in  the  study  of 
hydrographic  problems  connected  therewith. 

The  work  undertaken  by  this  Commission  consists  mainly  in  an 
examination  of  the  observations  and  results  already  obtained  by  the 
company,  of  a  verification  of  their  methods  by  actual  held  observations, 
and  of  an  extension  of  the  rainfall  information,  as  far  as  possible,  over 
the  basin  of  the  Chagres  River. 

These  operations  were  undertaken  in  November,  1899,  and  placed  in 
charge  of  Mr.  W.  W.  Schlecht,  whose  description  of  methods  is 
appended  to  this  report.  In  July  and  August,  1900,  the  writer  made 
a  personal  inspection  of  the  records  of  the  old  and  new  companies  at 
the  office  of  the  Panama  Canal  Company  in  Paris,  obtaining  many 
details  of  value  regarding  the  methods  and  data  employed  in  arriving 
at  the  conclusions  published  by  the  company.  It  was  found  that  the 
data  obtained  by  the  old  company  prior  to  the  organization  of  the  new 
was  very  fragmentary  and  incomplete,  considerable  periods  being 
entirely  skipped.  The  most  serious  lack  of  information  was  with 
respect  to  the  magnitude  of  the  great  floods  that  have  been  observed 
upon  the  Isthmus,  especially  the  maximum  flood  of  1879.  The  obser- 
vations taken  by  the  new  company  are  far  more  complete  and  satisfac- 
tory, but,  unfortunately,  they  do  not  include  any  flood  discharge  as 
great  as  those  that  occurred  under  the  regime  of  the  old  company. 

Every  facility  for  the  investigation  of  these  records  was  extended 
by  tin1  Panama  Company,  and  every  possible  assistance  in  the  investi- 
gation uas  courteously  rendered  by  Gen.  Henry  L.  Abbot,  of  the 
comite  technique. 

THE   CHAGRES   RIVER. 

The  main  trunk  of  the  Chagres  is  formed  by  two  principal  branches. 
The  Pequeni  rises  near  the  Caribbean  coast.  Hows  nearly  south  until  it 
meets  the  Chagres  proper  a  short  distance  above  Alhajuela.  The  gen- 
eral course  <>f  the  Upper  Chagres  from  its  source  is  southwest,  and  it 
continues  in  the  same  general  direction  after  receiving  the  waters  of 


FIG.   2.— FLUVlOGRAPH   AT   BOHIO. 


FIG.   3.— OVERHANGING    LEDGE   ON    UPPER   CHAGRES   RIVER. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  35 

the  Pequeni  to  the  mouth  of  the  Obispo,  where  the  proposed  canal 
line  leaves  its  valley.  Its  course  is  then  westward  to  Tavernilla  and 
from  that  point  to  its  mouth  its  course  is  nearly  northwesterly.  Its 
total  length  is  over  120  miles  without  including  minor  bends,  although 
the  width  of  the  Isthmus  at  its  mouth  is  less  than  50  miles.  The  vari- 
ous drainage  areas  are  about  as  follows: 

Sq.  miles. 

Total  area  of  Chagres  drainage  basin 1,  400 

Upper  Chagres  (above  Pequeni ) 300 

Rio  Pequeni 175 

Above  Alhajuela 505 

Between  Alhajuela  and  Gamboa 130 

Above  Gamboa 635 

Rio  Obispo 38 

Between  Gamboa  and  Bohio 245 

Above  Bohio 880 

Between  Alhajuela  and  Bohio 375 

Below  Bohio 520 

Lower  Gatun 145 

The  district  below  Bohio,  drained  by  the  Chagres  and  its  tributaries, 
consists  mainly  of  low  hills  and  swamps.  The  river  is  sluggish,  the 
effect  of  the  tide  being  plainly  perceptible  at  Bohio  at  low  water, 
although  the  tidal  fluctuations  of  the  Caribbean  are  very  slight. 
Above  this  point  there  are  some  modifications,  the  declivit}r  being 
greater  and  the  country  higher  and  less  swampy.  Several  rapids 
occur  in  this  portion  of  the  river,  and  above  Obispo  rapids  are  fre- 
quent and  the  river  swift.  The  Upper  Chagres  is  flanked  by  steep, 
rocky  hills  clothed  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  rapids  are  frequent,  the 
water  is  everywhere  swift  and  is  very  clear  except  in  times  of  freshet. 
The  stream  is  sinuous  in  many  parts  and  bordered  frequently  by  rock 
cliffs,  lending  variety  to  the  scene,  which  is  everywhere  one  of  sur- 
passing beaut}7.  In  some  cases  the  convex  curve  of  the  stream  with 
its  swift  current  has  undermined  the  limestone  cliffs,  leaving  over- 
hanging ledges  and  producing  caverns  of  considerable  extent.  A 
photograph  of  one  of  these  is  shown  in  fig.  3. 

Measurements  of  discharge  of  the  Chagres  were  made  during  1900 
at  all  three  of  the  stations  maintained  by  the  company,  namely,  Alha- 
juela, Gamboa,  and  Bohio,  to  check  the  methods  and  results  for  the 
information  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission.  A  comparison  of 
these  results  with  those  submitted  by  the  company  may  be  made 
from  the  following  tables.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  company's  results 
are  much  the  smaller.  This  is  partly  accounted  for  by  the  disagree- 
ment in  gauging  results,  as  obtained  by  current  meters,  and  by  taking 
80  per  cent  of  the  velocity  of  surface  floats;  but  this  explanation  does 
not  apply  to  Bohio,  where  the  gauging  results  are  practically  in  agree- 
ment. The  principal  reason  may  be  formed  by  an  examination  of  the 
rating  curves  as  plotted  in  fig.  6. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  "general"  curve,  which  is  the  one  used  for 
most  of  the  computations  made  by  the  company,  gives  much  lower 
values  for  all  gauge  heights  than  indicated  by  the  measurements  of  dis- 
charge, and,  in  addition  to  this,  the  measurements  themselves  are  too 
small,  at  least  for  Alhajuela  and  Gamboa.  The  fact  that  the  results 
obtained  by  the  float  method  were  too  small  was  pointed  out  by 
General  Abbot  in  his  note  uSur  le  regime  du  Chagres,"  page  6, 
where  he  remarked  that — 

In  these  calculations  the  velocities  measured  are  to  be  multiplied  by  0.8.  This  is 
too  great  a  reduction  if  we  take  account  of  the  fact  that  the  floats  are  to  be  liberated 


36 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


on  all  the  river,  and  not  limited  to  the  center, 
cient  of  0.9  would  be  sufficient. 


According  to  my  opinion,  a  coeffi- 


If  the  factor  0.9  were  used  in  reducing  the  float  measurements,  as 
suggested  by  General  Abbot,  they  would  very  nearly  agree  at  Alha- 
juela  and  Gam  boa  with  the  current  meter  measurements,  but  at  Bohio 
the  agreement  would  not  be  so  close. 

It  is  important  to  note,  however,  that  the  results  obtained  and  put 
forth  by  the  company  are  very  conservative,  the  error  being  on  the 
side  of  safety  when  considering  the  low  water  flow,  and  as  a  different 
formula,  called  the  "special'1  formula,  is  used  for  floods  at  Gamboa 
and  Bohio,  this  error  does  not  enter  into  them,  and,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  diagram,  the  special  formulae  agree  closely  with  the  observations. 

Detailed  descriptions  of  the  stations  and  a  discussion  of  methods 
will  be  found  in  Mr.  Schlecht's  report,  appended  hereto,  page  52. 


ALHAJUELA    STATION    ON    Cn AGUES    RIVER. 


This  is  the  point  on  the  Chagres,  about  11  miles  above  Gamboa, 
where  the  Panama  Canal  Company  proposes  to  build  a  high  masonry 
dam  to  impound  water  for  the  use  of  the  canal  and  to  assist  in  the 
storage  of  floods.  The  dam  site  is  about  7  miles,  by  the  course  of 
the  river,  below  "Dos  Bocas,"  the  junction  of  the  two  main  branches 
of  the  Chagres;  the  gauging  station  being  about  half  a  mile  below  the 
dam  site. 

The  company  established  the  station  on  the  loth  day  of  April,  1S!>9, 
and  still  maintains  it.  The  results  given  by  the  company  are  sum- 
marized as  follows: 


Estimated  mordhlg  discharge  of  Chagres  River  at  Alhqjuela. 

[Drainage  area,  505  square  miles.] 

OBSERVATIONS  OP  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY. 


Month. 


1899. 

April  15-30 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year. 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 


Maximum. 


1,024 

2S,   I'M  I 

1,200 
15,640 
27, 430 
11,100 

9, 990 
28,660 
11,  160 


Minimum. 


600 
494 
1,165 
1,235 
1,660 
I,  150 
I,. Mil  > 
1,520 
1,580 


28.660 


706 
1,590 
2, 150 
2,220 
8,280 
2,  100 
2,660 
2,930 
2,  260 


Total  in 
acre-feet. 


22, 400 

97,700 

127,930 

136,600 

201,680 

I  12, SOU 

1.62,940 
1.74,350 
L38.960 


2,430       1,205,320 


Run-oft. 


Second- 
feet  per 
square 
mile. 


3.15 
4. 2fi 
4.40 
6.50 
4.75 
5.  ir> 
5.80 
1.  17 


Depth  in 

inches. 


8.  63 
4.75 
5.07 
7.  19 
5. 80 
6.05 
('..  17 
5.15 


13.91 


Rainfall 
in  basin. 


Inches. 


OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY. 

1900. 

M,  L50 

1,130 
777 

2,050 
13,77(1 

7,730 
18, 180 
20,  100 
11,650 
24,780 
I  1,680 
20,540 

■ 

1,020 

fit;.") 
125 
318 

3SS 

880 
1,230 
L.520 
1,270 
1,730 

1,020 

1,130 

1,580 

812 

530 

665 

L,340 

1,650 

2,  I '.«i 

2, 820 

2,160 

8,210 

2, 966 

2,290 

97,760 

i:.,  loo 
32,590 
33,620 
82,  ion 
92, 230 
L84.660 
173,400 
127,930 
L97.380 
176,  ISO 

1  Id,  SOI) 

3. 15 
1.60 
1.06 

1.12 

2.65 
3.07 
1.88 
6. 68 
4.26 
6.36 
5. 87 
4.68 

8.68 
1.67 
1.21 

1 .  25 
8.06 
8.  12 
1.99 
6.  18 
4.75 
7.88 
6. 55 
5. 22 

Inches. 

2.  27 

.38 

.82 

4.06 

1 1 .  88 

10.57 

.lulv               

11.01 

13.0J 

15.00 

16.39 

1  1.92 

8.76 

The  year 

21,780 

318 

1,840 

1,334,300 

8.64 

49. 51 

113.80 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


37 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Chagrea  River  at  Alhajuela— Continued. 

PROM  OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION. 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 

Total  in 
acre-feet. 

Run-off. 

Month. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

Second 

feet  per 

square 

mile. 

Depth  in 
inches. 

4.  13 
t.88 
1.88 

1.39 
:;.  62 
1.27 
7.18 
9.35 
6. 85 
11.16 
9. 95 
7.49 

Rainfall 
in  hasin. 

1900. 

14,535 
1,365 
849 
2,032 
17, 460 
10, 395 
21,950 
27, 400 
17, 065 
31,740 
20, 670 
28,020 

1,230 

652 

497 

395 

176 

1,025 

1,814 

2,157 

1,720 

2,710 

2,223 

1,396 

1,941 
916 
608 
631 

1,588 
1,934 
3, 1  IS 
4,094 
3,101 
4,889 
4,504 
3,286 

119, 350 
50, 870 
37, 380 
37, 550 
97, 640 
115, 080 
193, 560 
251,730 
184,  520 
300, 010 
268, 010 
202,050 

3.84 
1.81 
1.20 
1.25 
3.14 
3.83 
6.23 
8.11 
6.14 
9. 68 

S.  92 
6.50 

Inches. 
2.27 

.38 

.32 

4.06 

May 

11.88 

16. 57 

July 

14.64 
13.01 

15.60 

16.39 

14.92 

3.76 

31, 740 

395 

2, 567 

1,858,350 

6.i.  95 

113. 80 

Ratio  of  run-off  to  rainfall  =  60  per  cent. 

COMPUTED  FROM  RATING  TABLE  OF  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION,  USING  THE  GAUGE 
HEIGHTS  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY  AS  THE  ARGUMENT. 


1901. 

January  

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 


5,070 
3,630 
2,290 
3,040 
85,460 
21,280 


850 
560 
415 
265 
815 
990 


1,165 

766 

541 

509 

2,050 

2,360 


71,630 
42, 640 
33,260 
30, 290 
126,050 
140, 430 


2.31 

2. 66 

1.52 

1.58 

1.07 

1.23 

1.01 

1.13 

4.06 

4.68 

4.67 

5.21 

GAMBOA    STATION    ON   CHAGEES   RIVER. 


This  is  the  station  of  longest  record  of  any  on  the  isthmus.  It  is 
near  the  point  where  the  canal  line  leaves  the  valley  of  the  Ohagres;  the 
river  valley  ascending-  from  this  point  to  the  northeast,  while  the  canal 
line  proceeds  to  the  southeast  to  cut  through  the  continental  divide  to 
the  Pacific.  It  was  at  one  time  proposed  to  construct  a  dam  at  this 
point,  and  the  canal  company  began  observations  here,  but  a  careful 
examination  of  the  records  in  Paris  failed  to  bring  to  light  any  con- 
tinuous record  of  river  stages  prior  to  1892,  but  a  number  of  discharge 
measurements  for  1889-1891  were  obtained,  and  are  given  herewith. 
A  graphic  exhibit  of  the  flow  from  1893  to  1898  is  shown  in  figure  7, 
and  a  comparison  with  Alhajuela  and  Bohio  for  1899  and  1900  is 
shown  in  figure  8. 

Amwal  summary  of  discharge  measurements  made  by  the  Panama  Canal  Company  at 

Gamboa. 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 

Total  in 
acre-feet. 

Run-off. 

Year. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

Second- 
feet  per 

square 
mile. 

Depth  in 

inches. 

Rainfall 
at  Colon. 

42, 000 
51,100 
26,190 
27,990 

1893 

759 

530 

565 



3,610 
3,770 
2,880 
2, 880 
3,880 
3, 000 
2.580 
2,  360 

2, 612, 607 
2, 732, 284 
2,083,740 
2, 093, 910 
2, 806, 070 
2, 169, 630 
1,870,500 
1,705,100 

5.  69 
5.94 
4.53 
4.53 
6.11 
4.72 
4.06 
3.72 

77.14 
80.68 
61.55 
61.83 
82.84 
64. 05 
55. 23 
50.35 

131.89 

1894...              

153. 69 

1895                    

151.54 

1896                              

131. 51 

1897                              

12.  191 1 
28, 770 
26, 190 
23, 720 

138. 03 

1898...                         

777 
706 
388 

115. 55 

1899.... 

133. 02 

1900 ., 

»108. 01 

>Mean  rainfall  on  basin. 


38 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Chagrea  Hirer  at  Gamboa. 

[Drainage  area,  635  square  miles.] 
OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY. 


Month. 


May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 
October  . . . 
November . 
December  . 


The  year  . 
1893. 


January . . 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 
October  ... 
November . 
December 


The  vear 


January . . . 
February . . 

March, 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 
October  ... 
November . 
December . 


The  vear 


January . 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November. 
December  . 


1895. 


The  vear. 


January  . . . 
February. . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 
October  ... 
November. 
Decern  tier  . 


The  year 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 


Maximum. 


28, 770 
17,930 
27, 320 
25, 910 
7, 275 
19, 840 
•12, 000 
25, 200 


Minimum. 


•12, 000 


2, 892 

3,563 

6,512 

23, 102 

26, 620 

6,039 

17, 300 

21, 140 

10, 389 

9,535 

19, 840 

51,100 


51,100 


26, 189 

2,260 

1,225 

2,317 

13, 278 

7,190 

18, 222 

14, 804 

18, 462 

6,039 

21,780 

32, 510 


32, 510 


14,610 
3,350 
3,210 
14, 120 
12, 430 
25, 560 
21,000 
19, 340 
12, 140 
27, 990 


27, 990 


2,345 
2, 260 
2, 232 
3,531 

3,178 
3, 284 
3,990 

2,  860 


Mean. 


Total  in 
acre-feet. 


1,865 
1,423 
759 
1,201 
1,497 
2, 147 
2,034 
3,146 
2,430 
2, 260 
3,249 
3,178 


759 


2,175 

1,201 

742 

572 

530 

798 

1,349 

2,670 

2,486 

2, 860 


1,910 

1,160 

850 

565 

1,760 

1, 690 

1,410 

2, 050 

600 

1,690 


5,311 
3,590 
7,114 
5, 950 
4,476 
5,848 
6,715 
5,968 


2,293 
1,993 
1,134 
3,190 
3, 045 
3,200 
3,472 
4, 538 
3,813 
3,733 
4,494 
8,252 


3,610 


3,858 

1,633 

948 

760 

1,358 

2, 180 

4,199 

3,864 

4,402 

"4,690 

»  6, 530 

'10, 620 


3,770 


3,530 
1,480 
1,200 
1,130 
3, 210 
2, 930 
2, 860 
3,740 
3,140 
4,590 
3, 280 
3, 2.S0 


2,880 


2, 220 
1,130 
»630 
3,070 
3, 280 
3,810 
2,720 
2, 580 
3, 420 
3,  ISO 
4,980 
3, 600 


326, 561 
213, 620 
437, 423 
363, 084 
266,341 
359, 580 
399, 570 
366,958 


Run-off. 


Second- 
feet  per 
square 
mile. 


2, 733, 137 


140, 991 
110,686 
69, 727 
189, 818 
187, 229 
190, 410 
213, 484 
279, 031 
226, 890 
229, 533 
267, 412 
507, 396 


2, 612, 607 


237, 219 

90, 692 

58, 290 

45, 223 

83, 500 

129,719 

258, 186 

237, 588 

261,937 

288, 370 

388, 560 

653, 000 


2, 732, 284 


217, 050 
82,  200 
73, 790 
67, 240 
197, 380 
174, 350 
175,850 

229,960 
186,840 

282, 230 
195,  170 
201,680 


2, 083, 740 


2, 880 


136,500 
05,000 
:;s,  7io 
182,680 
201, 6so 
226, 710 
167,250 
158,640 
203, 500 
195,530 
296,  33C 
221,350 


2,093,910 


8.36 
5.65 
11.20 

9.37 
7.05 
9.21 
10. 57 
9.40 


3.61 
3.13 
1.79 
5. 02 
4. 80 
5.04 
5.47 
7.15 
6.00 
5.88 
7.08 
13.00 


6.08 
2.  57 
1.50 
1.20 
2.14 
3.43 
6.61 
6.09 
6.93 
7.38 
10. 28 
16.72 


5. 56 
2.33 
1.89 
1.78 
5.06 
1.61 
4.50 
5. 89 
4.  95 
7.23 
5.17 
5.17 


4.53 


3. 50 
1.78 
.99 
4.84 
5.17 
6 

4.28 
4.06 
5.39 
6 

7.84 
5.67 


4.63 


Depth  in 
inches 


9.64 
6.30 
12. 91 
10.80 
7.87 
10.62 
11.80 
10.84 


4.16 
3.26 
2.06 
5.60 
5.53 
5. 62 
6.31 
S.21 
6. 69 
6.78 
7.90 
14.99 


77.14 


7.01 
2. 68 
1.73 
1.84 
2.  -17 
3.82 
7.62 
7.02 
7.73 
8.51 
11.47 
19.28 


SO.  68 


6.41 
2.43 
2.18 
1.99 

5.  S3 
5.  I  I 
5. 19 
6.79 
5. 52 
8.34 
5.77 
5.96 


61.55 


4.04 
1.92 
1.11 
5.  10 
5.96 
6. 69 
4.94 
4.6° 
6.01 
5.76 
8.75 
6.54 


61.83 


Colon 
rainfall 
(inches). 


'These  means  are  obtained  by  averaging  the  discharge  measurements. 


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OBSERVATIONS   MADE  Br'  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION   O 
RATING  CURVE*  ISTHMIAN    CANAL   COM-MISSION  ■*. 


OBSERVATIONS    MADE    BY    PANAMA     CANAL    COMPANY        A 
RATING  CURVES   PANAMA   CANAL  COMPANY  ^"V^lar"— — ~— 


FIG.  6.— COMPARISON   OF  GAGING  CURVES,   SHOWING   THE  REASON    FOR  THE   DISCREPANCY   IN   THE   RESULTS  OBTAINED  BY   THE 
PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY   AND  THE   ISTHMIAN   CANAL  COMMISSION. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


39 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  '  kagres  River  ai  Gamboa — Continued. 
OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY— Continued. 


Monti). 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 


Maximum 


Minimum. 


Total  In 
acre-feet. 


Run-oir. 


Second- 
feet  per 

square 
mile. 


Depth  in 

inches. 


Colon 
rainfall 
(inches). 


January . . . 
February  .. 
March  .."... 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November. 
December  . 


The  year 


January . . . 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

A  ugust 

September. 

October 

November . 
December  . 


The  year  . 
1899. 


January . 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November . 
December  . 


The  vear 


42, 190 
12, 110 
13, 480 


13, 870 
IS, 250 
20,  020 


42,190 


27, 710 

2,930 

2,540 

28,770 

9,920 

11,650 

18, 900 

14, 510 

7,270 

20, 470 

27,  600 

5,790 


28, 770 


22, 060 


6,740 
20, 470 
14, 120 
14, 120 
26, 190 
11,750 
13, 730 
23, 890 
13,200 


26, 190 


2,050 
3,920 
4,270 


2, 050 
3,070 

1,450 


5,120 
1,130 

777 
670 
6,710 
6, 570 
5,360 
»4,090 
»3,850 
3, 560 
4,130 
4,270 


3,880 


2,010 
1,130 
777 
777 
1,340 
1,380 
2,330 
2,470 
1, 660 
1,340 
1,020 
1,690 


4,310 
1,480 
1,020 
1,840 
2,470 
2,860 
4, 240 
4,130 
2,540 
3,460 
5,190 
2,290 


3,000 


1,730 


706 

706 

1,310 

1,340 

1,870 
1,660 
1,840 
1,870 
1,620 


3,490 
950 
950 
1,060 
1,910 
2,470 
2,  820 
4,240 
3,180 
3,390 
3,740 
2, 650 


701 ; 


2,580 


314, 800 

62, 760 

47, 780 

39, 870 

412, 580 

390, 940 

329, 570 

251,480 

229, 090 

218, 900 

245, 750 

262, 550 


8.06 
1.78 
1.22 
1.06 
10. 57 
10. 35 
8.44 
6.44 
6.06 
5.60 
6.50 
6.72 


, 806, 070 


6.11 


265, 010 
82, 200 
62, 720 
109, 490 
151,870 
170, 180 
260, 700 
253, 940 
151,140 
212, 750 
308, 830 
140, 800 


6.80 

2.33 

1.60 

2.90 

3.89 

4.50 

6.68 

6.50 

4 

5.45 

8.17 

3.60 


2, 169, 630 


4.72 


214, 600 

52, 760 

58,410 

63, 070 

117,440 

146, 970 

173, 400 

260, 700 

189, 220 

208, 440 

222,550 

162,940 


1,870,500 


5.50 

1.50 

1.50 

1.67 

3 

3.89 

4.41 

6.68 

5 

5.34 

5. 89 

4.17 


4.06 


9.29 
1.85 
1.41 
1.18 
12. 19 
11.55 
9.  73 
7.42 
6.76 
6.46 
7. 25 
7.75 


82. 84 


7.84 
2.43 
1.84 
3.24 
4.48 
5.02 
7.70 
7.49 
4.46 
6. 28 
9.12 
4.15 


64. 05 


6.34 
1.56 
1.73 
1.86 
3.46 
4.34 
5.12 
7.70 
5.58 
6.16 
6.57 
4.81 


55. 23 


3.42 
.04 
.28 

3.74 
16.34 
18.82 
11.06 
17.24 
17. 20 

5.83 
22. 16 
18.90 


138. 03 


5.04 
.35 

1.58 

4.72 
12.83 
16. 38 
21.89 
10.91 
10.24 
11.38 
12. 28 

7.95 


115. 55 


6.93 

6.49 

1.26 

.43 

13.90 

6. 41 

27.68 

14.80 

16. 55 

15. 04 

14.49 

9.04 


133. 02 


OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY. 


1900 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 


23. 720 


1,060 

1,690 

600 

810 

424 

530 

388 

565 

424 

1,340 

918 

1,940 

1,480 

3,350 

1,620 

3, 565 

1,450 

3,070 

2, 050 

4,520 

1,910 

4,060 

1,160 

2,680 

388 

2,360 

103,910 

44,980 

32, 590 

33, 620 

82, 400 

115,440 

205, 980 

219, 200 

182, 680 

277, 920 

241,590 

164,790 


2.66 
1.28 
.83 
.89 
2.11 
3.06 
5.27 
5.61 
4.83 
7.12 
6.40 
4.  22 


1,705,100 


3.72 


3.07 
1.33 
.96 
.99 
2.43 
3.41 
6.08 
6.47 
5. 39 
8.21 
7.14 
4.87 


50. 35 


2.09 
.35 
.29 

3.94 
11.15 
15.94 
14. 47 
12.43 
14.69 
15.78 
13.86 

3.02 


108. 01 


"These  means  are  obtained  by  averaging  the  discharge  measurements. 


40  EEPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Chagres  River  at  Gamboa — Continued. 

FROM  OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION. 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 

Total  in 
acre-feet. 

Run-off. 

Month. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

Second- 
feet  per 
square 
mile. 

Depth  in 
inches. 

Rainfall 
at  Colon. 

1900. 

14,030 
1,420 

805 
1,745 
15, 900 
'  12, 550 
21,980 
26, 300 
20, 060 
29,  900 
22, 760 
27, 900 

889 

726 

509 

443 

492 

1,205 

2,058 

2,222 

1,899 

2,795 

2,461 

1,509 

2,026 

970 

641 

637 

1,615 

2, 426 

1, 104 

4,692 

3, 750 

5, 846 

5,415 

3,380 

124, 570 
53, 870 
39, 410 
37,900 
99, 300 
144, 360 
252, 350 
288, 500 
223, 140 
359, 460 
322, 220 
207, 830 

3.19 

1.53 

1.01 

1 

2.54 

3.82 

6.62 

7.39 

5.91 

9.21 

8.53 

5.32 

3. 66 
1.59 
1.16 
1.11 

2.91 
4.25 

7.62 
8.51 
6.59 
10.61 
9.52 
6.13 

I?iches. 
2.09 

.35 

.29 

3.94 

11.15 

15. 94 

July              

14.47 

12.43 

14.69 

15.78 

13.86 

3.02 

29, 900 

443 

2,974 

2,152,910 

63.66 

108. 01 

Ratio  of  run  off  to  rainfall  =  59  per  cent. 

COMPUTED  FROM  RATING  TABLE  OF  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION,  USING  THE  GAUGE 
HEIGHTS  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY  AS  THE  ARGUMENT. 


1901. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 


4, 020 
2, 960 
1,480 
2,  760 
26, 300 
18, 310 


911 

1,236 

560 

817 

395 

541 

278 

498 

955 

2, 190 

1,205 

2,500 

76,000 

1.94 

2.24 

45, 370 

1.27 

1.32 

33,450 

.86 

.99 

29, 630 

.78 

.87 

134.660 

3.45 

3.98 

148, 760 

3.94 

4.40 

BOHIO   STATION,  ON   CHAGRES   RIVER. 

The  present  plans  of  both  the  isthmian  Canal  Commission  and  the 
Panama  Canal  Company  provide  for  a  dam  at  Bohio.  The  company 
established  a  fluviograph  here  in  1895,  and  a  record  of  discharge  has 
been  kept  ever  since. 

Annual  summary  of  discharge  measurements  made  by  the  Panama  ('anal  Company  at 

Bohio. 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 

Total  in 
acre-feet. 

Run-off. 

Year. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

Second- 
feet  per 
square 

mile. 

Depth  in 
inches. 

Rainfall 

at  Colon 
(inches). 

27,  7n0 
28,960 

38, 790 

27,  Mill 

25,870 
23,860 

710 
600 
495 
780 
600 
490 

4,510 
1,220 

4, 850 
3,960 
3,  100 
3, 520 

8,263,810 

3,  062, 960 
3,514,390 
2,  865,  730 
2, 458, 420 
2,561,810 

6. 12 

69.52 

151.54 

1897 

4.80           65.28 
5. 51          74. 88 

181.51 
188.03 

L898 

4.50 
3.86 
4 

61.07 
52.  10 
64.  88 

L15.55 

L899...           

133. 02 

l'JOO 

•  108.67 

•Mean  rainfall  on  basin. 


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FIG.  7.— HYDROGRAPHS  OF  THE  CHAGRES  RIVER  AT  GAMBOA,   PLOTTED  FROM  OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 
Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Chagres  River  at  Bohio. 

OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY. 

[Drainage  area,  880  square  miles.] 


41 


Month. 


January  ... 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

AUgUSt 

September. 

October 

November . 
December  . 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 


20,  721 
2, 930 


The  year 


January.  .. 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 
October  ... 
November . 
December . 


11,540 
13, 830 
10,770 
19, 980 
15,500 
21, 320 
27,750 
18, 640 
27, 180 


27, 750 


10, 450 
2, 470 
1,940 
25, 030 
16, 270 
13,240 
22, 950 
11,930 


19, 100 
28, 950 


The  year 


28,950 


January . . 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November . 
December  . 


1897. 


5,370 


The  year 


1,380 
14,160 
38, 790 
12, 910 
17, 400 
18, 460 
21,110 
17,540 
22, 100 
22, 100 


38, 790 


Minimum. 


January . . . 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November . 
December  . 


The  year 


27, 250 

3,320 

2,400 

24,000 

8,510 

15, 140 

23, 860 

15, 500 

8, 540 

23, 370 

27, 890 

6,670 


27, 890 


2, 290 
1,900 


710 
1,380 
2,290 
1,910 
1,940 
2, 540 
2,  610 
4,020 
2,610 


710 


1,910 
1,020 
740 
600 
1,730 
2,080 
2,430 
2, 650 


3, 880 


000 


3,390 


600 
495 

850 
3,460 
2,860 
2,820 
4,130 
3,390 
3,810 
3,670 


405 


Mean. 


'4,650 

'1,380 
'1,060 
'1,060 
'4,170 
'4,310 
'4,590 
'6,920 
'5,790 
'6,920 
'6,070 
'6,950 


4, 510 


"4,730 
» 1, 550 
"880 
'1,690 
'4,940 
'4,200 
'3,140 
'3,500 
'  5, 930 
'  6,  350 
'  7, 590 
'  6, 040 


4, 220 


'2,0.50 
'1,590 
"710 
"880 
"7,980 
"4,200 
"5,120 
"7,270 
"6,880 
"7,480 
"6,950 
"6,810 


4,850 


2, 260 
1,230 
810 
780 
1.450 
1,760 
2,890 
3,000 
2,150 
2,080 
3,810 
1,980 


780 


5, 650 
1,690 
1,090 
2,010 
2, 680 
3,350 
6, 570 
5,300 
3,210 
5, 050 
7,840 
2,860 


3,960 


Total  in 
acre-feet. 


279,770 

76, 640 

65, 180 

63, 070 

256, 400 

256, 460 

282, 230 

425, 500 

344, 530 

425, 500 

361, 190 

427, 340 


3, 263, 810 


290, 840 
89, 160 
54,110 
100, 570 
303, 750 
249, 920 
193,070 
215, 200 
352, 860 
390, 450 
451,640 
371,390 


3,062,960 


126, 050 
88, 300 
43, 660 
52, 360 
490, 670 
249, 920 
314,820 
447, 010 
409, 390 
459, 930 
413, 550 
418, 730 


3,514,390 


347, 400 
93, 860 
67, 020 
119, 600 
164, 790 
199, 340 
403, 970 
325,  8S0 
191,000 
310,510 
466, 510 
175, 850 


Run-off. 


[Second- 
feet  per 
square 
mile. 


5.17 
1.57 
1.20 
1.20 
1.74 
4.89 
5.22 
7.86 
6.58 
7.86 
6.90 
7.90 


5.12 


5.  38 

1.76 

1 

1.92 

5.61 

4.77 

3.57 

4 

6.74 

7.22 

8.62 

6.86 


4.80 


Depth  in 
inches. 


5.96 
1.63 
1.38 
1.34 

5.  4ti 
5.46 
6.02 
9.06 
7.34 
9.06 
7.70 
9.11 


2.33 

1.81 

.81 

1 

9.07 

4.77 

5.82 

8.26 

7.82 

8.50 

7.90 

7.74 


5.51 


2, 865, 730 


6.42 
1.92 
1.21 
2.  28 
3.05 
3.81 
7.47 
6.02 
3.65 
5.74 
8.91 
3.25 


4.50 


69.52 


0.20 
1.90 
1.15 
2.14 
6.47 
5.32 
4.12 
4.61 
7.52 
8.32 
9.62 
7.91 


65. 28 


Rainfall 
at  Colon. 


Inches. 


2.69 
1.88 
.93 
1.12 
10.46 
5.32 
6.71 
9.52 
8.72 
9.80 
8.81 
8.92 


74.88 


7.40 

2 

1.43 

2.54 

3. 52 

4.25 

8.61 

6.94 

4.07 

6.62 

9.94 

3.75 


61.07 


"These  means  are  obtained  by  averaging  the  discharge  measurements. 


42 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Ghagres  River  at  Bohio — Continued. 

OBSERVATIONS  OP  THE  NEW  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY. 


Month. 


1899 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 


Maximum. 


22, 240 
2, 540 
1,410 

3,280 
17,540 

5,470 
17,750 
25, 870 

9,531 
16, 130 
24, 250 
15, 280 


25, 870 


Minimum. 


1,800 

1,340 

740 

635 

600 

1,910 

1,660 

3,040 

2,440 

2, 720 

2,790 

940 


Mean. 


3,848 
1,730 
988 
1,090 
2,050 
3,140 
3,950 
5, 720 
4,240 
4,940 
6,300 
3, 600 


600  i     3,400 


Total  in 
acre-feet. 


236. 600 
9-, 

60,  750 
64, 860 
126,050 
186, 840 
242, 880 
351,700 
252, 300 
303, 750 
315, 370 
221,360 


2, 458, 420 


Run-off. 


Second- 
feet  per 
square 
mile. 


4.37 
1.98 
1.12 
1.24 
2.33 
3.57 
4.49 
6.50 
4.82 
5.61 
6.02 
4.09 


,86 


Depth  in 
inches. 


5.04 
2.06 
1.29 
1.38 
2.69 
3.98 
5.18 
7.49 
5.38 
6.47 
6.72 
4.72 


52. 40 


Rainfall 
at  Colon. 


Inches. 


BASED  ON  DISCHARGE  MEASUREMENTS  MADE  BY  THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION. 


1899 

January  

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 


21,830 

2, 810 

1,420 

3,670 

17,440 

6,440 

17, 730 

24, 520 

10,  225 

16,285 

23, 320 

15,430 


24,520 


1,900 

4,150 

1,300 

1,795 

665 

943 

570 

1,057 

540 

1,900 

2, 030 

3,500 

1,710 

4,372 

3,370 

6,425 

2, 680 

4,858 

2, 990 

5, 511 

3,080 

5, 732 

2, 210 

3,950 

540 

3, 697 

255, 170 

99, 690 

57, 980 

62, 900 

116, 830 

208, 260 

268, 820 

395, 060 

289,  070 

338, 860 

341,080 

242, 880 


2, 676, 600 


4.72 
2.04 
1.07 
1.20 
2.16 
3.98 
4.97 
7.30 
5.52 
6.26 
6.51 
4.49 


4.18 


5.44 
2. 12 
1.23 
1.34 
2.49 
4.44 
5.73 
8.42 
6.16 
7.22 
7.26 
5.18 


57.03 


6.93 
6.49 
1.26 
.43 
13.90 
6.41 
27.  68 
14.  80 
16.55 
15.04 
14. 49 
9.04 


133. 02 


OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY. 


1900. 

January  

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 


10,410 

1,380 

920 

1,765 

9,672 

10, 840 

21,180 

19,240 

18, 070 

23,  860 

20, 300 

22, 870 


23, 860 


1,480 

2,120 

810 

1,060 

600 

740 

490 

706 

490 

1, 620 

1,340 

2,860 

2, 010 

5,610 

2,440 

5, 260 

2,  260 

4,770 

3,180 

7, 000 

3,740 

6,600 

1,800 

3,740 

490 

3,520 

130, 350 

58, 870 

45, 500 

12,010 

99, 610 

170, 180 

344, 940 

323, 420 

283, 830 

430,  110 

392, 730 

229, 960 


2,651,810 


2.41 
1.20 
.84 
.80 
1.84 
3.25 
6.38 
5.  us 
5. 42 
7.95 
7.50 
4.26 


2.78 
1.25 
.97 
.89 
2.12 
3.63 
7. 36 
6.89 
6.  05 
9.17 
8.37 
4.90 


54.38 


2.44 
.33 
.32 

3.78 
10. 45 
15. 67 
15.28 
12. 36 
14.33 
15.  48 
15.10 

3.13 


108. 67 


FROM  OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION. 


1900. 

January  

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

i  October 

November 

December 

The  year 


10, 155 

1 , 6 4(1 

877 

1 , 8 15 

9, 500 

12, 700 

20, 650 

18, 900 

17,  Mill 

23,  ooo 

L9.800 

22, 100 


23,  000 


1,441 
802 
570 

112 

506 

1,640 
2,521 
2. 859 

2,651 
3,802 
1,  161 
1,949 


442 


2, 203 

1,052 
681 
652 
1,670 
3,185 
5, 960 
5,880 
5,190 
8,  220 
7, 540 
4,100 


:;,  880   2, 809, 790 


135, 460 
58,  420 
41, 870 
38, 800 
102,680 
189, 520 
366,  170 
861,650 

30S.S30 
505, 430 
148,660 
252, 100 


2.50 
1.20 
.77 
.74 
1.92 
3.62 
6.  77 
6.68 
5.90 
9.34 
8.57 
4.66 


2.87 
1.24 
.88 
.82 

3.20 
4.04 
7.80 
7.70 
6.58 
10.77 
9.56 
5.37 


60.  S3 


2. 44 
.33 
.  32 

3.78 
10.  15 
15.67 
15.  28 
L2.86 
14. 33 
15.48 
15.  in 

3.13 


108. 67 


Ratio  of  run-off  to  rainfall  -=55  per  cent. 


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FIG.  8.— COMPARATIVE  HYDROQRAPHS  OF  CHAQRES  RIVER. 

Alhajuela,  Uaruboa,  and  the  upper  Bohio  diagram  are  drawn  from  observations  of  the  Panama  Canal  Company;  the  lower  diagram 

from  observations  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


43 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Chagrea  River  at  Bohio — Continued. 

COMPUTED  FROM  RATING  TABLE  OP  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION,  USING  THE  GAUGE 
HEIGHTS  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY  AS  THE  ARGUMENT. 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 

Total  in 
acre-feet. 

Run-off. 

Month. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

Second- 
feet  per 
square 
mile. 

Depth  in 
inches. 

Rainfall 
at  Colon. 

1901. 

3,400 
2, 680 
1,975 
2, 443 

19, 180 
13,010 

975 
618 
400 
255 
860 
1,390 

1,608 

937 

654 

521 

2, 400 

2,890 

92, 720 

52,040 
40, 210 
31,000 
147, 570 
171,970 

1.71 

1.06 

.74 

.59 

2. 73 

3.28 

1.91 
1.10 

.85 

Inches. 

.65 
3.15 
3.66 

MINOR    STREAMS   ON    THE    ISTHMUS   OF   PANAMA. 

In  a  minor  degree  it  is  required  to  know  something-  of  the  volume 
and  regimen  of  the  Grande  River,  which  is  followed  by  the  canal  line 
from  Paraiso  to  the  Pacific  Also  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Chagres, 
which  are  to  be  conducted  to  the  sea  independent  of  the  canal. 

Observations  on  all  of  these  were  made  in  1900  sufficient  to  show 
that  no  difficult  problems  are  involved  in  their  control.  A  detailed 
description  of  work  and  results  on  these  streams  will  be  found  in  Mr. 
Schlecht's  report,  page  52. 

THE    FLOODS   OF   THE    CHAGRES   RIVER. 

The  projected  canal  from  Colon  to  Panama  is  19  miles  in  length,  and 
for  more  than  half  this  distance  it  follows  the  vallej^  of  the  Chagres. 
The  magnitude  of  a  flood  discharge  is,  therefore,  important  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  works  necessary  for  controlling  and  discharging  the  surplus 
waters  without  injury  to  the  works  or  obstruction  to  navigation. 

Although  nearly  the  entire  country  is  clothed  with  vegetation,  much 
of  which  is  very  dense,  the  slopes  are  so  precipitous  and  rock  is  so 
near  the  surface  that  the  heavy  tropical  rainfall  often  produces  sudden 
freshets  in  the  river.  A  violent  rainfall  of  a  few  hours  converts  the 
banks  of  the  Chagres  in  the  vicinity  of  Alhajuela  and  above  into  a 
series  of  small  torrents  and  cascades,  causing  the  river  to  rise  very 
suddenly  and  flow  with  great  velocity.  It  is  this  feature  that  lends 
such  importance  to  the  study  of  the  floods  of  the  Chagres  in  their 
relation  to  the  proposed  canal. 

It  is  stated  by  the  officers  of  the  Panama  Railwa}7  Company  that 
previous  to  1879  no  freshet  had  occurred  in  the  Chagres  of  magnitude 
sufficient  to  cause  serious  damage  to  the  property  of  the  railway  com- 
pany or  to  delay  its  operations.  The  Hood  of  1879  caused  great  damage 
to  the  railway  and  obstructed  traffic  for  a  considerable  period,  and  the 
conclusion  follows  that  it  is  far  greater  than  any  flood  that  had  occurred 
since  the  construction  of  the  railway  was  begun.  This  conclusion  is 
verified  by  the  testimony  of  the  oldest  inhabitant  of  the  vicinity. 
Since  1879  sufficient  attention  has  been  paid  b}r  canal  officials  to  render 
it  certain  that  no  flood  equal  in  magnitude  to  that  of  1879  has  since 
occurred.  The  flood  occurred  in  November,  but  we  do  not  know  how 
long  it  lasted,  except  that  a  violent  storm  raged  for  six  days  through- 
out the  Isthmus,  the  precipitation  amounting  to  320  millimeters  at 
Panama. 

The  only  actual  information  existing  other  than  that  of  a  general 


44 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


character  from  the  officials  of  the  Panama  Railway  above  referred  to 
is  the  testimony  of  Mr.  Sosa,  a  young  Colombian  engineer,  who,  by 
inquiry  from  the  inhabitants  or  otherwise,  decided  upon  certain  points 
as  high  water  of  this  flood  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bohio.  Mr.  Sosa 
was  unfortunately  drowned  in  the  sinking  of  La  Burgoyne,  and  it  is 
not  known  how  accurate  his  information  was,  excepting  that  he 
expressed  his  entire  reliance  upon  it.  By  his  testimony  the  river 
reached  an  elevation  of  12  meters  above  sea  level  at  Bohio  at  its  maxi- 
mum stage.  From  the  measurements  made  of  the  floods  of  less  mag- 
nitude and  from  the  large  number  of  measurements  of  the  river  at  its 
lower  stage  a  curve  has  been  plotted  expressing  the  relation  of  dis- 
charge and  gauge  height  at  Bohio.  The  existing  observations  are  in 
satisfactory  accordance,  and  by  extrapolating  this  curve  upward  to 
include  the  flood  of  1879  we  obtain  a  discharge  for  the  river  at  Bohio 
for  gauge  height  12  meters  of  3,800  cubic  meters,  or  about  130,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  The  curve  and  the  data  upon  which  it  is  based 
are  shown  in  figure  9,  page  45,  and  is  submitted  as  being  the  best  con- 
clusion permitted.  The  plotted  observations  arc  those  given  by  Gen- 
eral Abbot  in  his  note  "Sur  le  regime  du  Chagres,"  pages  24  to  27. 
The  results  obtained  by  the  company  at  Bohio  being  in  practical 
accordance  with  those  observed  by  this  Commission,  are  accepted  with- 
out change. 

In  this  connection  three  points  should  be  remembered — first,  the  dis 
charge  for  "cote"  12  may  be  greater  than  here  indicated;  second,  the 
flood  of  1879  ma}^  have  reached  a  higher  elevation  than  "cote'"'  12; 
third,  it  is  possible  that  a  larger  flood  than  that  of  1879  may  occur  in 
the  future. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  seems  unsafe  to  consider  the  maximum 
flood  wave  to  be  expected  on  the  Chagres  at  less  than  140,000  cubic 
feet  per  second. 

Four  great  floods  occurred  since  1879,  of  which  the  discharge  at 
Gamboa  has  been  measured  or  estimated  by  the  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany as  follows: 


Date. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge 
maximum. 

Mean  for 

forty-eight 

hours. 

Percent- 
age. 

Mi  li  rx. 
23. 60 
23. 56 
23.70 
21.72 

Cub.  meters. 
1,638 
1,628 
1,663 
1,207 

Cub.  meters. 

1,077 

1,270 

833 

759 

66 

December  12,  1888 

78 

50 

December  17,  1893 

63 

The  flood  of  1879  seems  to  have  been  longer  sustained  than  any  of 
the  others,  and  it  seems  likely  that  the  ratio  of  the  mean  discharge  to 
the  maximum  should  be  somewhat  greater  than  the  others.  General 
Abbot  has  assumed  the  mean  discharge1  for  forty-eight  hours  for  this 
floodat  80  per  cent  of  the  maximum,  and  this  appears  to  be  approxi- 
mately correct.  Eighty  per  cent  of  140,000  cubic  feet  per  second  is 
112,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  area  of  Lake  Bohio  according  to  the  plans  adopted  by  this  Com- 
mission are  as  follows: 


Elevation. 

Acres. 

Square 
miles. 

20  meters  65.6  feet 

14, 771 

23,512 
24, 627 

23.08 

25  meters  82  feet 

36. 78 

26  meters  85.3  feet 

38.48 

II 

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400  800  1200  1600 


2000  24-' 

METERS' 


2800  3200  3600  4000 


FIG.  9.— RATING  CURVE  FOR  FLOODS  OF  THE  CHAGRES  RiVER  AT  BOHIO. 
Constructed  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  from  observations  of  the  Panama  Canal  Company,  1890-1899 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION 


45 


The  waste  weir  provided  is  to  be  at  elevation  85  feet  above  sea  level 
or  slightly  less  than  26  meters,  and  is  to  have  a  length  of  2,000  feet. 

This  flow  continued  for  f ortj'-eight  hours  would  result  in  a  total  dis- 
charge of  444,300  acre-feet,  or  about  9,300  acre-feet  per  hour.  A  sus- 
tained discharge  of  this  amount  would  raise  the  lake  to  a  head  of 
about  6.6  feet  over  sill  of  the  weir.  This,  however,  may  be  taken  as 
the  extreme  condition,  which  will  never  be  exceeded. 


LOW    WATER   OF   THE    CHAORES    RIVER. 

The  Chagres  River  being  the  one  feeder  to  the  summit  level  of  the 
proposed  canal,  its  mean  and  minimum  flow  is  very  important  as 
indicating  the  amount  of  storage  that  must  be  provided  for  the  opera- 
tion of  the  canal  during  the  dry  season.  The  mean  flow  for  the 
various  months  of  the  year  as  determined  by  averaging  all  the  monthly 
records  at  Gamboa  in  our  possession  since  1892,  are  as  follows: 


Cubic  feet 
per  second. 

January 3,  310 

February 1,  330 

March 900 

April 1,  530 

May 3, 180 

June 3,280 


Cubic  feet 
per  second. 

July 4,010 

August 4,  080 

September 3,  540 

October 4, 110 

November 4,  790 

December 4,  850 


Averaging  these  quantities,  we  find  the  mean  annual  discharge  is 
about  3,200  cubic  feet  per  second.  As  the  maximum  consumption  and 
loss  by  leakage  and  evaporation  is  but  little  over  1,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  we  find  that  the  month  of  March  is  the  only  month  having  a 
shortage  in  average  years,  and  as  this  is  the  record  for  Gamboa,  and 
the  discharge  at  Bohio,  where  the  dam  is  to  be  constructed,  is  some- 
what greater,  we  may  say  that  the  requirements  of  the  canal  are  less 
than  the  average  discharge  for  any  month  in  the  year,  and  if  one- 
third  of  the  mean  annual  flow  can  be  saved,  there  will  be  ample  for 
canal  purposes. 

But  some  years  furnish  less  water  than  others,  and  to  correctly 
solve  the  problem  of  the  water  supply  for  the  canal  we  must  consider 
the  yield  in  the  minimum  year. 

In  all  the  observations  at  Bohio  the  lowest  monthly  means  are  for 
the  months  of  March  and  April,  1891,  as  shown  by  the  mean  of  eight 
measurements  made  in  each  of  those  months.  More  records,  however, 
are  at  hand  for  Gamboa  than  for  Bohio,  and  the  lowest  reading  at  the 
Gamboa  fluviograph  occurred  in  the  spring  of  1901,  when  for  a  period 
of  about  two  and  one-half  months  the  fluviograph  at  Gamboa  indicated 
a  stage  of  less  than  14  meters  almost  continuously,  the  lowest  point 
reached  being  13.72.  This  corresponds  to  a  discharge  of  from  7  to  8 
cubic  meters  per  second. 

In  the  examination  of  the  records  in  Paris  an  elevation  at  Gamboa 
was  found  for  the  last  three  days  of  March,  1896,  giving  the  stage  as 
13.1  meters.  The  rest  of  the  month  of  March  and  the  first  half  of 
April  are  entirely  blank,  no  record  having  been  kept.  It  is  impossible 
that  this  could  have  been  a  fluviograph  record,  since  the  river  would 
be  diy  before  reaching  so  low  an  elevation  at  the  location  of  the  fluvio- 
graph, and  the  only  plausible  explanation  is  that  given  by  the  officers 
of  the  company  that  this  record  was  on  a  rod  a  considerable  distance 
below  the  fluviograph,  and  this  statement  is  confirmed  by  the  reports 


46  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  discharge  on  these  dates,  which  are  16.8, 16.8,  and  16.9  cubic  motors, 
respectively,  leaving  no  doubt  that  "at  this  time  the  river  was  above  the 
stage  reached  in  1900.  No  other  record  gives  a  stage  of  river  as  low  as 
that  reached  in  1900. 

The  year  1891,  however,  seems  to  have  had  a  still  lower  dry-season 
flow.  No  fluviograph  records  were  obtainable,  except  such  as  were 
given  with  the  measurements  of  discharge,  and  these  do  not  show  any 
stage  as  low  as  that  of  1900,  but  in  so  long  a  time  the  bed  of  the  river 
would  be  likely  to  change,  and  the  measurements  show  that  it  has  done 
so.  Of  actual  gaugings  we  have  (p.  18)  8  for  February,  8  for  March, 
and  8  for  April.  The  measurement  on  the  1st  of  May  shows  low  water, 
while  that  of  May  4  exhibits  a  freshet. 

The  indications  of  the  gaugings  are  that  up  to  February  14  the  dis- 
charge of  the  river  was  above  the  requirements  of  the  canal,  while 
from  February  15  to  May  3  they  were  below.  This  is  the  same  period 
for  which  8  measurements  per  month  were  made  at  Bohio.  The  means 
are  39  cubic  meters  per  second  for  Februaiy,  17  for  March,  and  17  for 
April.  This  is  the  lowest  discharge  at  Bohio  of  which  we  have  record. 
It  is,  of  course,  not  certain  that  a  drier  year  has  not  occurred  or  will 
not  occur,  and  in  making  the  estimates  it  will  be  assumed  that  the 
mean  of  17  cubic  meters  or  600  cubic  feet  per  second  is  continuous 
for  ninety  days,  from  February  1  to  May  1. 

The  requirements  and  losses  of  the  canal  in  operation,  as  estimated 
by  this  Commission,  are  as  follows: 

Cubic  feet 
per  second. 

Lockage 406 

Power 200 

Leakage 257 

Evaporation 207 

Total : 1,070 

Applying  this  quantity,  we  have  for  the  ninety  days,  from  Feb- 
ruary 1  to  May  1: 

Acre-feet. 

Total  leakage,  lockage,  and  evaporation,  1,070  cubic  feet  per  second 191,000 

Less  inflow -  107, 000 

Deficit 84,000 

Taking  24,000  acres  as  the  area  of  the  lake,  this  will  lower  the  lake 
about  3.5  feet.  An  allowance  of  this  amount  is  therefore  ample  for 
the  most  extreme  case. 

This  brings  the  elevation  of  the  lake  to  81.5  foot,  which  maybe 
regarded  as  the  elevation  reached  in  (ho  minimum  year  of  a  long  scries, 
and  would  occur  perhaps  only  once  in  a  generation.  If  the  consump- 
tion and  loss  should  bo  loss  than  1,070  cubic  feet  per  second  the  deficit 
would,  of  course,  be  diminished. 

The  dry  season  of  L900  would  have  brought  the  lake  level  to  an  ele- 
vation of  about  82.5. 

The  possibility  always  remains  of  constructing  a  large  reservoir  at 
Alhajuela,  which  will  not  only  guard  against  all  possibility  of  annoy- 
ing currents  in  Lake  Bohio,  but  will  store  sufficient  water  for  use  in 
the  dry  season  so  that  the  lake  need  never  decline  below  the  sill  of  the 
waste  weir. 

It  is  indeed  true,  as  stated  by  General  Abbot,  that  the  Chagres  is  a 
river  well  adapted  to  the  service  of  the  proposed  Panama  CanaL 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


47 


Discharge  measurements  math-  m>  C'liagres  River  at  Gamboa. 
[Made  by  Panama  Canal  Company.] 


Date. 


September  27  . 
September  30 . 


October  2.. 

October  5. . 
October  9.. 
October  12. 

October  15. 
October  19. 
October  23. 
October  26. 
October  30. 


Mean . 


November  2  . . 
November  6  . 
November  9  . . 
November  14 
November  16  . 
November  20 
November  22 
November  30  . 

Mean. . 


January  13 


February  11 
February  21 

February  27 

Mean  . 


March  1.. 
March  6.. 
March  11 . 
March  19. 
March  27. 


Aprils.. 
April  10. 
April  14. 
April  17. 
April  19. 
April  22. 
April  25. 
April  29. 


Mean 


May  3  . 
May  6  . 
May  9  . 
May  12 
May  16 
Mav  20 
May  23 
Mav  27 
May  30 


June  3 .. 
June  6 .. 
June  7 . . 
June  10. 
June  13. 
June  17. 
June  20. 
June  24 . 
June  27 . 


Height,    jjjjjge 


15. 4 


15.7 
15.8 
15.1 
15.4 
15.0 
15. 9 
15.4 
15.1 
15. 2 


15.4 
15.2 
15.4 
15.0 
15.4 
15.2 
17.1 
15. 1 


16.8 


14.5 
14.4 
14.3 


14.3 
14.2 
14.2 
14.2 
14.4 


14.2 
14.1 
14.1 
14.1 
14.1 
14.1 
14.1 
14.4 


17.  0 
14.8 
14.4 
15.8 
16.1 
15.  2 
14.8 
15.2 
14.8 


15.4 
15. 6 
16.8 
16.4 
14.8 
16.8 
15.5 
15.1 
15. 2 


1,  lis 
4,977 


5,154 
5,613 
3,951 
5, 330 
3, 459 
6, 107 
4,977 
3, 600 
4,165 


4,707 

5,366 
4, 236 
4, 942 
3,812 
4,765 
4,660 
11,614 
3,600 


5,374 


9,531 


9, 531 


1,412 
1,412 
1,236 

1,353 


1,270 

1,094 

882 

882 

1,341 


1,094 


812 
600 
600 
565 
600 
586 
777 
1,306 


731 


14,470 
3,530 
1,165 
6,707 
8,013 
3,990 
2, 824 
3, 990 
2, 753 


5,271 


4,483 
4,518 

10, 307 
8,472 
2,471 

11, 120 
4,730 
3,636 
3,777 


5, 946 


Date. 


July  1  . 
July  7  . 
July  8  . 
July  8  . 
July  16 
July  18 
Julv  22 
July  25 
Julv  29 


1890. 


Mean . 


August  1 . . 
August  5.. 
August8.. 
August  12. 
August  14. 
August  19. 
August  22. 
August  26. 
August  29. 
August  31. 


Mean . 


September  5 . . 
September  9 . . 
September  12  . 
September  13 . 
September  16  . 
September  19 . 
September  21 . 
September  26 . 
September  30 . 

Mean . . . 


October  3 . . 
October  7 . . 
October  10 . 
October  14 . 
October  17 . 
October  21 . 
October  24 . 
October  25 . 
October  31 . 


Mean. 


November  4  . 
November  7  . 
November  11 
November  14 
November  18 
November  22 
November  25 
November  29 

Mean. .. 


December  2.. 
December  5. . 
December  9. . 
December  12. 
December  16. 
December  19. 
December  23. 
December  26. 
December  30. 

Mean.. 


January  2  . 
January  6  . 
January  9  . 
January  13 
January  16 
January  20 


1891. 


Height. 


15.4 
15.2 
15.2 
17.2 
15.6 
15.4 
15. 2 
16.6 
15.0 


14.8 
15.4 
15.3 
15.8 
16.2 
15.3 
15.2 
15.9 
15.3 
17.1 


15.4 
15.2 
15.6 
17.7 
16.0 
15.5 
16.3 
15.4 
15.9 


15.4 
15.4 
15.9 
15.3 
15.2 
15.1 
17.1 
18.4 
15.3 


15.2 
15.1 
15.4 
15.2 
15.0 
15.6 
15.4 
15.1 


18.0 
15.6 
15.6 
15.2 
15.4 
15.5 
15.4 
15.4 
15.2 


15.1 
14.9 
15.1 
14.7 
14.7 
14.6 


Dis- 
charge. 


4,483 
3,954 
3, 636 
11,331 
5, 013 
4, 518 
3,777 
8,930 
3,000 


5,404 


2,400 
4,624 
4,377 
5, 720 
7,554 
4,306 
4,060 
6,954 
4,448 
12, 320 


5,676 


4, 977 
4,130 
5,330 
15, 890 
6,920 
5,083 
8,225 
4,342 
6,460 


6,817 


4, 518 
4,660 
5,825 
3,742 
4,024 
3,600 
10, 307 
17,900 
3,777 


6, 483 


3,777 
3, 565 
4,412 
3,990 
3,018 
5, 048 
4, 589 
3,248 


3, 956 


14,296 
5,471 
6,178 
3,600 
4,554 
5,295 
4,836 
5,013 
3,990 


5,915 


3,353 
2,612 
3,177 
1,836 
1,765 
1,482 


48 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Discharge  measurements  made  on  Chagres  River  at  Gamboa — Continued. 


Day. 


January  23  . 
January  27  . 
January  30  . 

Mean 


February  3  . . 
February  6  . . 
February  10  . 
February  13  . 
February  17  . 
Februa  ry  20  . 
February  24  . 
February  27  . 

Mean . 


March  3  . . 
March  6  . . 
March  10  . 
March  13  . 
March  17  . 
March  20  . 
March  24  . 
March  27  . 
March  31 


Mean  . 


April  3.. 
April  7.. 
April  10. 
April  14. 
April  17. 
April  21. 
April  24. 
April  28. 


Mayl.. 
May  i.. 

Mays.. 
May  12. 
May  15. 
May  19. 
Mav22. 
May  26. 
May  29. 


Mean 


June  2 . . 
June  5.. 

June  9 . . 
June  12 . 
June  16 . 
June  19 . 
June 23. 
June  26 . 
June  30 . 


Me; 


July  3. 
July  7. 

July8. 


„  .  ,  ,         Dis- 
HelSht.     charge 


14.6 
14.6 
14.5 


14.5 
14.5 
14.4 
14.5 
14.4 
14.4 
14.3 
14.3 


14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.2 
14.2 
14.2 
14.2 
14.2 


14.2 
14.1 
14.1 
14.1 
14.1 
14.2 
14.1 
14.1 


1,553 
1,341 
1,341 


2,051 


1,236 
988 
1,130 
1,024 
847 
928 
709 
709 


946 


720 
681 
745 
582 
540 
551 
600 
434 
515 


14.2 
IS.  2 
14.  5 
14.1 
11.1 
15.0 
14.4 
14.7 
14.8 


14.7 
14.7 
14.7 
14.3 
14.5 
15.8 
14.7 
11.4 
14.  S 


14.5 
14.6 

17.5 


572 
568 
547 
441 
614 
522 
544 
473 


535 

512 
18,285 

1,701 
618 
512 

3, 036 

1 ,  423 

2,  40 1 
2, 580 


4,524 

2, 051 
2, 365 
2, 230 
1,097 
1,750 
6, 080 
1,860 
1 ,  377 
2, 602 


2,379 

1,518 
1,871 
11,967 


Date. 


July  13. 
July  17. 
Jul  v  21. 
Jul  v  24. 
July  28. 
Julv  31. 


1891. 


Mean . 


August  i . . 
August  7. . 
August  11. 
August  14. 
August  18. 
August  21. 
August  25. 
August  28. 


Mean  . 


September  1 . . 
September  4 .. 
Septembers  .. 
September  11 . 
September  15. 
September  18 . 
September  21 . 
September  29 . 


Mean 


October  2.. 
October  6.. 
October  9.. 
October  13. 
October  16. 
October  20. 
October  23. 
October  27. 
October  30. 
October  31. 


Mean 


November  3  . . 
November  (i  . . 
November  10  . 
No  vein  tier  13 
November  17  . 
November  19 
November  24  . 
November  27  . 


Mean 


December  l . . 
December  i. . 
December  8. . 
December  11 . 
December  15. 
December  is. 
December  22. 
December  27. 
December  29. 


Mean 


Height. 


16.0 
14.7 
15.0 
14.7 
15.5 
14.7 


14.9 
15.2 
14.9 
14.7 
15.0 
14.8 
15.0 
14.7 


15.4 
15.1 
15.3 
14.8 
14.7 
14.7 
15.7 
14.8 


14.9 
14.7 
14.6 
15.1 
16.4 
15.4 
15.6 
16.5 
15.4 
17.0 


15.1 
15.5 
15.4 
15. 2 
14.9 
19.2 
15.  3 
17.5 


16.9 
15.6 
17.5 
15.1 
15.0 
14.8 
14.8 
14.7 
14.6 


Dis. 
charge. 


5,825 
1,977 
3,000 
1, 588 
4,483 
1,906 


3,793 


2,683 
3,777 
2,577 
2, 259 
3, 142 
2,330 
3,354 
2,120 


2, 780 


4,130 
3,000 
4,312 
2,259 
2, 083 
1,518 
4,590 
2,330 


3,032 

"2,316 
2, 120 
1,870 
3, 390 
6,  sis 
4,095 
4,886 
4,695 
3,954 
10, 555 


1.  16S 


3, 142 
4,377 
8,  636 
3, 565 
2,  294 

26, 475 
3, 8  is 

12,637 

7, 497 


9, 955 
4, 907 
12,885 
2,930 
2,790 
2, 153 
3,083 
1.730 
1,590 


4,670 


K  UNFALL. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  isthmus  is  narrow  and  the  Cordil- 
lera low  in  the  vicinity  of  Panama,  there  is  a  striking  difference  of 
rainfall  between  the  Caribbean  or  northern  and  the  Pacific  or  .southern 
coast  of  the  isthmus  in  this  region.  The  contrast  is  similar,  though 
not  so  striking  as  that  between  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Nicaragua. 
The  mean  rainfall  at  Colon  as  shown  by  a  record  of  nearly  thirty  years 
is  130  inches,  while  that  at  Panama,  though  not  so  well  determined, 
is  only  66.8.     The  precipitation  at  Panama  and  vicinity  is  confined 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


49 


almost  entirely  to  the  months  from  May  to  November,  inclusive,  the 
rest  of  the  3^ear  being  the  dry  season.  At  Colon,  though  the  rainfall 
is  less  during  the  dry  season,  there  is  still  quite  a  precipitation,  the 
mean  for  April  being  4.54  and  for  January  3.73,  while  these  two 
months  are  dry  on  the  Panama  side.  February  and  March  arc  less 
likely  to  yield  any  considerable  precipitation,  but  no  month  is  exempt 
from  rainfall  on  the  coast  of  the  Caribbean.  The  upper  portion  of  the 
Chagres  drainage  basin  represents  the  mean  between  these  extremes. 
(See  map.) 

The  longest  record  of  rainfall  in  the  vicinity  is  that  of  Colon,  which 
continues  from  March,  1881,  to  date,  with  the  exception  of  a  period 
of  twent}^-one  months  in  1888-89.  This  station,  however,  is  not  on 
the  Chagres  drainage,  and  the  records  which  are  in  that  basin  are  not 
so  long.  They  are  mainly  at  Gamboa  and  Obispo,  with  very  short 
records  at  Bohio,  Gorgona,  and  Alhajuela.  Short  records  also  exist  at 
Panama,  at  La  Boca,  the  south  end  of  the  canal,  and  at  Naos,  an  island 
in  the  Bay  of  Panama. 

The  long  records  of  stream  flow  at  Gamboa  and  Bohio,  together  with 
an  approximate  knowledge  of  the  area  of  the  drainage  basin,  and  the 
observations  of  rainfall,  constitute  a  valuable  contribution  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  ratio  of  rainfall  to  run  off  in  the  Tropics,  the  weakest 
point  being  the  information  on  rainfall,  the  only  records  in  the  basin 
being  confined  to  the  lower  valley,  and  being,  moreover,  very  short. 
If  a  definite  relation  could  be  established  between  the  long  Colon 
record  and  the  mean  of  the  Chagres  basin,  it  would  increase  the  value 
of  these  data  to  an  important  extent.  For  this  purpose,  five  stations 
above  Alhajuela  were  established  in  1899,  two  at  different  points  on 
Rio  Pequeni  at  Salamanca  and  Las  Minas,  one  on  the  Upper  Chagres 
at  Santa  Barbara,  and  two  at  high  elevations  above  the  river  valley. 
Of  the  latter,  one  is  on  a  hill  between  the  Chagres  and  Pequeni,  700  feet 
above  the  nearest  point  of  the  Chagres,  and  the  other  is  between  the 
Chagres  and  Puente,  about  500  feet  above  the  river.  Salamanca  and 
Las  Minas  were  discontinued  at  the  end  of  1900.  The  others  were  dis- 
continued October  30,  1900.  Their  relative  location  is  shown  on  the 
map.  These  stations,  considered  with  those  lower  in  the  basin,  are 
taken  as  the  mean  for  the  basin,  and  compared  with  observations  at 
Colon  as  follows: 

Rainfall  at  Colon  compared  with  the  mean  rainfall  in  the  l>asin  of  the  Chagres  River. 


January  . . . 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November . 
December  . 

Total 


Colon. 


1872  (maxi- 
mum). 


Inches. 

3.57 

.75 

.83 

1.30 

21.43 

22 

19. 90 
19.97 
16.20 
30. 32 
19.11 
13. 12 


1884  (mini- 
mum). 


Inches. 

3.39 

.39 

.  39 

4.33 

10. 16 

10.32 

15.59 

13.27 

9.37 

8.66 

7.05 

3.62 


168. 50 


86.54 


Inches. 

6.06 

.33 

1.06 

.75 

12.25 

11.65 

16.81 

17.04 

9.37 

16.33 

20.28 

"9.04 


120. 97 


Mean  for 
30  years. 


Inches. 

3.56 

1.52 

1 .  55 

4.42 

12.27 

13.46 

16.92 

15.53 

12.77 

11.20 

20.56 

12.49 


129. 25 


Basin. 


Inches. 

2.44 

.33 

.32 

3.78 

10. 45 

15.67 

15. 28 

12. 36 

14.33 

15.48 

15. 10 

"3.59 


109. 13 


Mean  rainfall  on  basin:  129.25,  109.13,  120.97,  or  116.00  inches. 

aTo  obtain  a  comparison  for  a  complete  year,  the  rainfall  for  December,  1899,  is  included,  because 
during  December,  1900,  many  stations  in  the  basin  were  discontinued. 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 4 


50 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Monthly  rainfalls. 

[1862-1874,  by  Drs.  White  and  Kluge,  surgeons  Panama  Railroad  Company;  1881-1S98,  by  Panama 
Canal  Company;  1898-1900,  by  Panama  Railroad  Company.] 

COLON. 


Year. 

.Tan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Total. 

L862 

13.10 
11.22 
12.83 
9.69 
15.04 
20.50 
13.13 
14.82 
11.21 
12.58 
30.32 
14.30 
16.65 
12. 91 
14.96 
16.77 
8.66 
7.99 
14.33 
19.61 

43.01 
17.59 
17.90 
22.16 
21.72 

16.83 

15.21 

16.40 

5.58 

8.42 

1863 

1864 

1865 

1866 

1867 

1.75 
1.90 
1.10 
3.99 
1.56 
1.17 
.83 
4.30 
15.42 
3.57 
6.33 
5.33 

2.94 
.77 

1.08 

1.07 
.80 

2.77 
.77 

3.33 
.53 
.75 
.25 

1.34 

.85 
.78 
.02 
.21 
.48 

2.18 
.49 

4.95 
.05 
.83 
.13 

3.94 

1.08 

1.69 
.55 
.39 
.55 

9.17 
.47 

1.26 

4.70 
.44 
3.89 
4.07 
1.20 
.87 
5.04 
6.46 
1.52 
1.30 
2.18 

18.02 
2.52 
1.73 
1.77 
4.33 
1.34 
1.58 

10.63 

13.09 
15.87 

9.22 
14.76 
11.88 

7.24 

6.72 
20.95 

1.63 
21.43 

3.92 

8.92 
10.04 
13.23 
11.85 
10.16 

7.91 
13.15 
10.28 

15.32 

8.78 
16. 85 
12.17 

8.85 
18.11 
10.66 
12. 48 

7.70 
22 

13.20 
15. 87 
15.28 
18.90 
10.08 
10. 32 
16.61 
16.38 
16.50 

25. 76 
16.54 
9.61 
16.72 
16.03 
20.60 
18.22 
15. 60 
23. 27 
19.90 
12.50 
13.62 
12.24 
19.10 
13.39 
15.59 
22. 99 
11.10 
17.05 

10.34 
13.37 
18.39 
12. 72 
19. 82 
12.50 
14. 02 
16.35 
11.56 
19.97 
10.69 
17.28 
6.46 
13.94 
25.43 
13.27 
20. 32 
12.20 
16.89 

15.54 
17.85 

8.55 
18. 82 

5.35 
16.16 

8.98 

6.74 

8 

16.20 
10.91 

8.22 

6.30 
10.63 
11.14 

9.37 
17.44 

7.52 
15.63 

134. 31 
123. 43 
106. 14 
129. 71 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1881 

21.58 
24.13 
32. 42 
12.38 
19.11 
11.77 
20. 62 
22.13 
22.09 
11.10 
7.05 
24. 17 
21.89 
31.81 

3.72 
10.10 
14.85 

4.94 

13. 12 

.94 

7.89 
10.35 

5.08 
10.91 

3.  62 
25. 51 
22.  72 
13.33 

120. 03 
114.78 
149. 64 

99.58 
168.50 

87.12 
137.70 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1.65 
1.85 
3.39 

.87 
2.13 
2.01 

.63 

1.10 

.47 
.39 
.59 

5 
.67 

1.58 

124. 10 
115. 34 
86.54 
146.29 
137. 17 
154.88 

1889 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

7.24 
2.52 
.98 
1.73 
5.35 
3.86 
4. 02 
3.42 
5.04 
6.93 
6.06 

1.02 

.51 

2.01 

3.82 

1.65 

1.89 

1.30 

.04 

.35 

6.49 

.33 

2.01 
1.50 
3.98 
1.81 

.35 
2.09 
2.01 

.28 
1.58 
1.26 
1.06 

2.99 
.51 
5 

8.07 

2.16 

21.73 

9.02 

3.74 

4.72 

.43 

.75 

9.76 
23 

18.03 
6.58 
9.85 
16.77 
16.46 
16.34 
12.83 
13.90 
12. 25 

17. 24 
7.99 
16.97 
12.32 
12.24 
9.25 
8.50 
18.82 
16.38 
6.41 
11.  65 

10.24 
14.02 
21.77 
11.50 
19.10 
17.09 
13.58 
14.06 
21.89 
27.68 
16.81 

20. 51 
15.98 
15. 98 
15.12 
23.03 
14.13 
15. 51 
17. 24 
10.91 
14.80 
17.04 

22.99 

17.48 

16.26 

9.92 

18.78 
12. 09 
12.84 
17.20 
10.24 
16.55 
9.37 

21.77 
17.48 

6.69 
12.28 
12. 40 
16.46 
13.98 

5.83 
11.38 
15.04 
16.33 

19.49 
19.49 
26.30 
17.80 
23.66 
20.47 
15.63 
22.16 
12. 28 
14.49 
20.28 

19. 06 

4.25 

11.30 

30.94 

25. 12 

15.71 

18.  66 

18.90 

7.95 

9.01 

4.13 

154.32 
124. 73 
145.27 
131. 89 
153. 69 

151. 54 
131.51 
138.03 

115. 55 
133. 02 
116.06 

Mean . 

3.56 

1.52 

1.55 

4.42 

12.  27 

13. 46 

16.92 

15.53 

12.77 

14.20 

20.56  1  12.49 

129. 25 

BOHIO. 


1896 

1 

15.63 
18.54 
14.61 
10.35 

7.42 

8.54 
14.10 
19.76 
14.80 
18.40 

5.65 
15. 83 
34.96 

17.76 
17.79 

25. 20 
38.31 
12. 99 
14.02 

25.51 
17.  4S 
13.31 
8.90 
15.40 

13.35 
26. 02 
28. 23 
19.33 
18.43 

17. 05 
19. 57 
21.81 
10.43 
24.98 

1897 

!  3.07 

s.ll 

10. 59 

1.10 

2.89 

22.  05 
6.38 
6.18 
4.02 

1898 

1899 

1900 

12. 36 
9.37 
7.06 

1.26  '  3.03 

4.49  I  3.28 

.48     1.04 

201.61 
118. 98 
131.93 

Mean  . 

9.60 

2.08  |  2.60 

5.67 

13.31 

15. 12 

18.38 

22. 63 

16. 12 

21.07 

18.77 

9.66 

155. 01 

GORGONA. 


1896 

9.02 

25.12 

5.04 

6.81 

13.54 

1.37 

5.16 
9.65 

IS.  50 

8.98 
16.93 
19.88 

13. 35 
15.98 

10.94 

11.  11 
7.72 

14.37 
7.16 
9.61 

1897 

.08 

.20 

2.01 

.13 

.00 

3.31 

.20 

2.  60 
1.38 

7.91 
:;.'.u 
4.58 

1898 

1899 

3.  42 
3.78 
2.63 

1900 

3.15 

7.07 

12.48  j  19.72 

11.04 

11.25 

11.93 

Mean . 

3.28 

.60 

1.17 

2.38 

11.56 

9.30 

13.26 

14. 21 

13.53 

11.25  |   10.38 

5.48  |     96.40 

1 

CAMBOA. 


1  KM . 

10.  63 

6.  26 

12.40 

10.  12 

9.17 

'.i.  88 

10.39 

11.  si 

11.06 
8.  15 

L2.95 

1 1 .  si 

4.76 
1.38 

1.50 

15.  17 

1883 

2.60 
ti.  46 
L.38 

o.  68 

6.  is 
1 1 .  or, 

11.02 
L8  85 
10. 35 

6.  5 1 
o.  62 
9.06 

15.94 

16.50 
15.51 

1.  13 

10.55 
Hi.  10 

10.01 

22.  36 
9.  3:; 

7.01 
6.18 

13.23 

6.80 

2.20 
1 1 .  06 

1884 

.71 
.20 

.28 

.00 

1885 

.20 

97.  IS 

1886 

.  55 

1.06 

.71 

2.  76 

15. 71 

10.55 

11.69 

16.38 

9. 13 

13.62 

16.10 

1.61 

102.87 

1887 

2.20 

.OS 

.  28 

6.85 

1 1 .  02 

19.  15 

14.02 

19.17 

11.50 

1  l.ss 

24.06 

16.28 

136.  19 

1888 

.12 

.»;;; 

.  35 

1.26 

20.  17 

1 1 .  93 

3.27 

10.21 

12.28 

'J... 7 

16.  IS 

16.84 

102.61 

L889 

1.97 

4.51! 

1.  1" 

.00 

4.87 

9.  10 

7.28 

10.51 

11.  12 

13.07 

s.  7o 

;;.;;5 

75.  72 

1890 

L06 

.35 

2.36 

3  03 

L3.27 

11.65 

lo.  13 

15.36 

S. 'JO 

21.  11 

9.92 

1.29 

105.03 

1891 

.63 

.00 

.  35 

2.1:; 

7.  IS 

'.I.2H 

6.06 

8.50 

10.47 

15.71 

10.67 

6. 38 

77. 67 

1892  

1.10 

.67 

2.  56 

1.72 

16.81 

8.54 

13.98 

I  1.:;:: 

13.  74 

11.10 

10.21 

6.58 

101.. '.7 

1893 

.67 

1.06 

.71 

7.44 

11.89 

10.71 

15.87 

7.  95 

10.21 

16.50 

13.90 

20. 87 

117.81 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


51 


Monthly  rainfalls — Con  tin  ued . 
GAMBOA— Continued. 


Year. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Total. 

1894 

1895 

1.46 

.16 

.04 

1.34 

10.94 

8.78 

10.08 

8.42 

16.16 

15.28 

10.67 

8.27 

90.60 

1896 

3.35 
17.44 
5.32 
8.54 
6.76 

3.31 
12. 64 
4.65 

8.78 
12.15 

5.79 
9.10 

18.43 
9.45 

13.45 

1897 

.20 

.12 

1.73 

.16 

.28 

.00 

1.34 

.13 

3.23 
1.42 
1.42 

3.21 

17.20 
20.16 
10. 95 
8.92 

18. 82 
4.10 

13.46 
9.24 

12.80 
8.70 
7.95 

12.11 

5.91 
14. 57 

8.70 
10.67 

8.62 

2.40 

2.68 

.79 

1898 

1899 

1900 

2.76 

5 

1.01 

82.60 
80.00 
78.60' 

Mean. 

1.67 

.78 

.71 

2.99 

10.88 

10.17 

10.35 

13.06 

11.19 

12.98 

11.74 

7.06 

93.58 

BAS  OBISPO. 


1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1.10 
.24 
.83 

2.28 
.16 
.79 

4.53 

6.10 
.79 
.55 

1.97 

.35 

.12 
.87 
.00 
.51 
.32 
.12 
.00 
.63 
1.34 
.32 

.35 

.00 

.87 

.12 

.32 

1.10 

2.56 

.35 

2.56 

.71 

.20 

2.16 
1.14 
1.69 
3.19 
.91 
6.50 
2.56 
2.16 
4.76 
3.19 
1.38 

3.86 

7.36 
17.44 
10.16 
11.58 

4.57 
13.07 

5.83 
15.16 
19.57 
11.89 

11.97 
8.74 
12. 91 
15.43 
11.93 
9.84 
14.96 
11.54 
10.51 
10.75 
10 

8.46 

6.34 

9.02 

10.87 

1.93 

6.42 

9.88 

6.10 

13.10 

14.37 

10.59 

10.51 

12.84 
8.27 
8.03 
7.76 
8.98 

12.16 
7.76 

11.93 
9.57 

13.98 
12.87 
10.20 
10.98 
7.13 
13.46 
13.03 
12.32 
17.36 
10.63 

12.40 
8.94 
9.37 
7.36 
3.82 
13.23 
4.80 
14.49 
10.28 
19.84 

6.93 

11.10 

15.63 

14.06 

10.59 

8.54 

6.54 

8.35 

11.02 

13.35 

2.64 
11.50 
3.90 
15.79 
10.08 
3.78 
7.95 
8.72 
6.97 
19.13 

74.71 
81.23 
91.00 
98.27 
66.72 
77.53 
92.16 
83.82 

105. 07 

123 

Mean. 

1.76 

.42 

.83 

2.69 

10.95 

11.69 

8.83 

9.78 

12.20 

10.45 

10.61 

9.05 

89.26 

1883» 

1.26 
3.78 
1.61 
1.18 
3.50 
.35 

11.50 

10.32 

10.24 
4.29 

14.33 
6.10 
2.91 

10.71 
13.62 
5.35 
8.19 

8.74 
6.54 

5.47 
8.70 
11.38 
7.36 
7.64 
11.26 
12.13 

5.04 
1.46 

1884 

.20 
.28 
.43 
3.15 
.24 

.04 

.00 
.55 
.00 
.04 

.67 
.00 
.16 
.04 
.51 

10.12 
10.63 
20.63 
9.65 
5.75 
13. 50 

11.18 
7.20 

14.29 

12.13 
9.53 

13.23 

1885 

15.39 
13.78 
7.91 
11.42 

12. 64 
9.96 
7.99 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1894 

5.43 
7.95 
7.72 

98.97 
76.77 
64.25 

1895 

.75 

Mean. 

.86 

.23 

.28 

1.95 

12 

10.23 

7.57 

8.86 

9.13 

11.71 

11.26 

5.52 

79.60 

1  Observations  at  Emperador. 
PANAMA. 


1879 

1880 

1881 

1882 

1894* 

.04 

1.89 

.16 

.00 

2.52 
.12 
.16 
.12 

5.71 
.16 
.35 
.00 

5.55 
1.61 
3.23 

.98 

10.28 
4.45 

10. 35 
5.24 

6.46 
5 

13.78 
6.18 

7.48 

7.91 
9.88 
7.20 
5.35 
12.72 

7.24 
11.46 
4.49 
4.05 
6.42 

9.02 
7.91 
8.94 
4.05 
7.32 

9.80 
11.81 
9.68 
6.69 
10.51 

19.21 
6.46 
9.72 

10.91 
6.73 

.98 
5.51 
2.48 
2.01 
8.27 

•  84. 73 
66.26 
70.55 
45.60 

1895" 

1.38 

.08 

1899» 

6.14 

11.98 

8.92 

4.35 

1900" 

.76 

.00 

.00 

2. 24 

11.21 

8.91 

15. 81 

5.99 



Mean. 

.70 

.60 

1.24 

2.72 

8.31 

7.97 

9.81 

6.61 

7.23 

10.08 

10.32 

3.93 

69. 52 

1  Observations  at  La  Boca. 
NAOS. 


1881 

7.48 
5.04 
7.24 
8.62 
4.37 
4.49 
8.82 
4.02 

2.87 
2.84 
3.11 
1.34 
4.92 
3.74 
5.59 
,  1.30 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

.00 
.59 

2.01 
.55 
.00 
.79 
.08 
.00 

.04 
.00 
.04 

.20 
.28 
.04 

.00 
.00 

.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
1.81 
.04 
.04 
.91 

.94 
1.93 

.94 

.91 
1.92 
2.36 

.28 
4.41 

4.53 
4.45 

4.84 
2.56 
5.20 
5.24 
5.  55 
5.79 

5.08 
2.56 
4.17 
5.63 
6.26 
9.88 
4.88 
5.43 

1.61 
5.47 
4.65 
2.64 
9.61 
4.06 
2.01 

1.14 

5.51 
2.99 
5. 51 
5.91 
6.69 
5.71 

1.14 

4.64 
5.71 
4.17 

20. 75 
6.97 
8.58 

2.72 
4.25 
8.31 
9.96 
6.10 
7.05 
8.11 

25.12 
39.76 
43.62 
41.42 
66.06 
57.52 
40.55 

Mean. 

.50  1     .08 

.35  |    1.71 

4.77 

5.49 

4.29 

4.78 

7.42 

6.64 

6.26 

3.21 

45.50 

52 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


TEMPERATURE. 
Monthly  temperature  observed  by  the  Panama  Canal  Company  in  degrees  Fahrenheit. 


July 

August  

September  . 

October 

November  . 
December  . 


January 

February  . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September  . 

October 

November  . 
December. 


Month. 


1900. 


The  year. 


La  Boca. 


Maxi-      Mini- 
mum,    mum. 


91 


Mean. 


78.8 

75 

77 

76.4 

76.8 

77.9 


77.7 

77.5 

79.7 

80 

80.9 

80.4 

79.3 

80.3 

80.6 

79.4 

78.8 

80.2 


79.6 


Alhajuela. 


Maxi-     Mini- 
mum,    mum. 


Mean. 


79.7 

80 

80.6 

78.8 

79.5 

78.9 


76.8 

79.5 

79.7 

80.9 

78 

78.9 

77.3 

78.4 

76.4 

77.7 

77.3 

78.1 


78.3 


REPORT   OF   W.    W.    SCHLECHT,    HYDROGRAPHER  FOR  PANAMA. 


Washington,  D.  C,  February  87 n  1901. 

Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  the  following  report  of  my  work 
on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  performed  under  your  direction: 

Although  during  former  years  hydrographic  records  were  collected 
by  the  Panama  Canal  Company  on  several  streams,  at  present  all 
investigations  are  confined  to  the  Chagres  River,  which  really  presents 
the  only  important  hydrographic  problems  relative  to  an  intcroccanic 
canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  as  Alhajuela,  Gamboa,  and 
Bohio  have  at  different  times  been  considered  as  probable  dam  sites, 
these  places  have  been  selected  as  hydrographic  stations.  In  order  to 
obtain  the  daily  mean  gauge  height  and  a  record  of  the  rapid  fluctua- 
tions of  the  river,  the  canal  company  has  installed  continuous  self- 
registering  river  gauges,  or  "fluviographs"  at  these  points  with  an 
observer  at  each.  The  scale  of  the  fluviograph  record  is  1  millimeter 
(vertical)  =  2  centimeters  of  rise;  and  5  millimeters  (horizontal)  =  1 
hour,  80  that  each  centimeter  of  rise  and  each  ten  minutes  of  time 
may  be  easily  read.  It  was  at  once  apparent  that  no  improvement  on 
this  means  of  obtaining  the  desired  information  could  be  introduced 
so  the  records  were  simply  checked  each  day  at  ♦  >  a.  m.  and  (5  p.  m., 
and  with  very  few  exceptions  no  material  error  was  ever  found. 

The  measurements  for  the  discharge  are  made  by  means  of  floats  of 
1  to  3  feet  immersion,  and  2  to  .">  inches  diameter,  the  latter  size  being 
used  only  at  times  of  flood,  so  all  may  be  considered  as  surface  floats, 
and  a  length  of  course  of  60 meters  at  Alhajuela,  and  Gamboa,  and  80 
meters  at  Bohio.  Cross-sections  of  the  courses  are  taken  10  meters 
apart;  and  from  these  a  table  of  mean  sectional  areas  for  different 
stage  of  the  river  is  computed  for  each  station.     Following  are  the 


FIG.    1  1.— FLUVIOGRAPH   AT  ALHAJUELA. 


REPORT    OF   THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  53 

instructions  to  the  observers,  concerning  the    method  of   obtaining 
the  discharge  which  arc  carefully   followed: 

The  observations  should  be  made  in  calm  weather.  The  floats  should  have  but  a 
small  portion  exposed  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  float  should  he  liberated 
a  short  distance  above  the  first  profile,  bo  that  at  the  moment  it  crosses  that  section, 
it  will  have  attained  the  velocity  of  the  water;  the  observer  will  note  the  moment 
of  passage  at  the  first  section,  and  then  go  to  the  lower  section  and  note  its  passage 
at  that  section. 

The  discharge  is  then  obtained  by  means  of  the  formula  D  =  0.80 
A  V;  D  —  discharge;  A  =  mean  sectional  area;  V  =  the  velocity  as 
obtained  by  the  observations  on  the  floats. 

It  is  possible  to  materially  improve  on  this  means  of  obtaining  the 
discharge,  especially  as  the  coefficient  0.80  is  arbitrary.  Accordingly, 
permanent  hydrographic  stations  were  established  at  Alhajuela,  Gam- 
boa,  and  Bohio,  with  an  observer  and  current  meter  equipment  at  each. 

ALHAJUELA. 

The  canal  company's  gauging  station  at  Alhajuela  is  but  a  short  dis- 
tance below  the  proposed  dam  site.  It  has  high,  steep  banks  to  each 
side  and  a  width  of  about  250  feet,  and  at  normal  stage  a  mean  depth 
of  1  or  5  feet.  But  it  is  on  a  slight  bend,  and  the  cross  sections  along 
the  course  differ  considerably  in  area  and  conformation.  Thus,  at 
gauge  height,  29  meters,  we  have  145,  135,  and  133  square  meters  as 
the  area  at  the  upper  end,  middle,  and  lower  end  of  the  course.  About 
60  feet  above  the  upper  range  a  three-fourths  inch  cable  is  stretched 
across  the  river,  with  marks  giving  at  normal  stage  the  one-fourth, 
one-half,  and  three-fourths  points  of  the  width  of  the  river.  These 
marks  are  used  to  show  the  points  at  which  to  release  the  floats.  The 
fluviograph  is  200  yards  below,  and  a  secondary  rod  divided  into  centi- 
meters is  firmly  set  in  the  bank  at  the  gauging  station.  The  reading 
of  this  rod  is  used  as  the  argument  in  the  table  giving  the  mean  area. 

On  October  31,  1899,  a  No.  8  telegraph  wire  .was  stretched  across 
the  river  about  60  feet  above  the  canal  company's  cable.  This  was 
divided  into  10-foot  lengths,  and  was  used  to  hold  a  boat  in  a  fixed 
position  while  the  velocity  was  being  measured.  This  wire  could  be 
readily  raised  or  lowered.  While  in  use  it  was  lowered  so  that  a  man 
in  the  bow  could  seize  it  and  hold  the  boat  in  the  desired  position. 
While  not  in  use  it  was  raised  20  or  25  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
river — that  is,  beyond  the  reach  of  floods.  A  crutch,  with  a  pulley, 
was  fastened  to  the  bow  of  the  boat,  over  which  the  current  meter  was 
lowered.  The  crutch  was  fastened  so  that  the  pulley  was  at  least  3 
feet  in  front  and  1  foot  to  one  side  of  the  cutwater.  Thus  the  dis- 
placement of  the  boat  could  not  affect  the  measured  velocity. 

The  first  current  meter  measurement  was  made  on  October  31, 1899, 
with  new  small  Price  electric  meter  No.  35,  which  had  been  rated  at 
Chevey  Chase  in  July.  Two  simultaneous  determinations  of  the  dis- 
charge were  made,  the  first  by  measuring  the  velocity  at  0.6  depth 
below  the  surface  at  each  station,  and  the  second  by  measuring  the 
•velocity  at  each  1  foot  of  depth  at  the  same  stations  and  then  taking 
the  mean  as  the  mean  velocity  at  that  station.  The  river  was  divided 
into  twelve  sections,  varying  from  10  feet  wide  near  the  banks  where 
the  velocity  across  the  stream  changes  rapidly,  to  30  feet  near  the  cen- 
ter where  it  is  more  uniform. 


54 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Following  are  the  results: 

Fluviograph =28. 565  meters. 

First  method. — Mean  velocity  =  1.92  feet  per  second;  discharge = 
2.280  second-feet. 

Second  method. — Mean  velocity  =  1.90  feet  per  second;  discharge= 
2,257  second  feet. 

From  the  above  we  see  that  at  Alhajuela  the  velocity  at  0.6  depth 
below  the  surface  gives  practically  the  mean  velocity  in  a  section. 

Following  are  specimen  computations  for  discharge  to  show  in  detail 
the  method  used  by  the  hydrographic  office,  Isthmian  Canal  Commis- 
sion, and  by  the  Compagnie  Nouvelle  du  Canal  de  Panama: 


Gauging  made  August  18,  1900,  on  Chagres  River,  at  Alhajuela,  by  the  Isthmian  Canal 

Commission. 

[Time,  8.40  to  9.30  a.  m.    Current  meter=large  Price  electric  No.  94.    Fluviograph,  28.51  meters.] 


Distance  from 
initial  point. 

Depth. 

Depth 
of  ob- 
serva- 
tions. 

Time 
sec- 
onds. 

Revo- 
lu- 
tions. 

Revo- 
lu- 
tions 
per 
second. 

Velocity. 

Section 
width. 

Mean 
depth. 

Area. 

Dis- 
charge. 

68  feet 

Feet. 
R  B. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Sq./eet. 

Sec. feet. 

71  feet. . . 

2 

4.1 

3.7 

4.7 
4.2 
4.4 
4.7 
6 

5.4 
5.7 
5.8 
5.2 
4.2 
3.8 
3.3 
3 
2 
L  B 

*.35 

.80 

.86 

1.08 

.96 

1.18 

1.35 

1.97 

2.38 

2.56 

2.53 

2.47 

2.26 

2.00 

1.66 

.67 

".30 

6 
11 
10 
15 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
15 
10 
10 
10 

5 

2 

4.1 

3.7 

4.7 

4.2 

4.4 

4.7 

5 

5.4 

5.7 

5.8 

5.2 

4.2 

3.8 

3.3 

3 

2 

12 

45 

37 

70 

84 

88 

94 

100 

108 

114 

116 

104 

63 

38 

33 

30 

10 

4 

80  feet 

2.5 

2.2 

2.8 

2.5 

2.6 

2.8 

3 

3.2 

3.4 

3.5 

3.1 

2.5 

2.3 

2 

1.8 

100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

23 
25 
32 
28 
35 
40 
58 
71 
77 
76 
74 
67 
59 
49 
19 

.23 
.26 

.32 
.28 
.35 
.40 
.58 
.71 
.77 
.76 
.74 
.67 
.59 
.49 
.19 

36 

90  feet 

32 

100  feet 

76 

120  feet 

81 

140  feet 

104 

160  feet 

127 

180  feet 

197 

200  feet 

257 

220  feet 

292 

240  feet 

293 

260  feet 

257 

280  feet 

142 

290  feet 

76 

300  feet 

65 

310  feet 

20 

318  feet. . 

3 

■ 

Total 

1 

252 

1,146 

2,051 

1 

2051-^1146=1. 79  feet  per  second=mean  velocity. 


'Estimated. 


Gauging  made  August  18,  1900,  on  Chagres  River,  at  Alhajuela,  by  canal  company,  by 

means  of  floats. 

[Floats  were  2  feet  sticks,  U  inches  in  diameter,  weighted  at  one  end  so  as  to  float  vertically.    Time, 
8  a.m.    Fluviograph,  28.50  meters.    Length  of  course=60  meters.] 


No.  of 
float. 

Distance  from  right  bank. 

Time. 

Computations. 

Upper 
range. 

Lower 
range. 

Elapsed. 

1 
2 
3 

4 

5 
6 

One-fourth  width  of  river 

do 

/(.  m.    s. 

7    55      6 

7  55    14 

8  4      4 

8      4     11 

8     11     17 
8     11    25 

h.   m.     x. 
7    57    15 

7  57    26 

8  5    23 

8      5    32 

8    12    66 

8    12    58 

,s'i  minis. 

129 
132 
79 

81 

99 
93 

Area=101.4f>  in-. 
I^-2=.472=velo,ily. 

One-half  width  of  river 

do 

Three-fourths  width  of  river  .. 
do 

613 
6  = 

then  101.45  x  .472  x0.80  =  47.ns|  hi1  |mt  second,  or  1,690  sece 

=102.2=mean  time, 
nd-feet. 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


55 


The  company's  result  was  1,690  cubic  feet  per  second,  being  only  82 
per  cent  that  of  this  Commission,  which  was  2,051.  Since  the  gaug- 
ings  were  made  at  almost  the  same  time  and  gauge  height,  the  above 
discrepancies  are  greater  than  they  should  be.  The  ratio  \v;is  almost 
constant  in  all  the  simultaneous  observations  at  Alhajuela,  and  is 
explainable  as  follows:  The  coefficient  of  0.80  is  too  small,  considering 
that  Moats  are  released  at  three  sections.  Owing  to  the  curvature  of 
the  channel,  the  currents  are  not  parallel  to  the  bank  and  floats  Nos.  1 
and  2  always  approach  the  right  bank  and  at  times  cross  the  lower 
range  within  10  feet  of  the  bank.  The  second  float  at  times  passes  the 
first  float,  although  liberated  about  ten  seconds  later.  Generally  a  dis- 
tance between  ranges  of  60  meters  is  too  long,  as  the  error  introduced 
by  the  more  erratic  drift  of  the  float  is  not  balanced  by  the  greater 
accuracy  in  the  time,  unless  the  channel  is  straight  and  the  cross  section 
exceptionally  uniform. 

Although  it  is  useless  to  introduce  an}^  degree  of  refinement  in  the 
computation  of  float  measurements  unless  the  course  is  exceptionally 
good,  still  the  above  method  of  obtaining  the  mean  velocity  is  errone- 
ous, as  it  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  length  of  the  course  by  the  mean 
time.  The  true  mean  velocity  is  the  mean  of  the  velocities  of  the  fila- 
ments which  constitute  the  stream.  It  may  be  mathematically  shown 
that  unless  the  observed  time  of  all  the  floats  is  the  same  the  result 
obtained  by  the  above  method  is  always  too  small  and  that  the  error 
increases  as  the  differences  in  the  observed  times  increase.  The  method 
as  employed  introduces  an  error  varying  from  3  to  5  per  cent.  The 
balance  of  the  discrepancy  is  mainly  accounted  for  by  the  coefficient 
0.80  being  too  small. 

On  December  26  Mr.  R.  G.  DuBoulay  was  put  in  charge  of  all  the 
hydrographic  observations  at  Alhajuela,  which  included  measuring  the 
Chagres  at  Alhajuela  and  at  Santa  Barbara,  the  Gatuncillo,  and  the 
Chilibre  rivers. 

In  all  71  measurements  of  the  Chagres  River  at  Alhajuela  were  made, 
varying  in  gauge  height  from  28. 12  meters  to  31.39  meters.  The  first 
high  flood  of  the  year,  that  of  July  3  and  4,  cut  into  the  crest  of  the 
rapids  just  below  the  fluviograph,  thus  changing  the  relation  between 
gauge  height  and  the  discharge,  so  that  two  rating  tables  are  necessary. 

RATING   TABLE    FOR   STATION    OX    CHAGRES    RIVER   AT   ALHAJUELA. 

This  table  is  applicable  only  from  October  1,  1899,  to  July  3,  1900: 


Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

[Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

Meters. 

See. feet. 

Meters. 

Sec. feet. 

Meters. 

Sec. feet. 

Meters. 

Sec. feet. 

28 

28.75 

3,440 
3,775 

29.50 

9,105 
9,530 

30. 25 

15, 985 
16, 475 

28.05 

355 

28.80 

29. 55 

30.30 

28.10 

455 

28.85 

4, 120 

29.60 

9,960 

30.  35 

16, 965 

28.15 

560 

28.90 

4,470 

29. 65 

10, 395 

30.40 

17, 460 

28.20 

675 

28.95 

4,825 

29.70 

10, 835 

30. 45 

17,955 

28.25 

815 

29 

6,185 

29.75 

11,280 

30.50 

18, 455 

28.30 

985 

29.05 

5,550 

29.80 

11, 730 

30. 55 

18, 950 

28.  35 

1,185 

29.10 

6,920 

29.85 

12, 185 

30.60 

19, 450 

28.40 

1,410 

29.15 

6,300 

29.90 

12, 645 

30.65 

19, 950 

28. 45 

1,655 

29.20 

6,685 

29.95 

13,110 

30.70 

20, 450 

28.50 

1,920 

29.25 

7,075 

30 

13, 580 

30.75 

20, 950 

28.55 

2, 200 

29.30 

7,470 

30. 05 

14, 055 

30.80 

21,450 

28.60 

2,495 

29. 35 

7,870 

30.10 

14, 535 

30.85 

21,950 

28.65 

2, 800 

29. 40 

8, 275 

30.15 

15, 015 

28.70 

3,115 

29.45 

8,685 

30.20 

15,500 

56  KEPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

This  table  is  applicable  only  from  July  4,  1900,  to  date: 


Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

M<  tt  rs. 

Sec.  feet. 

Meters. 

Sec.  feet. 

.1/-  ti  rs. 

Sec.  feet. 

Meters. 

Sec.  feet. 

28 
28. 05 

28.90 
28.95 

4,990 
5,380 

29. 80 
29.85 

13,090 
13, 630 

30.70 
30.75 

23, 710 
24, 320 

355 

28.10 

455 

29 

5,775 

29.90 

14, 180 

30.80 

24, 935 

28.  15 

560 

29.05 

6,175 

29.95 

14,  740 

30.85 

25,550 

28.20 

075 

29.10 

6,575 

30 

15,310  ! 

30.90 

26,165 

28.  25 

815 

29.15 

6, 980 

30.05 

15,890 

30.95 

26,  780 

28.30 

990 

29.20 

7,390 

30.10 

16, 475 

31 

27,  400 

28.36 

1,200 

29.25 

7,810 

30.15 

17,  065 

31.05 

28,020 

28.40 

1,145 

29.30 

8,240 

30.20 

17, 660 

31.10 

28,  640 

28.45 

1 ,  720 

29.35 

8,680 

30.25 

18,260 

31.15 

29,260 

28.50 

2, 025 

29.40 

9,130 

30.30 

18, 860 

31.20 

29,880 

28.55 

2, 355 

29.45 

9,590 

30.35 

19,  460 

31.25 

30,500 

28.60 

2,710 

29.50 

10, 060 

30.40 

20,  065 

31.30 

31, 120 

28.  65 

3,  080 

29.55 

10, 540 

30.45 

20,  670 

31. 35 

31, 740 

28.70 

3,455 

29.00 

11,030 

30.  50 

21,  275 

31.40 

32,360 

28.75 

3,835 

29.65 

11,530 

30.55 

21, 880 

31.45 

32, 980 

28.80 

4,215 

29.70 

12, 040 

30.60 

22, 490 

31.60 

33,600 

28.85 

4,600 

29.75 

12, 560 

30.65 

23,100 

The  table  of  "Monthly  discharge"  was  then  computed,  using  these 
rating  tables  with  the  daily  mean  gauge  height,  as  given  by  the  fluvio- 
graph,  as  the  argument;  but  on  days  of  flood — that  is,  days  in  which 
the  river  rises  over  gauge  height,  29 — the  daily  mean  discharge  is 
obtained  b}T  taking  the  mean  of  the  discharge  corresponding  to  the 
bihourly  height.  This  is  necessaiy,  as  the  increment  increases  rapidly 
with  equal  increases  of  gauge  height,  This  table  will  be  found  on 
page  55. 

TRIBUTARIES   BETWEEN    ALHAJUELA   AND   GAMBOA. 

The  mean  monthly  discharge  of  all  the  tributaries  between  Alhajuela 
and  Gamboa  was  obtained  by  subtracting  the  discharge  at  the  former 
station  from  the  discharge  at  the  latter,  month  by  month. 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  tributaries  to  the  Chagres  River  between  Alhajuela  and 

Gamboa. 

[Drainage  area,  130  square  miles.] 


Mean  dis- 
charge. 

Total. 

Run-off. 

Month. 

Per 
square 
mile. 

Depth. 

Rainfall.* 

1900. 

Sec.  feet. 
85 
54 
33 
6 
27 
492 
956 
598 
649 
957 
911 
'.•1 

Acre-feet. 
5,226 

■_'.  999 

2,029 

867 

1 .  660 

29,  270 

58,  782 
36,  769 
88, 020 
58,840 
54,210 
&7780 

Sec.  feet. 

' .  65 

.42 

Inches. 
.75 
.44 
.29 

Inches. 
1.41 

.10 

.08 

.05              .06 

.21                .24 

3.  00 

May                   

8.  10 

:;.  78 
7.  35 
4.60 
1.99 

7.  30 
7.01 

.72 

4.20 
8.46 
5.30 
6.74 
8.47 
7.82 
.83 

14.97 

July                     

16.58 

9.74 

13.  22 

12.68 

12.01 

.97 

407 

294,  518 

42. 00 

93.88 

■>  Mean  of  observations  at  Alhajuela  ami  Gamboa. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


57 


Ratio  of  run -off  to  rainfall  =  45  per  cent. 

The  chief  tributaries  between  Alhajuela  and  Gamboa  are  the  Chili- 
bre  and  the  Gatuneillo.  Weekly  gaugings  of  these  were  made,  and 
their  gauge  height  was  read  three  times  per  week.  These  observations 
in  a  general  way  furnished  the  relation  of  the  discharge  of  each  one  to 
the  total  increase  of  discharge  between  the  stations,  which  is  as  follows: 

Per  eent. 

Chilibre 36 

Gatuneillo 26 

Other  sources 38 

Total 100 

The  highest  observed  gauge  height  on  the  Chilibre  was  22  feet, 
giving  a  computed  discharge  of  3,700  second-feet.  On  the  Gatuneillo 
the  highest  observed  gauge  height  was  16  feet,  giving  a  computed  dis- 
charge of  2,500  second-feet. 

The  following  experiments  with  rod  floats  were  made  at  Alhajuela 
to  find  the  relation  between  the  surface  velocities  and  the  mean  velocity 
in  a  vertical  section: 


Float  experiments  made  August  22,  1900  (fluviograph  =  2S.Sl). 
I.  PULL-DEPTH  ROD  FLOATS  OF  2  TO  3  INCHES  UNIFORM  DIAMETER. 


Distance  from  right  bank  .feet.. 

Length  of  floats do. . . 

Elapsed  time seconds. . 

Velocity feet  per  second.. 


20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

7.5 

5 

5 

5 

3.5 

3.5 

3.5 

3.5 

3.5 

3.5 

87 

78 

78 

77 

75 

57 

55 

55 

59 

64 

2.27 

2.53 

2.53 

2.56 

2.63 

3.46 

3.58 

3.58 

3.34 

3.08 

220 
2 

93 
2.12 


Mean  =  2.88  feet  per  second. 

II.  FLOATS  OF  li  FEET  LENGTH,  2  INCHES  UNIFORM  DIAMETER. 


Distance  from  right  bank  .feet. . 

Elapsed  time seconds. . 

Velocity feet  per  second . . 


20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

72 

75 

70 

68 

63 

53 

50 

46 

51 

58 

2.74 

2.63 

2.81 

2.90 

3.13 

3.72 

3.94 

4.38 

3.86 

3.40 

220 

71 

2.77 


Mean  =  3.30  feet  per  second. 

Ratio  =  2.88^-3.30  =  0.87. 

The  discharge  obtained  by  using  2.88  as  the  mean  velocity  is  4,040 
second-feet,  which  compares  favorably  with  discharges  obtained  by 
means  of  current  meters. 

CHAGRES  RIVER   AT   SANTA   BARBARA'. 


The  gauge  height  of  the  Chagres  River  at  Santa  Barbara  was  read  by 
C.  Clauzel  at  6  a.  m.  and  6  p.  m.  and  at  times  of  important  fluctua- 
tions. The  discharge  measurements  were  made  with  current  meters 
and  surface  floats.  After  comparing  several  float  measurements  with 
simultaneous  current-meter  measurements  a  coefficient  of  0.85  was 
adopted  to  reduce  the  observed  velocity  of  the  floats  to  the  mean 
velocity  of  the  cross  section.     Thirty-five  current-meter  and  110  float 


58 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


measurements  were  made,  from  which  the  following  rating  table  was 
computed: 

Haling  table,  Chagres  River,  at  Santa  Barbara. 


Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

Feet. 

Sec.ft. 

Feet. 

Sec.ft. 

Feet. 

Sec.ft. 

Feet. 

Sec.ft. 

1.0 

3.4 

1,790 
1,915 

5.8 

5, 520 
5,715 
5,910 
6,110 

8.2 

10  500 

1.1 

3.5 

5.9 

8.3 

10, 720 
10, 945 

1.2 

3.6 

2,040 
2,170 
2,300 
2,430 
2,565 
2,  700 

6.0 

8.4 

1.3 

3.7 

6.1 

8.5 

11,170 

1.4 

3.8 

6.2 

6,310 
6,510 

8.6 

11,400 

1.5 

3.9 

6.3 

8.7 

11,640 

1.6 

4.0 

6.4 

6,710 
6,915 

8.8 

11,890 

1.7 

300 

4.1 

6.5 

8.9 

12, 155 

1.8 

320 

4.2 

2,840 

6.6 

7,120 

9.0 

12, 445 

1.9 

350 

4.3 

2,980 

6.7 

7, 325 

9.1 

12, 745 

2.0 

390 

4.4 

3,125 

6.8 

7,530 

9.2 

13, 055 

2.1 

440 

4.5 

3,270 

6.9 

7,735 

9.3 

13, 375 

2.2 

500 

4.6 

3,420 

7.0 

7,940 

9.4 

13, 700 

2.3 

570 

4.7 

3,575 

7.1 

8,150 

9.5 

14, 025 

2.4 

650 

4.8 

3,730 

7.2 

8,360 

9.6 

14,350 

2.5 

750 

4.9 

3,890 

7.3 

8,570 

9.7 

14,675 

2.6 

855 

5.0 

4,055 

7.4 

8,780 

9.8 

15, 000 

2.7 

965 

6.1 

4,225 

7.5 

8,990 

9.9 

15, 325 

2.8 

1,075 

5.2 

4,400 

7.6 

9,200 

10.0 

15, 650 

2.9 

1,190 

5.3 

4,580 

7.7 

9,415 

11.0 

18, 900 

3.0 

1,305 

5.4 

4,765 

7.8 

9,630 

12.0 

22, 150 

3.1 

1,425 

5.5 

4,950 

7.9 

9,845 

13.0 

25, 400 

3.2 

1,545 

5.6 

5,140 

8.0 

10, 060 

3.3 

1,665 

5.7 

5,330 

8.1 

10, 280 

Remarks. — The  zero  of  the  gauge  rod  is  at  elevation  170.8  feet. 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Chagres  River  at  Santa  Barbara. 
[Drainage  area,  300  square  miles.] 


Month. 


1900 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 


Discharge. 


Maximum.  Minimum.    Mean 


.Sec.  feet. 

8,360 

1,020 
415 

8,570 
16, 625 

6,510 
19, 875 
18,250 
13,055 
33, 600 


Sec.  feet. 
700 
390 
320 
300 
310 
610 
802 

1,020 
965 

1,365 


Src.fnl 

1,205 

542 

369 

430 

1,003 

i,:;:;s 

1,900 

2, 348 

1,717 

3,601 


Run-off. 

Total. 

Square 
mile. 

Depth. 

I'-;',  -/'<</. 

Sir.   fill. 

Inches. 

74,090 

4.02 

4.63 

30, 100 

1.81 

1.88 

22, 690 

1.23 

1.41 

25,  590 

1.43 

1.60 

61,670 

3.34 

3.88 

79, 620 

4.46 

4.98 

116,830 

6.33 

7.31 

144,370 

7.83 

9.02 

102, 170 

5.72 

6.38 

221, 420 

12.00 

13.84 

Rainfall 
in  basin. 


Inches. 

1.34 

.21 

.10 

5.52 

13. 15 

21.51 

13.53 

1 1 .  22 

16.08 

17.00 


GAMBOA. 


The  canal  company's  gauging  station  at  Gamboa  is  about  100  yards 
above  the  mouth  of  the,  Obispo  River,  or  about  300  yards  below  the 
proposed  dam  site.  Although  by  no  means  an  ideal  station,  on  account 
of  the  tributary  just  below  it,  which  may  at  times  produce  backwater, 
and  also  on  account  of  the  broken  water  produced  by  a  whirlpool  above 
it,  still  it  is  the  best  section  within  several  miles  to  each  side  of  it.  The 
banks  arc  fairly  high,  and  the  course  straight.  Floods  rising  over 
gauge  height,  L8  meters,  will  cover  the  left  hank,  and  some  water  will 
flow  through  the  digging  for  the  canal,  and  thus  will  not  be  included 
in  the  discharge  measured  at  the  gauging  station.  It  then  becomes 
necessary  to  make  the  measurement  at  (Jorgona,  where,  although  the 


TIG.    '2.— FLUVIOGRAPH   AT  GAMBOA. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


59 


discharge  of  the  Obispo  is  added,  better  results  are  obtained.  The 
fluviograph,  which  is  similar  to  the  one  at  Alhajuela,  is  one-half  mile 
above  the  gauging  station.  Discharge  measurements  are  made  with 
floats  in  the  same  way  as  at  Alhajuela. 

As  the  chief  object  of  the  work  was  to  check  the  observations  of  the 
canal  company,  it  was  necessary  to  locate  the  station  near  theirs, 
although  for  current  meter  measurements  this  location  is  poor.  Near 
the  left  bank  the  river  is  swift  and  shallow,  and  toward  the  right  it 
is  sluggish  and  deep,  thus  a  large  per  cent  of  the  discharge  has  a  low 
velocity,  which  during  low  stages  falls  below  0.30  feet  per  second,  and 
it  is  in  these  low  velocities  that  the  current  meter  works  at  the  great- 
est disadvantage.  The  unnatural  condition  of  the  river  is  due  to  the 
spoil  composed  of  large  pieces  of  rock,  which  were  deposited  along  the 
left  bank  during  construction  times. 

On  this  account  this  station  did  not  receive  the  same  attention  as 
Alhajuela  and  Bohio,  and  no  permanent  observer  was  stationed  here, 
but  the  writer,  with  the  assistance  of  R.  McD.  Geraty,  made  discharge 
measurements  whenever  time  permitted.  Thirty-three  measurements 
were  made  in  the  same  general  way  as  at  Alhajuela,  ranging  in  gauge 
height  from  13.85  to  16  meters,  from  which  the  rating  table  and  esti- 
mated monthly  discharge  table  were  computed.  (Table  of  estimated 
monthly  discharge.     See  page  58.) 

Rating  table  fur  Chagres  River  at  Gamboa. 

This  table  is  applicable  from  October  1,  1899,  to  date. 


Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

Meters. 

Sec.  feet. 

Meters. 

Sec.  feet. 

Meters. 

Sec.  feet. 

Meters. 

Sec.  feet. 

13.5 

14.9 

3,650 
4,115 

16.3 

12,550 
13, 290 
14, 030 

17.7 

23, 150 
23,930 
24, 710 

13.6 

15.0 

16.4 

17.8 

13.7 

250 

15.1 

4, 605 

16.5 

17.9 

13.8 

395 

15.2 

6, 135 

16.6 

14, 775 

18.0 

25,500 

13.9 

560 

15.3 

5,690 

16.7 

15, 525 

18.1 

26,300 

14.0 

746 

15.4 

6,280 

16.8 

16, 275 

18.2 

27, 100 

14.1 

955 

15.5 

6,905 

16.9 

17,025 

18.3 

27,900 

14.2 

1,205 

15.6 

7, 550 

17.0 

17, 780 

18.4 

28, 700 

14.3 

1,480 

16.7 

8,215 

17.1 

18,540 

18.5 

29, 500 

14.4 

1,775 

15.8 

8, 900 

17.2 

19, 300 

18.6 

30, 300 

14.5 

2,090 

15.9 

9, 605 

17.3 

20, 060 

18.7 

31,100 

14.6 

2,425 

16.0 

10, 3^U 

17.4 

20,820 

18.8 

31 , 900 

14.7 

2,795 

16.1 

11,070 

17.5 

21, 590 

18.9 

32, 700 

14.8 

3,205 

16.2 

11,810 

17.6 

22, 370 

19.0 

33, 500 

BUENA  VISTA   AND  BOHIO. 

The  canal  company's  gauging  station  is  at  Buena  Vista,  or  about 
one-half  mile  above  the  proposed  dam  site.  It  is  on  a  long,  straight 
stretch  of  the  river,  of  220  feet  width,  with  high,  steep  banks.  The 
cross  sections  are  very  similar,  and  the  velocities  across  the  stream  are 
very  uniform.  It  is  almost  an  ideal  station  for  discharge  measure- 
ments, its  sole  defect  being  that  at  times  of  extreme  low  water  the 
tides  of  the  Atlantic  may  slightl}T  affect  the  velocity. 

The  fluviograph  is  at  Bohio  and  is  the  counterpart  of  the  one  at 
Alhajuela,  but  the  tides  are  noticeable  whenever  the  height  of  the  river 
is  less  than  0.5  meter,  so  that  below  this  stage  a  rating  table  may 
give  slightly  erroneous  results,  as  the  same  gauge  height  at  different 
times  may  not  correspond  to  the  same  discharge.  A  gauge  rod  divided 
into  centimeters  is  firmly  set  in  the  bank  at  the  gauging  station.  The 
reading  of  this  is  used  in  obtaining  the  mean  area  of  cross  section. 


60 


REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


In  making  discharge  measurements  the  canal  companj'  has  no 
means  whatever  to  show  the  points  at  which  to  release  the  floats,  this 
matter  being  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  boatmen  who  release  the 
floats  at  points  which  they  estimate  as  the  one-quarter,  one-half,  and 
three-quarters  of  the  width;  still,  as  previously  stated,  the  velocities 
across  the  streams  vary  slightly,  so  that  the  results  are  but  slightly 
affected  by  any  errors  of  judgment  of  the  boatmen. 

On  December  27, 1899,  Mr.  Inocencio  Galindo,  jr.,  was  put  in  charge 
of  the  hydrographic  work  at  Bohio,  which  included  weekly  measure- 
ments of  the  chief  tributaries  between  Gamboa  and  Bohio,  such  as  the 
Cafio  Quebrada,  Gigante,  Frijolitos,  Frijoles,  and  the  Agua  Salud. 
Occasional  trips  were  also  made  to  the  Trinidad  and  Gatun  rivers,  at 
which  times  measurements  were  made. 

Mr.  R.  McD.  Geraty  made  frequent  trips  to  this  station  to  assist  in 
and  to  check  the  work. 

Eighty-six  measurements  for  discharge  were  made,  ranging  in  gauge 
height  from  0.28  to  5.43  meters. 

The  summary  of  discharge  will  be  found  on  page  40. 

Rating  table  for  Chagres  River  at  Bohio. 
This  table  is  applicable  onl}T  from  December,  1899,  to  date. 


Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

Meters. 

Sec.feet. 

Mi  Itrs. 

Sec.feet. 

M>  t<  rs. 

Sec.  feet. 

Meters. 

Sec.  f'(t. 

0.1 

1.6 

3,610 

3.1 

9,305 

4.6 

17,  150 

.2 

330 

1.7 

3,930 

3.2 

9, 760 

4.7 

17,730 

.3 

490 

1.8 

4, 200 

3.3 

10, 225 

4.8 

18,^10 

.4 

650 

1.9 

4,600 

3.4 

10,  700 

4.9 

18,  890 

.5 

820 

2.0 

4,950 

3.5 

11,185 

6.0 

19,  170 

.6 

1,015 

2.1 

5,310 

3.6 

11,680 

5.1 

20,  060 

.7 

1,230 

2.  2 

5,680 

3.7 

12, 185 

5.2 

20,650 

.8 

1,465 

2.3 

6,060 

3.8 

12, 700 

5.3 

21,240 

.9 

1,715 

2.4 

6,440 

3.9 

13, 225 

5.4 

21,830 

1.0 

1,975 

2.5 

6,830 

4.0 

13, 765 

5.5 

22,  120 

1.1 

2,235 

2.6 

7,220 

4.1 

14,315 

5.6 

23,  020 

1.2 

2,495 

2.7 

7,620 

4.2 

14,870,. 

5.7 

23,  620 

1.3 

2,755 

2.8 

8,025 

4.3 

15,430 

5.8 

24,  220 

1.4 

3,020 

2.9 

8,440 

4.4 

16,000 

5.9 

24,820 

j          1.5 

3,305 

3.0 

8,865 

4.5 

16,570 

6.0 

25,  1-0 

The  following  current  meter  observations  were  made  on  July  31  at 
Buena  Vista  to  test  the  assumption  that  the  velocity  at  0.0  depth  below 
the  surface  is  the  mean  of  the  velocities  in  a  vertical  section: 


Distance  from  right  bank. 

50  feet. 

110  feet. 

160  feet. 

Depth  of 

Depth  of 

Depth  of 

observa- 

Velocity. 

observa- 

Velocity. 

observa- 

Velocity. 

tion. 

tion. 

tion. 

Feet. 

Ft.  /»  r  xi  C. 

/;«/. 

Ft.  pi  r  xi  C. 

Feet. 

FY.  pi  r  sec. 

1.0 

3.  7.". 

1.0 

3.86 

0.5 

3.69 

2.0 

3.75 

2.0 

:;.  72 

1.5 

8.63 

3.0 

3.  72 

3.0 

3.66 

2.  5 

8.63 

L0 

:;.•;:; 

4.0 

3. 59 

3.  5 

3.  53 

5.0 

8.  56 

6.0 

::.:.:; 

1.5 

3.  50 

6.0 

3. 52 

6.  0 

3.  i:: 

.;.  13 

7.0 

8.43 

7.0 

3.  10 

6.6 

3.24 

8.0 

3.21 

8.0 

3.24 

7.5 

3.08 

'.Ml 

2.  91 

9.  0 

3.05 

8. 5 

2.61 

9.7 

2.35 

9.5 

2.84 

Mean 

3.44 

3.44 

3.37 

0.6  depth 

3.52 

3.  13 

3. 45 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


61 


The  width  of  the  river  at  the  time  of  the  observations  was  214  feet, 
the  gauge  height  2.26  meters,  and  the  total  depth  at  the  stations  in 
order  from  the  right  bank  was  9.9,  9.9,  and  9.1  feet  As  there  is  less 
than  one-half  foot  below  the  last  measurement,  one-half  weight  is 
given  to  these  in  obtaining  the  mean,  except  in  the  last  case,  where 
there  is  also  but  one-half  foot  above  the  first  measurement.  These 
observations  were  made  from  a  boat.  The  meter  was  lowered  to  the 
specified  depth,  and  the  revolutions  for  two  consecutive  fifty  seconds 
were  noted;  if  these  did  not  agree,  the  revolutions  for  fifty  additional 
seconds  were  noted,  and  the  mean  of  these  was  then  used  as  an  argu- 
ment in  the  rating  table  to  obtain  the  velocity. 

TRIBUTARIES   BETWEEN    BOHIO   AND   GAMBOA. 

The  largest  tributary  between  Bohio  and  Gamboa  is  the  Cana  Que- 
brada;  minor  tributaries  in  order  of  their  size  are  the  Obispo,  Gigante, 
Frijoles  and  Frijolitos,  and  Agua  Salud.  By  subtracting  the  mean 
monthly  discharge  of  the  Chagres  at  Gamboa  from  the  discharge  at 
Bohio  the  discharge  of  all  the  tributaries  was  obtained. 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  tributaries  to  the  Chagres  River  between  Gamboa  and  Bohio. 
[Drainage  area,  245  square  miles.] 


Months. 


Mean  dis- 
charge 


Total. 


Run-off. 


Per 

square 
mile. 


Depth. 


Rainfall.1 


1900 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 


Sec.  feet. 

177 

82 

40 

15 

55 

759 

1,856 

1,188 

1,440 

2;  374 

2, 125 

720 


Acre-feet. 

10, 890 

4, 550 

2, 460 

900 

3,380 

45, 160 

114,120 

73, 050 

85, 690 

145, 970 

126,440 

44,270 


Sec.  feet. 

0.72 

.33 

.17 

.06 

.22 

3.10 

7.57 

4.85 

5.88 

9.69 

8.68 

2.94 


Inches. 

0.83 

.34 

.20 

.07 

.25 

3.46 

8.73 

5.59 

6.56 

11.17 

9.68 

3.39 


Inches. 

3.57 

.26 

.46 

3.08 

7.08 

11.01 

16.99 

11.33 

11.96 

15. 27 

17.82 

2.40 


656, 880 


50.27 


101.23 


"Mean  of  observations  at  Bohio,  Gorgona,  and  Gamboa. 
Ratio  of  run-off  to  rainfall  =  50  per  cent. 

The  tributaries  named  were  gauged  on  an  average  of  once  per  week, 
and  the  following  table  depends  upon  these  data: 


Rivers. 


Cano  Quebrada 

Obispo 

Gigante 

Frijoles  and  Frijolitos 

Agua  Salud 

Other  sources 


Total. 


Maximum 
measured 
discharge. 


Sec.  fill. 

1,640 

1,177 

281 

219 

90 


Minimum 
measured 
discharge. 


Sec. feet. 
17 
1 
0 
5 
3 


Sec. feet. 

335 
90 
65 
55 
33 

330 


'.HIS 


Per  cent  of 
total  dis- 
charge. a 


» Per  cent  of  the  total  inflow  between  Gamboa  and  Bohio  contributed  by  each  stream. 


62 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


DRAINAGE    AREA    OF   THE    CHAGRES   RIVER. 

The  drainage  area  of  the  Chagres  River  above  Bohio  is  only  approxi- 
mately known  and  depends  upon  the  following  data: 

Totten's  Map  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  gives  that  portion  of  the 
divide  lying  between  latitude  9°  0'  and  9°  20'  N.,  longitude  80°  30'  and 
80°  50' W.  It  also  gives  the  divide  of  the  Rio  Boqueron,  i.  e.,  the 
northwestern  extremity  of  the  drainage  area.  The  survey  of  the  Man- 
dinga  River  bv  this  Commission  gives  the  eastern  divide  at  longitude 
79'15'W. 

The  survey  of  the  Chagres  River  above  Santa  Barbara  gives  the 
northeastern  extremity  of  the  drainage  basin  at  latitude  9°  25'  N., 
longitude  79°  15'  W.  It  also  gives  an  idea  of  the  size  and  general 
direction  of  the  tributaries. 

The  northern  and  southern  portions  of  the  divide,  not  included  in 
Totten's  map,  have  been  approximately  determined  from  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans,  and  in  these  parts  the  greatest  probable  error 
exists. 

SEDIMENT   OBSERVATIONS. 

Observations  to  determine  the  amount  of  sediment  carried  by  the 
Chagres  River  were  made  at  Alhajuela  and  Bohio,  by  means  of  water 
samples  representing  the  mean  condition  of  the  river. 


Months. 


June 

July 

August 

September 
October . . . 


Alhejuela. 


Bohio. 


Mud. 


Cu.  yds. 
75,900 


406, 100 

208, 300 
485, 040 


Solid 
matter. 


Cu.  yds. 
15, 180 


81,230 
41, 660 
97,000 


Mud. 


(  hi.  i/<J*. 
162, 720 
763,800 
580,000 
396, 800 


Solid 

matter. 


Cu.  yds. 
30,540 
162,  760 

116,000 
79, 360 


Five  cubic  yards  of  mud  are  assumed  to  equal  1  cubic  yard  of  solid  matter. 


TRINIDAD   AND   GATUN    RIVERS. 


Below  Bohio  the  major  part  of  the  Chagres  flows  through  the  almost 
completed  cut  for  the  canal,  its  old  channel  being  in  many  places  choked 
hy  vegetation.  In  this  stretch  it  receives  the  waters  of  two  large 
tributaries,  the  Trinidad  and  the  Gatun.  Frequent  trips  to  these  were 
made  and  current  meter  measurements  were  made  each  time.  No  gauge 
rods  were  set  on  these  streams,  because  if  they  were  set  less  than  10 
miles  up,  the  fluctuations  of  the  Chagres  would  materially  influence 
the  rod  reading,  the  slope  of  the  rivers  being  very  slight,  and  the  time 
taken  in  these  trips  would  be  longer  than  the  time  taken  in  making  a 
gauging.  The  inflow  between  the  mouth  and  station  would  also  be 
omitted. 


BEPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


63 


Discharge  of  the  Gatun  and  Trinidad  rivers. 

GATUN. 


Date. 


1899. 
Nov.  17 

1,213 

Dec.  9 

29 

688 
442 

1900. 

359 

19 

218 

25 

259 

Feb.  1 

209 

6 

216 

8 

I'.is 

12 

160 

15 

161 

Dis- 
charge. 


Date. 


1900. 
Feb.  22.... 

26.... 

Mar.   1 

6.... 

12.... 

15.... 

19.... 

23.... 

26.... 
Apr.   5 

12.... 

17.... 

20.... 


Dis- 
charge. 


160 
186 
109 
197 
142 
111 
164 
133 
17S 
130 
88 
133 


Date. 


1900. 
Apr.  23 

117 

26 

237 

May  3 

il 

71 

65 

18 

21 

225 
240 

30 

217 

315 

11 

348 

14 

285 

18 

21 

214 

225 

-    28 

616 

Dis- 
charge. 


Date. 


1900. 

July  5.... 

9.... 

12.... 

16.... 

19.... 

25.... 
Aug.  2.... 

24.... 
Sept.  5 

11.... 

18.... 


Dis- 
charge. 


945 

1,-559 

910 

962 

729 

923 

922 

1,021 

420 

1,111 

888 


Second-feet. 
1,569 

65 

528 

TRINIDAD. 

Date. 


Dis- 
charge 


1899 
Nov-17 

Dec 

9 

29 

1900. 
8 

11 

15 

19 

22 

25 

29 

Feh 

1 

6 

8 

12 

1,687 

2,371 

896 


1,210 
744 
705 
574 
599 
569 
555 
631 
439 
492 
450 


1900. 
May  10 

463 

14 

244 

18 

610 

21 

620 

24 

533 

30 

1,094 

2,373 

1,379 

993 

11 

14 

18 

931 

21 

1,358 

28 

1,537 

July    2 

1,337 

5 

1,577 

9 

1,574 

12 

1,868 

Dis- 
charge, 


Date 


Dis- 
charge. 


1,594 
2,255 
2,295 
2,144 
1,375 
1,464 
2,521 
1,403 
1,283 
2,120 
2,607 
1,474 
2,256 


Second-feet. 

Maximum 2, 607 

Minimum 143 

Mean 1, 110 

The  "mean  "  is  the  mean  of  the  monthly  means. 
HYDRAULICS    OF   THE    CHAGRES    RIVER   AT  ALHAJUELA    AND   BOHIO. 


At  Alhajuela  and  Bohio  the  fluviograph  rods  and  gauge  rods  were 
read  each  time  a  gauging  was  made;  the  difference  in  these  simulta- 
neous readings  in  connection  with  the  distance  between  the  rods,  the 
measured  discharge,  and  several  cross  sections  of  the  river  furnished 
the  slope,  the  mean  hydraulic  radius,  and  the  mean  velocity.  From 
these  data  the  value  of  the  coefficient  for  roughness  "N"  in  "Kutter's 
formula"  was  computed. 

At  Alhajuela  the  distance  between  the  rods  is  200  meters;  the  bed 
of  the  river  is  small  gravel  and  the  banks  are  steep  and  free  from 
weeds  and  bushes.  At  Bohio  the  distance  between  the  rods  is  1,335 
meters;  the  bed  is  clay,  with  small  gravel  and  free  from  detritus;  the 
banks  are  high  but  are  covered  with  weeds  and  bushes. 


64  REPORT  OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

ALHAJUELA. 


Gauge 

Mean 

Mean  dis- 

Mean 

Hydrau- 
lic ra- 
dius. 

Slope. 

"N." 

height. 

area. 

1  charge. 

velocity. 

28.15 

815 

580 

0.71 

3.84 

0.000025 

0.027 

28.28 

910 

953 

1.05 

4.16 

.000050 

.026 

28. 51 

1,075 

1,928 

1.80 

4.74 

.000095 

.023 

28.68 

1,200 

2,926 

2.44 

5.17 

.000144 

.  022 

28.84 

1,320 

4,040 

3.01 

5.58 

.000211 

.023 

29. 46 

1,785 

9,361 

6.20 

7.23 

.000350 

.020 

31.01 

3,000 

25, 872 

8.62 

11.50 

.000892 

.026 

BOHIO. 


1.59 

1,340 

2,560 

1.91 

6.90 

0. 000097 

0. 025 

2. 50 

2,000 

6,100 

3.05 

8.58 

. 000142 

.024 

3.19 

2,500 

8,930 

3.58 

10. 42 

.  000165 

.026 

4.42 

3,400 

14, 600 

4.29 

13.10 

.000210 

.029 

5.50 

4,040 

21,020 

5.20 

14.70 

.  0002"7 

.029 

RIO    GRANDE. 

From  Culebra  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  the  line  of  the  canal  follows  the 
valley  of  the  Rio  Grande;  therefore  an  idea  of  the  floods  and  the  gen- 
eral characteristics  of  this  stream  becomes  valuable.  Accordingly,  on 
October  25,  1899,  two  gauge  rods  were  set  at  Pedro  Miguel,  the  first 
being  250  }^ards  above  and  the  second  30  yards  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Pedro  Miguel  River.  The  lower  rod  could  not  be  set  farther  down- 
stream on  account  of  the  high  tides  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  tidal 
effect  at  Miraflores  being  at  least  5  feet. 

These  rods  were  read  at  6  a.  m.  and  6  p.  m.,and  additional  readings 
were  taken  during  floods. 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Grande  River  at  250  yards  above  the  mouth  of  the  Pedro 

Miguel. 

[Drainage  area,  10  square  miles.] 


Month. 


1899 

November 

December 

1900 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

The  year 


Discharge. 


Maximum.  Minimum.    Mean 


Sec.  ft. 
410 
65 


37 

1 

2 

1 

210 

650 

550 

283 

660 

370 


I'.OO 


Sec.  ft. 
10.0 
3.0 


1.0 
0.5 
0.0 
0.0 
0.6 
3.0 
5.0 
2.0 
11.0 
30.0 


0.0 


Srr.  ft. 
35.0 
13.0 


3.0 

0.7 
0.2 
0.3 
11.0 
44.0 
114.0 
50.0 
:;s.n 
60.  0 


31.0 


Total. 


Acre-ft. 
2,082 

800 


INI 

39 

12 

is 

676 

2,618 

7,010 

3, 07 1 

2, 261 

3,690 


Run-off. 


Per 

square 
mile. 


Sec.  ft. 
3.50 
1.30 


0.30 
0.07 
0.02 
0.03 
1.  10 
4.40 
II.  in 
5.00 
3.80 
6.00 


22,  Kll 


Depth. 


Inches. 

3.90 
1.50 


0.35 
0.07 
0. 02 
0. 03 
1 .  27 
1.91 
13.  I  I 
5.76 
4.24 
6.92 


VI.  1 1 


Rainfall. 


Inchrs. 
8.67 
2. 34 


0.56 
0.09 
0.00 
2.73 
10.66 
10.30 
25. 0-1 
6.62 
6.75 
8.68 


82. 34 


Ratio  of  run-off  to  rainfall  =  0.51  per  cent. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN"    CANAL    COMMISSION.  65 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Grande  River  at  SO  yards  below  (he  month  of  Pedro  Miguel. 
[Drainage  area,  19  square  miles.] 


Month. 


1899 

November 

December 

1900 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

The  year 


Discharge. 


Maximum.  Minimum.    Mean 


Sec.  ft. 
790 
100 


50 

3 

3 

2 

310 

1,550 

1,850 

1,550 

1,550 

800 


1,550 


Sec.  ft. 
27.0 
12.0 


3.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
1.0 
10.0 
21.0 
12.0 
18.0 
34.0 


0.0 


Sec.  ft. 
81.0 
26.0 


7.0 

1.0 

0.2 

0.5 

24.0 

105.0 

295.0 

142.0 

80.0 

112.0 


74.0 


Total. 


Acre-ft. 
4, 820 
1,600 


430 

56 

12 

31 

1,476 

6,250 

18, 140 

8,730 

4,760 

6,885 


53, 190 


Run-off. 


square 
mile. 


Sec.  ft. 
4.26 
1.37 


0.37 
0.05 
0.01 
0.03 
1.26 
5. 53 
15.53 
7.47 
4.21 
5.90 


Depth. 


Inches. 
4.75 
1.58 


0.43 
0.05 
0.01 
0.03 
1.45 
6.17 
17.90 
8.61 
4.70 
6.80 


52.48 


Rainfall. 


Inches. 
8.67 
2.34 


0.56 

0.09 

0.00 

2.73 

10.66 

10.30 

25.04 

6.52 

6.75 


82.34 


Ratio  of  run-off  to  rainfall  =  0.637  per  cent. 

PRECAUTIONS  FOR  ACCURACY. 

The  following  precautions  were  taken  so  that  any  constant  errors  in 
the  results  might  be  detected :  The  current  meters  were  rerated.  Simul- 
taneous gaugings  with  two  meters  were  frequently  made,  which  would 
show  whether  rerating  was  necessary.  The  meter  at  one  station  was 
at  times  exchanged  for  the  meter  at  another.  The  gauging  section 
was  occasionally  moved  several  hundred  yards  up  or  down  stream,  thus 
any  local  conditions  giving  erroneous  results,  such  as  diagonal  currents, 
etc.,  could  be  detected.  To  eliminate  errors  of  personal  equation  the 
observers  were  changed. 

Hating  the  meters. — At  Obispo  there  is  a  pool  formed  in  the  exca- 
vation for  the  "  Obispo  lock."  It  is  130  feet  long,  100  feet  wide,  and 
over  12  feet  deep.  It  has  no  current  except  after  a  heavy  rainfall. 
A  railroad  trestle  spans  it  across  its  longest  dimension,  and,  as  a  push 
car  is  readily  obtainable,  we  have  excellent  conditions  for  rating  meters. 

An  outrigger  was  fastened  to  the  car,  from  which  the  meter  was 
freely  suspended  so  as  to  be  at  least  3  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
water.  The  car  was  then  pushed  at  a  uniform  velocity  over  a  meas- 
ured course  of  80  feet  and  the  time  and  revolutions  were  noted.  Thus 
the  relation  between  the  revolutions  per  second  and  velocity  per  sec- 
ond was  obtained.  Forty  or  fifty  trips  were  made  at  velocities  varying 
from  0.30  feet  per  second  to  9  feet  per  second,  each  trip  being  at  a 
uniform  velocity;  thus  any  change  in  the  relation  between  the  revo- 
lutions per  second  and  the  velocity  per  second  was  obtained. 

The  following  table  shows  the  care  taken  to  reduce  the  error  due  to 


S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2- 


fifi 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


the  rating  table  as  far  as  practicable  to  a  minimum;  it  also  shows  the 
effect  of  constant  and  ordinary  use: 

Summary  of  rating  tables  for  current  meters. 


Meter  No. 

93. 

94. 

47. 

Date  of 

Dec.  16, 

Mar.  8, 

July  7, 

Mar.  20, 

Oct.  11, 

Dec.  16, 

Sept.  6, 

rating. 

1899. 

1900. 

1900. 

1900. 

1900. 

1899. 

1900. 

Revolu- 

tions per 
second. 

"Velocity  (feet  per  second). 

0.50 

1.72 

1.72 

1.66 

1.69 

1.71 

1.25 

1.21 

1.00 

3.42 

3.36 

3.37 

3.25 

3.35 

2.38 

2.40 

1.50 

5.02 

4.94 

4.88 

4.75 

4.90 

3.63 

3.60 

2.00 

6.62 

6.52 

6.33 

6.25 

6.45 

4.68 

4.80 

2.50 

S.  22 

8.12 

7.78 

7.77 

8.00 

5.83 

6.02 

3.00 

9.82 

9.72 

9.23 

9.32 

9.55 

6.98 

7.32 

3.50 

11.42 

11.32 

10.68 

10.87 

11.10 

8.13 

8.62 

4.00 

13.02 

12.92 

12.13 

12.42 

12. 65 

9.28 

9.92 

Meters  Nos.  93  and  94  are  "large  Price  electric  meters,"  and  No.  47  is  a  "small  Price  electric  meter." 

RAINFALL. 

Rainfall  observations  are  made  by  the  Panama  Canal  Company  at 
Bohio,  Gamboa,  Alhajuela,  and  Panama,  and  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company  keeps  a  record  at  Colon.  These  records  give  a  good  idea  of 
the  amount  and  distribution  of  the  rainfall  along  the  canal  line,  but  it 
was  also  deemed  desirable  to  obtain  the  mean  rainfall  on  the  basin  of 
the  Chagres  River  and  its  relation  to  one  of  the  old  records.  With 
this  object  in  view  rain  gauges  were  set  in  the  Upper  Chagres  and 
Pequeni  basins,  so  distributed  with  reference  to  altitude  and  distance 
up  the  river  as  to  give  practically  the  mean  rainfall;  but,  owing  to  the 
numerous  and  almost  impassable  rapids  on  the  upper  Chagres,  it  was 
impracticable  to  set  these  very  far  up.  Following  is  a  description  of 
the  location  of  the  rain  gauges  referred  to  Dos  Bocas,  which  is  the 
junction  of  the  Chagres  and  Pequeni  rivers. 

SANTA    BARBARA,  RIO    FEA,  AND   RIO   PUENTE. 

The  observations  at  these  stations  were  made  by  C.  Clauzel.  Santa 
Barbara  is  on  the  Chagres  River,  3  miles  ESE.  of  Dos  Bocas,  at  an 
elevation  of  225  feet  above  sea  level.  The  observations  were  made  at 
6  a.  m.  and  6  p.  m. 

Rio  Fea  gauge  is  on  a  hill  between  the  Chagres  and  the  Rio  Fea;  it 
is  4.5  miles  NE.  of  Dos  Bocas,  at  an  elevation  of  850  feet.  It  was 
observed  four  times  per  week. 

Rio  Puente  gauge  is  on  a  hill  in  the  Puente  River  basin,  4  miles 
SE.  of  Dos  Bocas,  at  an  elevation  of  610  feet.  Observations  were 
made  each  day  at  10  a.  m. 

SALAMANCA   AND   LAS  MINAS. 

The  rainfall  at  these  stations  was  observed  by  Simon  Bolivar.  Sala- 
manca is  on  the  Pequeni  5.5  miles  N.  of  Dos  Bocas  at  an  elevation  of 
about  200  feet.     Observations  were  made  at  6  a.  m.  and  6  p.  m. 

Las  Minas  is  12  miles  NNE.  of  Dos  Bocas  at  an  elevation  of  about 
250  feet.     Observations  were  made  three  times  per  week. 
The  results  of  these  observations  are  appended  herewith. 
Very  respectfully,  W.  W.  Schlecht, 

Ilydroamplier. 
Mr.  A.  P.  Davis, 

llydrographer^  Isthmian  Canal  Coium/xx/on, 

Washington,  D.  C. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Rainfall  for  1890-1000. 

GORGONA. 


07 


Day. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

1.... 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.26 

0.56 

0.80 

0.00 

0.05 

1.15 

2.... 

.00 

.30 

.00 

.03 

.00 

.00 

.18 

.30 

.10 

.03 

.12 

3.... 

.29 

.10 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.61 

.00 

.46 

4.... 

1.39 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.30 

.00 

.48 

.35 

.09 

.00 

.40 

5 

.00 
.10 

.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 

.46 
.00 

.00 
.06 

1.40 
1.70 

.00 
.00 

.07 
.00 

.00 
.60 

.38 

.50 

6.... 

.06 

7 

.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 
.00 

.15 
.10 

.30 
.00 

.15 
.10 

.64 
.33 

.66 
.00 

.00 
.00 

8.... 

.04 

9.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

1.20 

.00 

.78 

.26 

.10 

.00 

10.... 

.00 

.05 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.46 

.55 

.00 

2.78 

.18 

11.... 

1.58 

.35 

.00 

.02 

.00 

.85 

.00 

.72 

.80 

.00 

.00 

12.... 

.35 

.00 

.05 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.30 

2.40 

.30 

.00 

1.36 

13.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.20 

.05 

.88 

.15 

.05 

14.... 

.10 

.25 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.10 

1.30 

.30 

1.40 

16.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.35 

.90 

3.45 

.00 

.70 

.00 

16.... 

.03 

.00 

.00 

.00 

1.00 

.00 

.22 

.00 

.25 

2.45 

.50 

17.... 

.00 

.05 

.00 

.10 

.00 

.00 

.50 

2.87 

.00 

.10 

.10 

18.... 

.00 

.00 

.03 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.55 

.35 

.00 

.90 

.00 

19.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.10 

.00 

.30 

1.43 

.18 

.24 

20.... 

.00 

.00 

.05 

.00 

.00 

2.25 

2.15 

.64 

.20 

.00 

.05 

21 ... . 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.06 

.12 

.60 

.00 

.68 

22.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.30 

.25 

.70 

.18 

23.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.30 

.60 

.00 

.17 

.14 

24.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.02 

.00 

.20 

.25 

.05 

.70 

26.... 

.25 

1.28 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.22 

1.35 

.00 

.15 

.00 

.77 

26.... 

.24 

.00 

.00 

.00 

1.10 

.18 

.00 

.25 

.00 

.13 

.32 

27.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.20 

.35 

.20 

.23 

.95 

1.57 

28.... 

.00 

.10 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.12 

.00 

2.10 

.35 

.28 

29.... 

.26 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.74 

.30 

.74 

.03 

.00 

.00 

30.... 

.00 

.05 

.00 

.30 

.00 

.10 

1.70 

.05 

.00 

.40 

31.... 
Total 

.00 

.00 

.05 

.40 

2.90 

.12 

4.58 

2.63 

.13 

.20 

3.15 

7.07 

12.48 

19.72 

11.04 

11.25 

11.93 

SANTA  BARBARA,  ON  CHAGRES  RIVER. 


1 

0.00 
.03 
.06 

0.00 
.02 

.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 

0.09 
.00 
.22 

0.41 

1.19 

.00 

2.91 

.25 

1.05 

0.00 
.00 
.91 

0.03 
.78 
.05 

0.62 
.00 
.00 

0.52 
.67 
.86 

2 

3.... 

4.... 

.02 

.00 

.02 

.00 

.00 

1.32 

.16 

.78 

.00 

.19 

5.... 

.06 
.57 

.00 
.01 

.00 
.00 

.01 
.00 

.15 

.07 

1.65 
.72 

.00 
.15 

.09 
.08 

.00 
.14 

.05 
.00 

6.... 

1.50 

7.... 

.45 

.02 

.03 

.01 

.00 

.14 

.06 

.30 

.12 

.02 

.06 

8.... 

.20 

.01 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.23 

.04 

.00 

.04 

1.59 

.03 

9 

.05 
.01 
.01 
.01 
.00 

.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

2.36 
.15 

1.00 
.03 
.04 

.25 
.02 

.68 
.02 

.57 

.66 
.08 
.60 

.04 
.00 

.00 

.00 

1.21 

1.75 

.92 

2.79 
.02 
.24 
.00 

.72 

.04 

.12 

.15 

1.49 

1.82 

10 

11 

12 

13.... 

.05 

14 

.01 
.00 

.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 

.65 
.00 

.38 
.10 

2.86 
.25 

.02 
.00 

.46 
.68 

.30 
.05 

15.... 

.04 

16.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.02 

.65 

.80 

.00 

.10 

.17 

17.... 

.00 

.00 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.85 

.60 

.00 

.06 

.02 

18 

.00 
.00 

.01 
.06 

.00 

.00 

.00 
.00 

.11 
.29 

.10 
.39 

.02 
.90 

.00 
.06 

.01 

.77 

.76 
.20 

19.... 

.02 

20.... 

.00 

.00 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.37 

.64 

1.25 

.24 

2.07 

21.... 

.04 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.18 

.06 

2.33 

.15 

22.... 

.00 

.03 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.38 

.37 

.78 

.26 

.41 

.12 

23.... 

.01 

.01 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.65 

.08 

.19 

.95 

.48 

.01 

24.... 

.02 

.11 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.93 

2.10 

.16 

2.38 

.03 

.71 

25.... 

.03 

.22 

.00 

.00 

.18 

.27 

2.32 

.22 

.22 

.18 

.31 

26.... 

.16 

.08 

.00 

.00 

3.48 

.00 

.31 

.58 

.07 

3.01 

.18 

27.... 

.06 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.01 

.86 

.63 

.03 

.00 

.72 

.75 

28.... 

.02 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.45 

2.08 

.86 

.92 

.02 

.00 

29.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.33 

.19 

.10 

.72 

.57 

.02 

.00 

30.... 

.01 

.08 

.00 

1.11 

1.03 

2.17 

.01 

.02 

.00 

31.... 
Total 

.01 

.00 

.00 

2.07 

.96 

.02 

2.62 

1.41 

.16 

.09 

5.43 

13.67 

22. 54 

13.65 

12.65 

15. 66 

11.80 

68  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Rainfall  for  1899-1900— Continued. 
RIO  PUENTE. 


Day. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

1 

0.01 
.05 
.05 
.12 
.00 
.03 
.30 

0.00 
.02 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.03 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 

0.06 
.00 
.09 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 

0.64 
.00 

.26 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.02 

0.80 
.08 
.24 
.86 
1.72 
3.82 
.10 

2.06 
.00 
.10 
.67 
.00 
.17 
.33 

0.04 
3.28 
.70 
1.20 
.30 
.14 
.80 

0.95 
.10 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.46 
.05 

0.74 
.40 
1.10 
1.00 
.37 
.05 
.08 

•■> 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7.... 

1.03 

8.... 

.01 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.37 

.04 

.00 

1 .  12 

.10 

.03 

9 

.03 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.56 
1.71 
.91 
.12 
.04 
.13 

.02 
.18 
.17 
.27 
.02 
1.13 

.83 
.05 
.63 
.36 
.00 
.02 

.02 
.00 
.03 
.90 
3.21 
1.61 

1.41 

1.52 

.02 

.05 

.03 

1.64 

.05 
.14 
.17 
.05 
2.10 
1.90 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14.... 

.50 

15 

.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 

.42 

.03 
.07 

3.20 

.10 

.00 
.00 

.60 
.95 

.30 
.25 

16.... 

.05 

17 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.05 
.00 

.01 

.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.02 
.00 
.20 
.90 

.70 

1.03 

.04 

.93 

.94 

.99 

1.05 

.43 

.00 

.00 

1.15 

.00 

.60 

1.40 

.90 

■  >•) 

.15 
.05 
.75 
.50 

is 

19... 

20.... 

.00 

21.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.02 

1.30 

1.56 

.25 

2.05 

■  >•) 

.00 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.18 

.99 

.06 

1.42 

.12 

23.... 

.00 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.08 

.60 

.23 

.38 

.08 

21.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.65 

.04 

.10 

.55 

.00 

25. . . . 

.00 

.13 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.10 

3.16 

.11 

1.35 

.04 

.40 

26.... 

.08 

.15 

.00 

.00 

1.05 

.38 

.46 

.75 

.10 

.40 

.60 

27.... 

.10 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.70 

.00 

.15 

1 .  32 

.70 

28.... 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.03 

.74 

.05 

.72 

.11 

1.02 

29. . . . 

.03 

.00 

.00 

.37 

.60 

.98 

1.08 

.03 

.00 

.00 

30.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.02 

.87 

.74 

1.20 

.76 

.00 

31.... 
Total 

.00 

.06 

.00 

.83 

.03 

.08 

1.81 

1.02 

.12 

.08 

1.61 

10.11 

19.35 

18.14 

20. 09 

15.50 

15.15 

SALAMANCA,  ON  PEQUENI  RIVER. 


Day. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1.... 

0.00 

0.10 

0.00 

0.02 

0.14 

0.35 

0.96 

1.80 

0.00 

0.55 

0.34 

1.10 

0.15 

2.... 

1.10 

.10 

.21 

.01 

.01 

.04 

.47 

.00 

.69 

.00 

1.50 

1.31 

1.18 

3.... 

.00 

.11 

.01 

.00 

.26 

.00 

.06 

.72 

.50 

1.35 

.42 

.04 

.33 

4.... 

1.50 

.02 

.00 

.05 

.02 

.00 

.42 

.37 

1.21 

.00 

.23 

.47 

.19 

5.... 

.09 

.30 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.97 

1.43 

.08 

.06 

.42 

.00 

.56 

.00 

6.... 

.02 

1.09 

.10 

.03 

.00 

.  22 

.07 

.39 

.10 

.51 

1.01 

2.09 

.00 

7.... 

.20 

.04 

.02 

.02 

.00 

.09 

.12 

.10 

.00 

.00 

.  24 

1.  13 

.00 

8.... 

.01 

.01 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.67 

.00 

.01 

.00 

1.85 

.01 

.OS 

.00 

9.... 

.02 

.05 

.00 

.05 

.00 

2.59 

.45 

1.27 

.07 

3.32 

.15 

.27 

.00 

10.... 

.00 

.04 

.00 

.04 

.00 

.06 

.67 

.67 

.10 

.00 

.03 

.00 

.00 

11.... 

.08 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.36 

.00 

.35 

.00 

1.22 

.77 

.02 

.27 

12.... 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.01 

.00 

.37 

.00 

.01 

.02 

.00 

.11 

1.57 

.00 

13.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.14 

.20 

.04 

.43 

.73 

1.56 

.43 

.00 

14.... 

.20 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.06 

.00 

1.16 

.01 

1.84 

.40 

.00 

.02 

15.... 

.03 

.07 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.04 

.02 

.17 

.00 

.86 

.38 

.00 

.18 

16.... 

.00 

.01 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.  33 

.00 

.00 

.40 

.62 

.03 

.00 

17.... 

.10 

.02 

.00 

.01 

.12 

.00 

.89 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.07 

1.28 

.22 

18.... 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.06 

.on 

.97 

.00 

.03 

.00 

.00 

1.56 

.00 

.00 

19.... 

.00 

.00 

.  11 

.05 

.00 

.  60 

.00 

.21 

.30 

.73 

1.19 

.00 

.00 

20. . . . 

.05 

.00 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.04 

.00 

1.11 

1.85 

.47 

2.27 

.00 

.07 

21.... 

.07 

.05 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.45 

.27 

.OS 

.35 

.02 

1.53 

.27 

22.... 

.00 

.07 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.06 

.09 

.19 

.13 

.30 

.41 

.00 

23. . . . 

.00 

.09 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.05 

.14 

.so 

.00 

.06 

.00 

24.... 

.02 

.01 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.37 

.00 

.10 

1.71 

.31 

.02 

.00 

.00 

25.... 

.05 

.60 

.00 

.00 

.87 

.  38 

.00 

.01 

1.01 

1.84 

1.00 

.00 

.00 

26.... 

.23 

.28 

.0(1 

.00 

1.10 

.00 

.09 

.18 

.00 

.13 

.00 

.20 

.03 

27.... 

.49 

.03 

.00 

.00 

.01 

.06 

.11 

1.09 

.00 

.38 

.10 

.01 

28.... 

.05 

.03 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.70 

.67 

.07 

1 .  21 

.00 

2.00 

.88 

.00 

29...: 

.20 

.00 

.00 

.27 

.ill 

.87 

.07 

.20 

.02 

.77 

.00 

30.... 

.04 

.08 

.00 

.39 

.47 

.00 

.00 

.01'. 

.00 

.11 

.00 

31.... 

Total. 

.00 

.00 

.00 

1.99 

.01 

.00 

.00 

4.59 

3.20 

.50 

.38 

3.22 

12.15 

8.37 

10.  46 

9.97 

18.81 

10.20 

14.77 

2.92 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Rainfall  for  1899-1900— Continued. 

PEDRO  MIGUEL. 


69 


Day. 


Dec. 


Jan. 


1.... 

4... 

5... 

6... 

7... 

8... 

9... 
10... 
11... 
12... 
13... 
14... 
15... 
16... 
17... 
18... 
19... 
20... 
21... 
22... 
23... 
24... 
25... 
26... 
27... 
28... 
29... 
30... 
31... 

Total 


0.00 
.00 
.17 
.os 
.00 
.55 
.00 
.51 
..SO 
.00 
.00 

.11(1 

.12 
.06 

.00 
.0"> 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


0.00 
.15 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.12 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.09 
.00 


Feb. 


Mar. 


2.34 


.56 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.09 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


Apr. 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.12 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.89 
.65 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.48 
.00 
.20 
.00 
.25 


0.25 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.65 

1.52 
.49 

1.22 
.45 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.73 
.00 
.00 
.22 
.25 
.95 
.00 
.06 
.49 
.00 
.27 
.28 
.21 
.00 
.97 
.64 
1.01 


June. 


July 


.(Ml 


2.73     I  10.66 


0.22 
.10 
.17 
.30 
1.21 
1.30 
1.45 
.00 
.00 
.20 
.00 
.07 
.00 
.16 
.00 
.00 
.04 
1.57 
.05 
1.69 
.15 
.00 
.14 
.04 
.23 
.02 
.82 
.00 
.26 
.11 


Aug. 


0.00 

0.00 

.00 

.00 

.35 

.43 

.60 

.44 

.00 

.10 

.05 

.10 

.03 

.40 

.20 

.00 

.78 

.00 

.61 

.00 

.62 

.00 

1.10 

.20 

.02 

1.50 

.00 

.00 

3.00 

.15 

.00 

.00 

1.31 

.00 

1.10 

.10 

1.00 

.45 

1.20 

.00 

1.35 

.00 

1.10 

.00 

2.50 

.00 

.25 

.00 

.57 

.00 

2.10 

.50 

.70 

.50 

.00 

1.50 

1.40 

.15 

2.00 

.00 

.10 

.00 

Sept. 


6.52 


0.79 
.00 
.02 
.51 
.02 
.00 

1.12 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.02 
.15 
.67 
.19 
.09 
.04 
.22 
.80 
.16 
.08 
.71 
.08 
.20 
.25 
.25 
.30 
.02 


Oct. 


6.75 


1.23 
.45. 
.53 
.78 
.45 
.02 
.21 
.01 
.02 
.00 
.02 
.45 
.39 
.87 
.27 
.78 
.02 
.05 
.03 
.03 
.51 
.01 
.42 
.00 
.15 
.09 
.35 
.01 
.00 
.28 
.25 


Rainfall  for  1900. 
ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA. 


Stations. 


Jan. 


Colon 

Bohio 

Gorgona 

Gamboa 

Pedro  Miguel 

Alhajuela 

Campanas 

Santa  Barbara... 

RioFea 

Rio  Puente 

Salmanca 

Las  Minas 


6.06 
7.06 
2.63 
1.01 
.56 
1.82 
1.54 
1.41 
1.26 
1.02 
3.20 
4.90 


Feb. 


(i.:;:: 
.is 
.13 
.16 
.09 
.04 
.05 
.16 
.26 
.12 
.50 

1.17 


Mar. 


1.06 
1.04 
.20 
.13 
.00 
.03 
.11 
.09 
.11 
.08 
.38 
1.21 


Apr. 


0.75 
2.89 
3.15 
3.21 
2.73 
4.10 
2.66 
5.43 
5.60 
1.61 
3.22 
4.39 


May. 


12.25 
7.42 
7.07 
6.76 
10.66 
10.16 
8.57 
13.67 
12.64 
10.11 
12.15 
12.53 


11.65 
18.40 
12.48 
12.15 
10.30 
17.79 
22. 12 
22. 54 
20.48 
19.35 
8.37 
10.91 


July. 


16.81 
17.79 
19. 72 
13.45 
25.04 
19.73 
12. 78 
13.65 
13.41 
18.14 
10.46 
12. 43 


Aug. 


17.04 
14. 02 
11.04 

8.92 

6.52 
10.56 
12. 49 
12.65 

9.79 
20.09 

9.97 
15.01 


Sept. 


Oct. 


9.37  16.33 
15.40  118.43 
11.25  11.93 


9.24 
6.75 

17.20 


12.11 
8.68 
13. 26 


13.55  15.34 
15.66  11.80 
16.51  21.98 
15. 50  15. 15 
18.81  16.20 
9.90   19.91 


Nov. 


20.  28 
24. 98 


10.67 
"8.67 
13.36 


'■13.  50 


14.77 
16.63 


4.13 
4.02 


.79 
»2.34 
1.14 


"2. 62 
"2.06 
1.81 
2.92 
7.23 


Total. 


116.06 
131. 93 


78.60 
82.34 
109. 19 


113.18 


100.95 
116.22 


»  For  1899. 


*  Estimated. 


Appendix  E. 

WASTE-WEIR  DIMENSIONS   AND  DISCHARGE  FOR  LAKE  BOHIO. 

The  determination  of  the  dimensions  of  the  waste  weir  for  Lake 
Bohio  involves  the  simultaneous  discharge  of  the  Chagres  River  into 
the  lake  and  the  outflow  from  the  latter  through  the  weir  during 
floods.  It  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  to  establish  formulas,  or 
curves,  exhibiting  certain  results  arising  from  the  conditions  which 
would  attend  the  concurrent  flood  flow  into  and  out  of  Lake  Bohio. 
These  formulas,  or  curves,  necessarily  do  not  represent  the  actual 
conditions  with  mathematical  exactness,  but  they  approximate  the 
natural  conditions  of  the  lake  closety  enough  to  determine  with  confi- 
dence the  dimensions  of  the  waste  weir  and  the  variation  of  the  head 
of  water  on  it  during  a  given  period  of  variation  of  flood  in  the  Chagres 
River. 

The  discharge  of  the  waste  way  will  not  be  through  a  thin  edge  weir, 
but  over  a  rounded  masonry  lip  or  crest,  for  which  the  coefficient  is 
not  precisely  known.  A  careful  consideration  of  the  results  of  experi- 
ments with  rounded  crests,  including  those  of  Bazin,  appears  to  indi- 
cate that  the  value  of  3.5  for  the  weir  coefficient  is,  on  the  whole, 
justifiable  for  the  present  case,  and  it  will  be  used  in  the  following 
investigations.  It  may  be  a  little  too  large  for  small  heads  or  a  little 
too  small  for  the  greater  heads  used. 

In  deducing  fhe  following  formulas  it  will  be  assumed  that  during 
the  period  of  flood  considered  the  discharge  of  the  river  per  unit  of 
time  (per  second)  increases  at  a  uniform  rate  until  the  maximum  stage 
is  reached;  then  that  it  remains  at  that  stage  for  a  definite  time,  and 
subsequently  decreases  at  a  uniform  rate  generally  not  the  same  as  the 
rate  of  rise.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  uniform  rate  of  increase  is  the 
only  one  of  the  two  of  practical  importance  in  this  investigation,  and 
it  is  to  be  determined  from  data  supplied  by  observation  of  actual 
floods. 

Obviously,  water  may  begin  to  flow  over  the  crest  of  the  waste  way 
at  any  stage  of  the  river  at  its  point  of  entrance  into  the  lake,  depend- 
ing on  the  proximity  of  prior  floods  and  the  draft  recently  made  on 
the  waters  of  the  lake.  The  stage  of  the  river,  therefore,  taken  to 
coincide  in  time  with  the  beginning  of  flow  over  the  rounded  crest  of 
the  waste  weir,  must  be  a  matter  of  judgment  in  view  of  known  data. 

The  notation  to  be  used  is  the  following: 

^=time  in  seconds  measured  from  beginning  of  flow  over  weir. 
T1=value  of  ty  at  instant  the  river  reaches  its  greatest  elevation. 
^!=discharge  of  the  river  in  cubic  feet  per  second  at  any  time  tv 
"V^discharge  of  the  river  in  cubic  feet  per  se'cond  at  the  time  T^ 

r=rate  (uniform)  of  variation  of  discharge  of  river  per  unit  of  time. 

b— length  of  weir  in  feet. 

71 


72 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


/<=head  of  water  on  weir  in  feet;  and  H=greatest  value  of  h. 

a=uniform  rate  of  variation  of  /;  per  unit  of  time,  so  that  h=at,  and  H=aT; 

T>TX. 
V=greatest  discharge  over  weir  in  cubic  feet  per  second;  V  may  or  may  not 

be  equal  to  Vj. 
e=discharge  of  river  per  unit  (second)  of  time  when  lake  is  at  elevation  of 

crest  of  weir. 
Q=general  value  of  discharge  over  weir  in  cubic  feet  per  second.     V  is  the 

greatest  value  of  Q. 
c=weir  coefficient,  taken  equal  to  3.5. 

D=total  discharge  of  weir  in  cubic  feet  in  time  T  (seconds). 
A=area  in  square  feet  of  surface  of  the  lake. 

L=total  storage  in  cubic  feet  in  reservoir  or  lake  above  the  elevation  of  the 
crest  when  head  on  the  weir  is  H  feet. 


Zero  discharge 


Fig.  1. 

The  full  line  of  figure  1  represents  the  fluviograph  record  of  the 
rise  of  the  Chagres  River  during  a  flood  at  Rohio.  Inasmuch  as  this 
discussion  must  cover  all  the  water  flowing  into  Lake  Bohio,  this  flu- 
viograph record  will  be  treated  in  the  application  of  the  formulae  as 
if  it  belonged  to  the  river  at  its  point  of  entrance  into  the  lake.  The 
datum  line  BC  indicates  the  stage  of  the  river  at  the  beginning  of  flow 
over  the  crest  of  the  waste  weir.  Hence  the  point  m  is  the  zero  or 
origin  of  the  time  th  which  is  measured  horizontally  along  mp  and 
toward  the  latter  point.  The  ordinates  above  BC  represent  heights  of 
rise  above  that  datum  at  any  time  tx  in  seconds  measured  from  ///. 
The  trapezoid  mnqp  is  the  equivalent  of  the  actual  record  area  above 
BC.  The  line  qq'  is  midway  between  nn'  and  oo'.  It  is  evident  that 
the  horizontal  line  no  indicates  the  maximum  stage  of  the  river  remain- 
ing constant  during  the  period  no. 

The  discharge  of  the  river  in  cubic  feet  per  second  corresponding 
to  any  height  of  rise  ss'  is  vh  which  becomes  Vi  when  the  greatest  rise 
nn'  is  reached.  The  time  in  seconds  represented  by  ms'  and  corre- 
sponding to  .%•'  is  tx.  For  the  greatest  rise  nnf,  ti=Ti=mn'.  The  dis- 
tance e  is  the  height  of  the  datum  BC  above  the  base  line  of  no  discharge 
in  the  river;  this  distance  is  used  to  represent  the  unit  discharge  of 
the  river  when  t\  is  zero. 

By  means  of  the  notation  taken  there  may  be  written: 


v^e-j-rti  and  V1  =  e-jrrTl 
The  mean  discharge  per  unit  of  time  is: 


(1) 


(2) 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


73 


The  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second  over  the  weir  for  any  head 
h  is  given  by  the  formula: 

Q=3.5M*'« (3) 

The  rate  of  inflow  into  the  reservoir  per  unit  of  time  is  given  by 
equation  (1). 

In  the  time  dtx  the  discharge  of  the  river  is  edt1-\-dt1  dtv  During 
the  same  time  the  volume  of  water  in  the  reservoir  increases  by  the 
amount  Adh  and  the  discharge  over  the  weir  is  3.5  hh?1*  dtv  The  sum 
of  the  second  and  third  of  these  quantities  must  be  equal  to  the  first. 
Consequently,  the  differential  equation  sought  will  be: 

{e+rtl)dtl  =  A.dh+S.bbhzbdtl (4) 

Hence: 

^i^+a^-T*  /  4*^    •  •  •  •  (5) 

If  this  equation  were  integrated,  the  desired  relation  between  A  and 
tx  would  at  once  be  found,  but  the  resulting  equation  would  be  too 
complicated  to  be  easily  worked  in  the  final  computations. 

The  main  features  of  the  curve  expressing  the  relation  between  h 
and  tx  can  be  discovered  by  means  of  equation  (2).  That  equation 
gives: 

dh  _e  +  rt1-3.5bh3i* (6) 

dt~  A 


Therefore: 


d 


fdh\ 

\dtj 

dtx 


r+3.5  h 


d  (h'i») 
dtx 


CO 


When  h  is  small  the  second  number  of  equation  (5)  is  positive,  and 
negative  when  h  is  large.  This  shows  that  the  curve,  of  which  h  is 
the  ordinate  and  tx  the  abscissa,  is  convex  toward  tx  in  the  vicinity  of  0 
and  concave  in  the  upper  part  of  the  curve,  as  indicated  in  figure  2. 


1 


C/— 

Fig.  2. 

If  the  flood  remains  at  its  maximum  stage  a  sufficient  length  of  time 
the  curve  will  become  horizontal  at  same  point  P  and  remain  so,  or 


74  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  curve  ma}'  become  horizontal  after  the  maximum  stage  has  passed, 
but  in  the  latter  case  it  will  not  remain  horizontal. 

After  the  flood  reaches  its  maximum  stage  the  unit  discharge 
V1=6+rT1  may  remain  constant  for  a  definite  length  of  time.  In 
that  case  the  rise  of  the  lake  surface,  i.  e.,  the  increase  of  A,  will  fol- 
low a  different  law  from  that  shown  by  equation  (5).  By  writing  Y1 
for  (e  +  rtj)  in  equation  (4) : 

dh_V1-S15bh^  ,R* 

dt~  A  K) 

or 

dt,= Ay  _35U3k (9) 

This  equation  may  readily  be  integrated. 

If  ^'=(  — tjt  Y3  the  integral  will  take  the  form: 

t,_     1_  tfkk^+h  2  YMli*-k\       .... 

A-~S(S.5b)k  [0%  (k+h^)2     v/3(3.5^tan_\   %/3/fc  J   '  (10) 

By  giving  known  values  to  tx  and  h  the  value  of  the  constant  of 
integration,  C,  can  be  determined  for  any  given  case. 

Equation  (6)  will  enable  that  portion  of  the  curved  line  to  be  con- 
structed showing  the  relation  between  h  and  tx  during  the  rising  stage 

of  the  river,  since  -y~  is  the  tangent  of  the  inclination  of  the  curve  to 

the  coordinate  tv  Similarly,  equation  (8)  by  the  same  method  of 
tangents  will  enable  that  portion  of  the  curved  line  to  be  constructed 
belonging  to  the  highest  stage  of  the  river  where  that  stage  holds 
constant  for  a  suitable  length  of  time. 

These  investigations  are  subject  to  one  source  of  criticism  when 
applied  to  so  large  a  reservoir  as  Lake  Bohio,  because  it  is  implicitly 
assumed  that  the  surface  of  the  lake  remains  horizontal  at  all  times, 
whatever  may  be  the  rate  of  inflow  or  outflow.  In  this  case  the  point 
of  inflow  may  be  fifteen  or  more  miles  from  the  discharging  weir, 
giving  a  sensible  slope  to  the  lake  surface  and  causing  the  head  on  the 
weir  to  increase  for  a  considerable  time  after  the  river  ceases  to  rise, 
or  possibly  after  the  river  begins  to  fall. 

In  the  application  of  the  preceding  analysis  to  the  computations  for 
the  Bohio  weir  the  curves  OMKS  and  O'M'K'S'  in  figure  3  have  been 
constructed,  OM  and  O'M'  belonging  to  the  rising  stage  of  the  river, 
and  MK  and  M'K'  to  the  constant  maximum  stage.  S  and  S'  are  the 
highest  points  of  the  curves  and  show  the  greatest  heads  on  the  weir. 
The  rising  curves  KS  and  K'S'  show  that  the  head  on  the  weir  may 
continue  to  increase  for  sonic  time  after  the  river  begins  to  fall. 

The  complete  consideration  of  the  Lake  Bohio  problem  requires  the 
determination  of  the  discharge  over  the  wTeir  during  the  entire  time 
of  the  increase  of  head  on  the  latter.     This  requires  the  integral 


1*3.5  lh*Wtx=Z.Z  hf/^dt, 


to  be  made.     Tin1  complicated  forms  of  equations  (5)  and  (10)  show 
that  that  integral  is  practically  unworkable. 

By  referring  to  figure  3  it  will  he  observed  that  straight    lines  may 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTIIMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  75 

bo  drawn  from  O  to  either  K  or  S,  or  from  O'  to  either  K'  or  S', 
which  will  have  nearly  equal  portions  of  the  true  curves  on  either  side. 
of  them,  making  it  permissible  to  use  these  straight  lines  for  a  first 
approximation. 

If,  then,  a  be  some  suitable  constant  coefficient,  under  this  approxi- 
mate law  there  will  result: 

li-atx (11) 

The  same  result  can  be  shown  by  a  purely  analytic  method  to  be  a 
reasonable  first  approximation,  and  equation  (11)  will  be  used  in  the 
investigations  which  follow. 

In  consequence  of  the  great  length  of  the  waste  weir  and  the  prac- 
tical suppression  of  end  contractions  it  must  be  assumed  that  there 
will  be  no  end  contraction.  Hence  the  general  expression  of  the  weir 
discharge  will  be: 

Q=cbh3i°-=ca3i*btl3i°- (12) 

At  the  maximum  height  to  which  the  water  will  rise  on  the  weir: 

/^W»  1 
Q=V=«*»T^«=(A)    ^     •     •     •     •     (13) 

The  total  discharge  over  the  weir,  while  the  head  increases  uniformly 
from  o  to  H=&  T,  is: 

D=    /    Qdt=ca2'*b   /    t*i*dt=^ca*i*b¥i*   .    .    .    (11) 
J    *  Jo  5 

Since  W*=c?l*  T*;  D=£jfffe (15) 

Substituting  a  from  equation  (13)  in  equation  (15): 


t_2  (<&)'/', 

'5  V*/» 


(16) 


The  volume  L  impounded  in  the  lake  above  the  elevation  of  the 
crest  of  the  weir  added  to  the  discharge  over  the  weir  during  the  time 
T  is  equal  to  the  discharge  of  the  river  during  the  same  time  T.  If 
T1  represents  the  time  during  which  the  flood  discharge  of  the  river 
rises  from  v1  to  Vn  the  following  equation  will  hold  true: 

|^TH6'2+L=(^±Ii)ti+(T-T1)V1    .     .     .     (17) 


Hence — 


(18) 


7(3  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

If  it  is  desired  that  the  head  on  the  weir  shall  not  exceed  H,  then 
from  equation  (12)  the  length  of  the  weir  must  be  at  least: 

i=^m <19> 

The  most  simple  expression  for  the  time  T  is  given  by  equation  (16): 

r  _5  D     V2/:i 

T=2lPpp (20) 

In  equation  (20),  however,  the  discharge  D  is  not  generally  known, 
and  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  equation  (18)  in  order  to  determine  T. 
In  the  following  computations  it  will  be  assumed  that  the  unit  dis- 
charge vx  of  the  river  is  17,657  cubic  feet  (500  cubic  meters)  per  sec- 
ond at  the  beginning  of  discharge  over  the  weir,  i.  e.,  '\~e. 

In  making  the  application  of  the  preceding  formulae  to  the  problem 
presented  at  Lake  Bohio,  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider  first  a  head 
of  water  of  5  feet  on  a  waste  weir  2,000  feet  long,  in  connection  with 
a  flood  discharge  in  the  Chagres  River  increasing  uniformly  from 
17,657  cubic  feet  (500  cubic  meters)  per  second  to  112,000  cubic  feet 
(3,170  cubic  meters)  per  second  during  a  period  of  26.13  hours,  or 
95,145  seconds,  and  remaining  at  that  maximum  stage  for  11.25  hours, 
or  51,300  seconds,  the  sum  of  the  two  periods  being  116,115  seconds. 
The  rate  of  discharge  after  the  maximum  period  has  passed  is  not 
needed.  The  surface  area  of  Lake  Bohio  at  the  elevation  of  the  crest 
of  the  waste  weir  is  about  38.5  square  miles,  or  1,073,318,100  square 
feet.  At  an  elevation  of  5  feet  higher  that  surface  area  becomes  about 
43  square  miles,  or  1,198,771,200  square  feet.  The  product  of  half 
the  sum  of  these  two  areas  by  5  gives  the  volume  of  water  impounded 
in  the  lake  with  a  5-foot  head  on  the  weir  as 
L= 5,680,224,000  cubic  feet. 
The  other  data  required  are: 

-yx  =  17,657  cubic  feel  per  second  =  ^. 
Vx=  112,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
T^  95,145  seconds. 
c=3.5and  5=2,000  feet. 
Hence,  by  equation  (12): 

Q=V  =  3.5  X  2,000  X  (5)''/; =78,262  cubic  feet. 
Introducing  these  various  quantities  in  equation  (18)  there  w  ill  result: 
T=126,009  seconds. 
=35  hours. 
As  this  period  is  5.68  hours  less  than  40.68  hours,  the  total  time  of 
rising  and  remaining  at  the  maximum  height,  it  is  probable  that  under 
the  conditions  of  the  flood  assumed,  the  head  of  water  on  the  weir 
would  rise  a  little  above  5  feet,  but  a  little  only. 

The  total  amount  discharged  over  the  weir  while  the  head  increases 
to  5  feet  is  bv  equation  (16): 

D= 3, 944, 7 11, 745  cubic  feet. 
If  a  flood  discharge  of  110,000  cubic  feet  be  assumed  in  the  river  it 
is  interesting  to  determine  approximately  how  long  it  would  have  to 
continue  in  order  to  raise  the  head  on  tin-  weir  to  7  feet.     By  equation 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  77 

(12)  the  discharge  over  the  weir  (2,000  feet  long)  with  a  head  of  7 
feet  is: 

Q=V=129,642  cubic  feet  per  second. 

As  before,         vt  =  17,657  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Also,  Vx  =  140,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Again,  assume  Tt  =  95,145  seconds. 

At  an  elevation  of  7  feet  above  the  crest  the  area  of  the  lake  surface 
is  1,249,394,752  square  feet,  while  at  the  elevation  of  the  crest  the 
area,  as  before,  is  1,073,318,400  square  feet.  The  half  sum  of  these 
areas  multiplied  by  7  gives  the  volume  stored  in  the  lake  above  the 
crest  as: 

L= 8,129,496,032  cubic  feet. 

These  quantities  inserted  in  equation  (18)  will  give: 
T= 158,307  seconds. 
=  43.98  hours. 

As  the  period  of  increasing  discharge  has  been  taken  at  26.43  hours 
(95,145  seconds),  it  is  thus  seen  that  the  maximum  discharge  of  140,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  would  have  to  be  maintained  for  probably  eight- 
een hours  or  more  in  order  to  produce  the  head  of  7  feet  on  the  weir 
crest.  This  is  a  contingency  so  excessively  remote  as  to  be  practically 
impossible.  The  total  discharge  over  the  weir  while  the  head  rises 
from  0  to  7  feet  is,  by  equation  (16): 
D=8,007,498,655  cubic  feet. 

The  general  conditions  assumed  in  the  preceding  applications  of  the 
formulae  established  are,  in  the  main,  essentially  the  same  as  those 
taken  by  M.  Choron  in  his  fifth  hypothesis,  on  page  54  of  his  Notes 
Techniques. 

The  curve  OMKS  of  figure  3  shows  the  relation  between  the  head 
on  the  weir  and  the  time  from  the  beginning  of  flow  over  the  weir  for 
the  first  of  the  preceding  set  of  computations.  It  indicates  that  the 
greatest  head  on  the  weir  would  be  5.8  feet.  This  is  a  little  too  high 
on  account  of  the  neglect  of  the  actual  slope  of  the  surface  of  the  lake, 
as  has  already  been  observed.  The  approximate  computations  show 
that  the  greatest  head  would  be  a  little  over  5  feet.  It  is  probable 
that  5.5  feet  is  about  right.  The  curve  and  computations  practically 
confirm  each  other. 

The  O'M'K'S'  exhibits  the  relation  between  head  on  the  weir  and 
time,  and  the  assumption  that  there  is  a  discharge  over  the  weir  of 
17,657  cubic  feet  per  second,  when  there  is  an  equal  discharge  of  the 
river,  followed  by  the  same  flood  as  before.  The  greatest  head  on  the 
weir  is  but  one-tenth  of  a  foot  greater  than  in  the  previous  case,  show- 
ing that  the  difference  in  assumptions  has  no  material  effect  on  the 
maximum  head,  either  as  to  amount  or  time.  The  volume  of  water 
discharged  during  the  period  of  increasing  head  would  be  materially 
greater  in  the  latter  case  than  in  the  former. 


APPENDIX  E,  FIG. 3 


SDoc^£^57    1 


Appendix  F 

DESCRIPTION  OF  ALTERNATIVE  LOCATION  FOR  CANAL 
BETWEEN  GATUN  AND  BOHIO. 


Between  Gatun  and  Bohio  the  French  location  of  the  canal  follows 
the  low  part  of  the  valle}'  of  the  Chagres.  The  location  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  is  more  direct,  but  passes  over  a  little  higher  ground.  This 
portion  of  the  canal  crosses  the  old  bed  of  the  Chagres  six  times,  and 
the  Chagres  has  abandoned  its  old  bed  and  now  flows  through  the 
canal  for  a  distance  of  4  miles.  The  estimates  of  the  Commission 
include  a  channel  between  the  Pefia  Blanca  and  Agua  Clara  swamps 
and  a  levee  which  will  keep  the  Chagres  out  of  the  canal  through  which 
it  now  flows.  A  study  has  been  made  of  another  location  (practically 
that  of  the  Lull  survey  of  1875),  which,  if  adopted,  would  allow  the 
river  to  flow  in  its  present  course,  would  make  the  channel  between 
the  two  swamps  unnecessary,  and  would  shorten  the  canal.  A  survey 
was  run  on  a  direct  line  between  Gatun  and  Bohio,  a  location  made, 
and  estimates  prepared.     This  is  shown  on  plate  21  b}r  a  broken  line. 

This  cut-off  line  leaves  the  French  location  at  mile  7.39,  and  connects 
with  it  at  mile  16.81.  It  is  8.18  miles  long  or  1.25  miles  shorter  than 
the  distance  by  the  canal  line  between  these  two  points.  It  is  a  single 
straight  line  4.92  miles  long,  connected  with  the  canal  at  the  east  end 
by  a  curve  1.105  miles  long  with  a  radius  of  13,230  feet,  and  at  the 
west  end  by  a  curve  2.16  miles  long  with  a  radius  of  13,720  feet. 

This  line  crosses  the  Panama  Railroad  twice,  the  location  of  which 
will  have  to  be  changed  for  about  a  mile.  For  the  first  2.17  miles  it 
lies  in  a  low,  flat  country;  it  then  strikes  what  is  known  as  Tiger  Hill, 
involving  some  heavy  work  for  nearly  a  mile;  it  then  again  enters  a 
low,  swampy  country,  broken  by  occasional  small,  low  hills,  which 
continues  the  rest  of  the  distance.  All  the  hills  consist  largely  of 
rock;  between  the  hills  the  material  is  earth,  the  portion  of  which 
north  of  Tiger  Hill  would  be  excavated  with  dredges,  and  that  south 
of  Tiger  Hill  treated  as  dry-earth  excavation.  '  The  hard  material  in 
the  hills  w^ild  be  wasted  on  the  west  side  of  the  canal  so  as  to  form  a 
levee,  bacK  of  which  the  earth  would  subsequently  be  placed,  forming 
an  embankment  of  indefinite  width. 

The  estimated  cost  of  8.18  miles  of  the  cut-off  line  (including  $75,000 
for  change  in  Panama  Railroad)  is  $9,938,601.  The  estimated  cost  of 
the  corresponding  portion  of  the  canal  on  the  old  location  is  $8,093,414, 
to  which  must  be  added  the  channel  between  the  two  swamps,  $2,448,076, 
making  a  total  of  $10,541,590,  a  difference  of  $602,989  in  favor  of  the 
cut-off  line,  which  in  view  of  the  less  perfect  knowledge  of  the  ground 
is  of  no  practical  importance.  The  cut-off  line  represents  a  saving  in 
distance  of  1.25  miles,  and  eliminates,  three  curves  and  73  degrees  of 
curvature,  and  is  worthy  of  further  study,  but  for  purposes  of  estimate 
the  old  location  is  retained. 

79 


AprENDix  G. 

TIME    REQUIRED    FOR    TRANSIT    THROUGH    AN 
ISTHMIAN    CANAL. 


The  time  required  for  the  passage  of  a  ship  through  the  p**fiS?iJ5?2 
proposed  isthmian  canal  will  depend  upon  the  speed  speed. 
attainable  and  permissible  in  the  various  sections  and  the 
delays  occasioned  by  lockages  and  by  meeting  other  ships. 
Attainable  speed  here  means  the  speed  limited  by  the 
power  of  the  ship.  From  this  deductions  are  to  be  made 
in  some  cases  to  give  the  permissible  speed. 

This  discussion  will  embrace  four  type  ships,  as  follows: 


Type  ships. 


Type  A 
Tvpe  B 
Tvpe ( ' 
Type  D 


Length. 


Feet. 

400 
400 
540 
650 


Feel. 
50 
50 
60 
70 


Draft. 


Ft.  in. 

24  6 

32  0 

32  0 

32  0 


I.H.P. 


1,900 
2,300 
3,300 
4,500 


Coefficients. 


Available  data. 


The  draft  given  refers  to  fresh  water.  The  power  is 
sufficient  to  give  the  ship  a  speed  of  12i  miles  per  hour  in 
open  sea.  The  miles  referred  to  in  this  discussion  are 
statute  miles. 

The  area  of  the  midship  section  of  each  ship  is  assumed 
to  be  96  per  cent  of  the  inclosing  rectangle.  The  block 
coefficient  is  taken  as  0.8.  This  expresses  the  ratio  of  dis- 
placement to  the  product  of  length  of  keel,  beam  and  draft. 
The  mean  cross  section  is  therefore  0.8  X  beamX  draft. 

No  experiments  on  the  comparative  speeds  attainable  by 
large  seagoing  ships  in  open  sea  and  in  restricted  water- 
ways, carried  on  in  a  scientific  and  comprehensive  manner, 
are  known  to  have  been  made.  The  movement  of  _  small 
boats  in  small  canals  at  low  speeds  has  been  the  subject  of 
extended  experiment  and  careful  study.  The  most  nota- 
ble of  these  have  been  made  recently  in  France  and  Ger- 
many. They  have  been  summarized  and  discussed  by  Mr. 
Elnathan  Sweet  in  a  paper  accompanying  the  report  of  the 
engineer  and  surveyor  of  New  York  on  the  proposed  GermanvCe  sum- 
barge  canal  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Hudson  River.  These  ^  b>'  Mr- 
experiments  were  carried  out  in  great  number  and  detail, 
but  on  boats  of  such  different  model,  of  so  much  smaller 
dimensions,  and  at  such  moderate  speeds  that  they  can  not 
be  applied  directly  to  the  problem  of  speeds  of  large  sea- 
going ships  through  an  isthmian  canal.  However,  the 
analysis  of  the  problem  by  Herr  R.  Haack,  who  conducted 
the  experiments  in  Germany,  is  suggestive  and  useful  in 
the  present  discussion. 


Experiments 


S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 6 


81 


82  REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Back  current.  While  a  ship  moves  forward  its  length  in  a  canal,  a  vol- 
ume of  water  equal  to  its  displacement  must  move  back 
past  the  ship. 

Let  A  =  wet  cross  section  of  canal,  square  feet. 
a  =  mean  cross  section  of  ship,  square  feet. 

!■  =  — 

a 
V  = speed  of  ship  past  a  fixed  land  point,  in  miles 

per  hour. 
v  —  velocity  of  backward  current  past  the  moving 
ship  in  miles  per  hour;  approximately  it  may 
be  thus  expressed: 

Approximate  (I  V 

formula     for  i)  =.  -j V 


backward    cur-  A.  —  (I  V  —  I 

rent. 

This  is  the  expression  ordinarily  used.     He  it   Haack 
points  out  the  important  fact  that  it  is  not  the  correct 
measure  of  v.     The  passage  of  a  boat  through  a  canal  is 
accompanied  by  a  depression  of  the  water  surface  which 
begins  at  or  a  little  ahead  of  the  bow  and  continues  past 
the  boat  some  distance  astern.     The  water  which  moves 
past  the  boat  while  the  latter  passes  a  fixed  point  is  not 
only  the  boat's  displacement,  but  also  the  volume  meas- 
ured by  this  depression  into  the  length  of  the  boat  and 
width  of  the  canal.     Taking  this  movement  also  into  con- 
sideration, Haack  proceeds  to  deduce  an  expression  for 
the  relation  between  V,  v  and  the  resistance  of  the  boat. 
Let  AA  =  reduction  of  wet  cross  section  of  canal  caused 
by  sinking  of  water  surface  during  passage 
of  boat. 
R= resistance  of  boat. 
L= length  of  boat  in  feet. 
w— weight  of  1  cubic  foot  of  water. 
C= coefficient  to  be  determined  by  experiment. 
Then  A—  A  A— «=area  of  cross  section  of  water  remaining 
between  the  boat  and  the  bottom  and 
sides  of  the  canal. 
(aA+«)  V  =  volume  of  water  displaced  in  a  unit  of 
time. 
(A — A— a)  v— volume  flowing  in  the  section  A-aA-« 
past  a  given  point  in  a  unit  of  time. 
These  volumes  are  identical,  hence 

{A-AA-a)v={AA+a)  V 
and 

Correct  formula  A  A -4-^/ 

for   backward  Vz= ^       ~    y  (\) 

current.  \ — A  A  —  <l  ' 

Which  is  the  correct  value  of  v. 

The  weight  of  water  kept  in  motion  b}^  the  movement 
of  the  boat  is 

w  (A-AA-fl)  L 

and  Haack  gives  the   following  expression  for  the  work 
required  for  moving  it  during  a  unit  of  time: 

Cv"(A-aA-«)L« (2) 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  83 

and  places  this  equal  to  the  work  of  the  resistance  of  the 
boat  during  a  unit  of  time;  that  is, 

UY=Cw(A-AA-a)hv  .  .  .  .  (3)  J-cCe!ve  rc- 
The determination  of  the  value  of  the  coefficient  requires 
the  measurement  of  the  sinking  of  the  water  surface  and 
the  retractive  resistance  R.  Mr.  Sweet  does  not  give  the 
value  of  C  as  determined  by  Haack,  or  state  whether  it 
is  constant  or  variable  except  indirectly  by  showing  the 
curves  of  resistance  for  the  boats  used  in  the  experiments. 
For  the  reasons  already  given  these  curves  are  not  applica- 
ble to  the  present  case.  There  is  needed  a  series  of  experi- 
ments with  large  ships  in  restricted  waterways  approxi- 
mating closely  the  ships  and  channels  of  the  future  isthmian 
canal. 

In  the  absence  of  such  experiments  the  inquiry  resolves 
itself  first  into  the  estimation  of  the  speed  attainable  in  a 
restricted  channel  by  a  ship  whose  speed  in  open  sea  is 
known.  This  requires  a  consideration  of  the  various  causes 
of  retardation  encountered  b}T  a  ship  when  it  passes  from 
broad,  deep  water  into  such  a  channel. 

When  a  ship  moves  upstream  in  a  broad,  deep  river  its    Backward  cur- 

,     .  .  i-  .  i.  .    n         ,  l      .  rent  past  a  ship 

speed  through  the  water  is  essentially  the  same  as  in  open  in  a  canal. 
sea.    Its  speed  past  a  fixed  point  will  be  its  open-sea  speed 
less  the  velocity  of  the  current.     In  this  respect  the  back- 
ward current  in  a  canal  is  analogous  to  the  river  current 
and  is  to  be  deducted  from  the  open-sea  speed  of  the  ship. 

The  determination  of  the  velocity  of  the  backward  cur- 
rent requires,  as  Haack  points  out,  and  as  indicated  in 
formula  (1),  that  the  depression  of  the  water  surface 
between  the  ship  and  the  sides  of  the  channel  be  known. 
Haack  observed  this  carefully  in  his  experiments,  but  no 
record  has  been  found  of  such  observations  during  the 
passage  of  a  large  ship  through  a  ship  canal.  The  writer 
therefore  proceeded  to  make  a  limited  series  at  the  St.  ^gfci^jSSI 
Clair  Flats  Canal.  This  series  included  29  ships.  One  of  canai. 
these  was  rejected  because  its  dimensions-are  not  given  in 
the  Marine  Register.  Six  were  rejected  because  the}^ 
were  without  cargoes,  and  the  observations  on  them  little 
pertinent.  The  observations  consisted  of  :  First,  measure- 
ments at  intervals  of  5  seconds  from  a  fixed  horizontal 
plane,  to  the  water  surface  before,  during,  and  after  the 
passage  of  a  ship,  covering  the  period  when  the  surface  of 
the  water  varied  from  the  normal;  second,  a  record  of  the 
time  taken  by  the  ship  in  passing;  third,  soundings  across 
the  canal  opposite  the  observation  point  to  determine  its 
cross  section;  fourth,  measurement  by  rod  floats  of  the 
normal  current  in  the  canal. 

The  St.  Clair  Flats  Canal  is  a  channel  without  locks, 
296  feet  wide  and  about  7,200  feet  long.  The  sides  are 
vertical  with  timber  revetments.  The  depth,  which  was 
dredged  to  16  feet  for  about  20  feet  from  the  sides  and  to 
20  or  21  feet  in  the  remainder  of  the  channel,  has  increased 
opposite  the  point  of  observation  to  26  feet  at  the  center. 
The  point  of  observation  was  2,280  feet  from  the  upper 
end  of  the  canal. 


84 


REPOKT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


The  observed  time  of  passing,  with  the  length  of  ship 
taken  from  the  Marine  Register,  gave  the  speed  of  the 
ship,  which  was  corrected  for  the  normal  current  in  the 
canal.  For  the  calculation  of  the  ratio  ?\,  which  is  the 
quotient  resulting  from  dividing  the  area  of  the  cross  sec- 
tion of  the  canal  by  the  midship  section  of  the  ship,  the 
coefficient  of  the  ship's  midship  cross  section  is  assumed 
to  be  0.96,  the  same  as  for  the  type  ships.  This  is  prob- 
ably too  large  for  the  smaller  ships,  but  substantially 
correct  for  the  larger  ones. 

The  measurements  of  the  water  surface  were  made  about 
1  foot  out  from  the  vertical  side  of  the  canal.  They  may 
not  represent  exactly  the  mean  water  surface  between  the 
ship  and  sides  of  the  canal,  but  it  is  believed  the  difference 
is  not  great.  While  a  ship  was  approaching,  the  water  sur- 
face at  the  point  of  observation  remained  nearly  or  quite 
normal  until  the  bow  was  within  25  to  100  feet  of  the  cross 
section  of  the  canal,  passing  through  the  observing  station. 
The  water  then  began  to  fall,  attained  its  maximum  depres-- 
sion  a  little  aft  the  center  of  the  ship,  then  began  to  rise  and 
again  attained  the  normal  50  or  100  feet  behind  the  ship. 

These  distances  varied  with  different  ships  and  are  to  be 
taken  only  in  a  general  way. 

For  the  calculation  of  the  average  depression  of  water 
surface  opposite  the  passing  ship,  the  distances  between 
observations  were  plotted  as  abscissas  and  the  depression 
of  the  water  surface  as  ordinates,  the  total  distance  plotted 
being  the  keel  length  of  the  ship.  This  gave  a  longitu- 
dinal section  during  the  time  of  the  ship's  passing.  The 
area  of  this  section  divided  by  the  keel  length  gave  the 
average  depression. 

The  results  of  the  observations  arc  given  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 

Table  I. — Results  of  observations  at  Si .  Clair  Flats  Canal  during  passage 

of  ships. 


Name  of  ship. 

Keel. 

n- 

Depression  of 

water  surface. 

V. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mean. 

Manistique 

Feet. 

157 

1ST 
225 

268 

201 
266 
301 

:;n 

27(1 
275 

■'Mil 

292 
296 

212 

281 
281 
288 

266 

■21  \ 

282 
294 

406 

Fret. 
81 
33 
36 
36 
37 
38 
38 
38 
40 
40 
40 
40 
40 
41 
41 
11 
41 
12 
42 
42 
42 
50 

Fnl. 
12.00 
L3.50 

16. 50 

16.50 
13.5(1 
17.75 
IS.  00 
17.5(1 

15.  (Ml 
17. ..ii 

16.  (Id 
17.511 
17.7.'. 
17.(11) 
17.50 
L9.00 

15.5(1 
IV.(K) 
10.50 

L8.60 

IS.  no 
19.00 

19.15 
15.99 

1 1 . 99 
1 1 . 99 
11.20 

L0.56 

10.  Id 
10.71 
'.i.  89 
10.  17 
11.13 
10.17 

io.  03 

10.22 
9.93 

0.  1  I 
11.21 
9.98 
10.28 
'.(.  17 
0.  12 
7.60 

Foot. 
0.  21 

.  25 

.  58 

.'.'7 
.21 
.07 
.  12 

.88 

.S3 
.  12 
.75 

1.00 

.75 
.  03 
.  02 
.  58 

.  51 
.42 
.  12 
.  10 
.67 
.  92 

FOOt. 

0.15 

.'JO 
.50 
.SO 

.17 
.  id 
.31 
.  58 

.00 
.30 

.57 

.88 

.53 
.  11 
.72 
.  11 
.39 
.81 
.27 
.82 

.00 

.  os 

Miles. 

:>.  78 

0.  00 
s.  2  1 
10.07 

o.7l 
7. 28 
7.  20 
8.66 

7.  12 
6.81 

s.  II 

8.  13 

7.  00 
7.  95 

8.28 

7.  77 
s.  62 
7.40 
7.88 

0.  31 

o.:;:, 
7.01 

Miles. 
0.31 

.  13 

82 

New  York 

W.H.Sawyer 

1.  17 
.  is 
.  79 

.71 

1.00 

Erontenac 

Philip  Mincli 

.71 

.00 

1.  12 

.SI 

.  89 

Lmhgstone 

T.W.  Palmer 

1.07 

.00 

.so 

.79 

America 

.  75 
.74 

s.  K.  Kirby 

Presque  Isle 

.  82 

1.15 

11.06 

.62           .  10 

7.52    

- 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    OANAL    COMMISSION. 

Iii  observations  on  ships  of  such  different  typos  as  those 
in  the  preceding  list,  moving  at  such  different  rates  of 
spaed,  groat  apparent  eccentricity  in  result  should  be 
expected.  Much  of  this,  however,  will  disappear  if  the 
ships  are  classified  with  respect  to  r,  and  averages  taken 
as  in  the  next  table. 


85 


Table  II. 


Value  of  t\. 

Number  of 
ships  ave- 
raged. 

Mean  value 
of  ft. 

Mean  de- 
pression of 
water. sur- 
face. 

Mean  speed 

of  ship  (V) 

per  hour. 

7.5 
9-10 
10-11 
11-12 
14-20 

1 
6 
8 
4 
3 

7.5 
9.59 
10.32 

1 1 .  58 
10.47 

Foot. 

0.68 
.51 

.46 
.56 
.17 

Milt  g. 

7.04 
7.25 
7.56 
8.83 
6.72 

These  results  are  plotted  in  figure  1,  attached  hereto,  with 
rx  as  abscissas  and  depressions  (d)  as  ordinates.  A  line 
to  represent  the  relations  is  shown,  which  passes  reason- 
ably near  all  the  points.  The  point  1\  =  11.58,  d=0.5G, 
should  lie  considerably  below  the  line,  because  it  corre- 
sponds to  the  largest  value  of  V;  and  the  point  ?\  =  16.17, 
d=0.17,  should  lie  above  the  line,  because  it  corresponds 
to  the  smallest  value  of  v. 

The  same  figure  shows  the  depressions  which  have  been 
used  for  this  discussion  for  the  isthmian  canal.  They 
exceed  those  given  by  the  observations  as  far  as  the  latter 
extend,  and  should  do  so,  because  the  calculated  speeds  in 
the  discussion  for  the  large  channels,  where  i\  is  large, 
exceed  those  observed  in  the  St.  Clair  Flats  Canal.  For 
values  of  i\  less  than  7.50  the  assumed  depressions  have 
for  basis  only  the  writer's  judgment  in  interpreting  the 
experiments.  For  i\  —  1  it  is  obvious  the  depression  would 
equal,  theoretically,  the  normal  depth  of  water  in  the 
canal.  Between  the  point  and  the  point  corresponding  to 
7^=7.50  there  may  be  material  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  location  of  the  depression  curve. 

The  backward  current  is  only  one  of  the  new  conditions 
set  up  when  a  ship  passes  from  open  sea  into  a  restricted 
channel.  The  depression  of  the  water  surface  must 
increase  the  head  resistance  to  the  ship's  motion 
observations  at  the  St.  Clair  Flats  Canal  the  measurements 
of  depression  were  made,  as  before  stated,  at  the  side  of 
the  channel  where  the  depression  occurred  in  advance  of 
the  ship,  which  passed  at  a  distance  of  100  to  175  feet 
from  the  observing  station.  As  far  as  could  be  judged  by 
watching  the  movement  of  the  ship,  without  actual  meas- 
urement, this  depression  does  not  occur  immediately  in 
front  of  the  ship.  It  appears  probable  that  the  excess  in 
height  of  wTater  against  the  bow  over  the  height  against 
the  stern  may  be  taken  as  safely  equal  to  the  mean  depres- 
sion of  the  water's  surface,  or  d.     The  pressure  and  horse- 


Increased  head 
111    tne  resistance. 


86  "REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

power  required  to  overcome  it  may  be  calculated  as  fol- 
lows: 

Let  h  =  excess  of  elevation  of  water  against  bow,  com- 
pared with  elevation  at  stern,  in  feet.     This 
is  taken  equal  to  the  mean  depression  d. 
<il  -midship  section  of  ship  in  square  feet. 
w  =  weight  of  1  cubic  foot  of  water  in  pounds. 
P  =  opposing  pressure  in  pounds. 

V1  =  ^ct:         V  =  speed  of  ship  in  feet  per  second. 

H  =  horsepower  of  ship's  engines. 
Hx  =  horsepower  required  to  overcome  end  pressure. 
Then 

V=Qhwal (3) 

in  which  C  is  a  coefficient  depending  on  the  ship's  model. 

It  will  be  taken  here  as  « 

The  horsepower  required  to  overcome  P  when  the  ship 
moves  at  the  rate  V1  is 

„  _PV1_C/w<'fl1„  _1  hwa^j  , 

1_"550_    550    Vl-6"550~Vl   ■     •     •     w 

and  the  power  remaining  to  overcome  the  other  resistances 
is  H— H1#  The  speed  of  the  ship  will  therefore  be  re- 
duced. For  moderate  speeds  the  horsepower  required  to 
move  a  ship  varies  approximately  as  the  cube  of  the  speed. 
If  Va  represents  the  speed  in  miles  per  hour  which  the 
ship  would  attain  in  the  restricted  channel  if  there  were 
required  no  deduction  for  head  resistance, 


It  might  seem  that  the  deductions  for  backward  cur- 
rent and  increased  head  resistance  were  all  that  are  re 
quired  to  give  the  speed  of  a  ship  in  a  canal.  No  allowance, 
however,  has  yet  been  made  for  the  changed  conditions  in 
the  mass  of  water  near  the  ship,  such  as  eddies,  which 
would  not  occur  to  the  same  extent  in  deep  water,  increased 
friction  of  the  water  on  the  channel  bed,  etc.;  some  of  the 
conditions  unknown  or  imperfectly  understood,  but  con- 
suming more  or  less  of  the  power  of  the  ship's  engines. 
No  deduction  has  yet  been  made  which  would  be  applied 
ii^hTiiM."''1' '  to  a  ship  passing  through  shoal  water  of  unlimited 
width,  but  it  is  well  known  that  then1  is  a  material  re- 
duction of  speed  in  wide,  shoal  water.  The  rate  of  this 
retardation  doubtless  increases  with  the  speed  of  the  ship. 
A  few  comparisons  have  been  made  of  the  speed  of  ships 
in  the  deep  water  of  Lake  Huron  and  the  shoal  water  of 
Lake  St.  Clair,  where  the  depth  of  water  exceeds  by  2  or 
3  feet  the  usual  draft  of  loaded  ships.  The  loss  of  speed 
in  the  shoal  water  is  about  15  per  cent,  while  using  the 
same  steam  as  in  deep  water.     There  is  probably  in  this 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  87 

case  do  appreciable  backward  current;  the  water  to  till  the 
void  behind  the  moving  ship  can  reach  it  more  quickly  by 
a  lateral  movement  from  the  unlimitedly  wide  water.  The 
observed  reduction  of  speed  is  probably  caused  almost 
wholly  by  the  work  done  in  forming  eddies,  overcoming 
friction  between  the  water  and  the  bed  of  the  lake,  etc., 
and  should  be  taken  into  account  in  calculating1  the  attain- 
able speeds  to  be  expected  in  a  restricted  channel.  This 
should  apply,  however,  only  when  the  draft  of  the  ship 
is  within  2  or  3  feet  of  the  depth  of  the  channel.  It 
should  be  reduced  for  type  A,  which  will  have  5.5  feet 
more  clearance  under  the  keel  than  the  other  types.  It 
should  also  be  reduced  for  all  types  in  those  channels 
where,  on  account  of  tides,  as  in  Panama  Bay,  or  on  ae 
count  of  storage,  as  in  the  summit  levels  of  both  routes, 
the  clearance  usually  exceeds  3  feet  by  a  considerable 
amount;  it  is  deemed  best,  however,  not  to  attempt  to 
draw  narrow  distinctions,  but  to  apply  the  reduction  of 
15  per  cent  to  ships  of  t}pes  B,  C,  and  D  in  all  channels 
of  whatever  depth.  For  type  A  a  reduction  of  10  per 
cent  is  applied  for  shoal- water  effect.  It  should  obviously 
be  less  than  for  the  ships  of  deeper  draft,  but  the  differ- 
ence of  5  per  cent  ma}T  be  too  great  or  too  small.  These 
percentages  are  applicable  only  when  the  open-sea  speed 
of  the  ship  is  10  to  13  miles  per  hour. 

These  several  reductions  have  been  applied  to  the  normal    calculation  of 
speed  of  each  of  the  type  ships  in  each  of  the  different  speed!1 " 
channels  of  both  routes,  with  the  results  given  in  Table 
III.     In  order  to  show  more  clearty  how  the  results  are 
obtained  the  calculation  will  be  given  for  a  single  case: 

Channel — standard  for  firm  earth. 

Top  width,  269  feet. 

Side  slopes  at  top,  1  on  1. 

A  =  area  of  cross  section  =  7,189. 5  square  feet. 

Ship,  type  B,  H.  P.=2,300=H. 

ax  —  midship  section  =  50  X  32  X  0. 96  =  1, 536  square  feet. 

a—  mean  section     =50X32X0.8  =1,280  square  feet. 

Depression  of  water  surface  assumed  to  be  1.2  feet. 

AA  =  (269-1.2)  1.2=    321  square  feet. 

AA+«  =1,601  square  feet. 

A-AA-(/  =5,588  square  feet. 

-y=baekward  cur  rent  =  ^=57;  V  =   0.287  V. 

55b8 

Speed  of  ship  in  open  water        12.5      miles  per  hour. 
Deduction  for  shoal   water 

15  per  cent  1.875  miles  per  hour. 

Speed  in  wide  shoal  water        10.625  miles  per  hour. 
Since  the  head  resistance  depends  on  the  speed  of  the 
ship  as  finally  deduced  it  is  necessary  to  assume  a  value 
of  V. 

Assume  V=  7.9      miles  per  hour. 
=  11.59    feet  per  second. 
V=  0.287         V=2.267  miles  per  hour. 


88  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Deduct  this  from  speed  of  ship  in  wide  shoal  water. 
10.625  — 2. 267  =  8. 358  =  speed  of  ship  without  deduction 
for  increased  head  resistance  =  V,. 
For  head  resistance 

P=4x  1.2X62.5X1,536=19,200  pounds. 

Horsepower  required  to  overcome  it 

19200     ..  CA     ,_K     „ 
=-gg^-Xll.59=405=H[1. 

H-11^1895. 

From  equation  (5). 

V3=^X(8.358)S=(7.-84)S- 

V=7.84. 

Since  this  does  not  agree  with  the  assumed  value  of  V, 
a  new  trial  must  be  made.     The  correct  value  is  7.85. 

In  the  calculations  for  the  following1  table  the  depth  of 
water  in  the  channel  in  the  summit  level  of  the  Panama 
Canal  is  taken  as  38  feet;  in  the  summit  level  of  the  Nica- 
ragua Canal,  39  feet;  in  the  Pacific  section  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  45  feet,  and  in  all  other  excavated  channels,  35  feet. 
Allowance  has  been  made  in  the  deepened  San  Juan  for 
the  river  section  outside  of  the  deepened  channel  by  as- 
suming side  slopes  of  1  on  4.  In  the  excavated  channel  in 
Lake  Nicaragua  the  channel  section  is  computed  as  having 
side  slopes  of  1  on  5. 

Table  III. — Calculated  speeds  through  isthmian  canal  channels  by  ships 
having  sufficient  power  for  a  speed  of  2.5  miles  per  hoar  in  open  sen. 


Type  ship  A. 

Type  ship  B. 

De- 

De- 

Area 

pres- 

pres- 

Section. 

of  wet 

sion 

sion 

section. 

n- 

of 
water 
sur- 
face. 

V. 

e. 

T\. 

of 
water 
sur- 
face. 

V. 

v. 

Miles 

Miles 

Mil*  s 

VUes 

Canal  in  rock,  sum- 

Squart 

pt  r 

pi  r 

1"  '' 

in  r 

limn  . 

mit  Levelexcepted, 

feet. 

Feet. 

hour. 

hour. 

Feet. 

how. 

Nicaragua 

5,  250 

4.46 

1.8 

s.  28 

2.88 

:s.  -12 

1.  7 

7.07 

2.  98 

Canal   in    ruck,  west 

divide,  Nicaragua. . 

5,700 

4.90 

1.2 

8, 52 

2.  17 

8.71 

1.6 

7.88 

2.  (17 

Canal  in   rock,Cule- 

bra  cut,  Panama  . .. 

5,966 

5.07 

1.  1 

8.64 

2.117 

3.88 

1.5 

7.47 

2.  55 

Canal  in  firm  earth  . . 

7,189.5 

6.11 

.9 

8. 96 

1.83 

l.iis 

1.2 

7. 85 

2.  25 

Canal  in  sand  or  silt  . 

8, 926 

7.59 

.8 

9. 28 

L.58 

...  81 

1 

8,  L3 

1.84 

Channel  in  Panama 

Bay 

15,075 

12.82 

.<; 

9.97 

.94 

9. 81 

_  7 

9.  11 

1.08 

<  Shannel  in  San  Juan 

River,  deepened  . . . 

ir.,s::i 

13.47 

.6 

9.97 

.  94 

10.31 

.  7 

9.  15 

1 .  08 

Channel     in     Lake 

Nicaragua,     deep- 

ened   

L9.80 

16.41 

.  5 

10.18 

75 

12.57 

.(', 

9.  87 

.90 

Harbors      and      en- 

trances,   500     feet 

wide 

21,175 

IS.  02 

.5 

10.21 

.  69 

18.79 

.6 

9. 49 

.83 

REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Table  III. — Calculated  speeds  through  Uthmian  canal  channels  by  ships 
having  sufficient  power  for  a  speed  of  2.6  miles  per  hour  in  open  sea. — 
Continued. 


89 


Area 
of  wet 
section. 

Type  ship  C. 

Type  ship  D. 

Section. 

n- 

De- 

pres- 
sictfi 
of 
water 
sur- 
face. 

V. 

r. 

'V 

De- 

pres- 
sion 

of 
water 

sur- 
face. 

V. 

V. 

Canal  in  rock,  sum- 
mit level  excepted, 

Square 

feet. 
5,250 

5,700 

5,966 

7, 189. 5 
8, 925 

15,075 

15,834 

19, 305 

21, 175 

2.85 

3.09 

3. 24 
3.93 
4.84 

8.18 

8.59 

10.47 

11.49 

Feet. 
2.1 

1.9 

1.8 
1.5 

l.l' 

.6 
.6 

Miles 
per 

hour. 
6.53 

6.87 

7.02 
7.32 
7.95 

9.03 

9.06 

9.30 

9.44 

per 
hour. 
3.55 

3.22 

3.07 
2.70 
2. 24 

1.27 

1.25 

1.04 

.94 

2.44 

2. 65 

2.77 
3.34 

4.15 

7.01 
7.36 

8.98 

9.85 

Feet. 
2.4 

2.2 

2.1 
1.8 
1.4 

.8 

.8 

.7 

.7 

Miles 

per 
hour. 
6.01 

6.39 

p.  55 
6.94 
7.61 

8.85 

8.85 

9.13 

9.27 

Miles 

per 
hour. 

4.18 

Canal  in  rock,  west 
divide,  Nicaragua .. 

Canal  in  rock,Cule- 
bra  cut,  Panama  . . . 

Canal  in  firm  earth  .. 

Canal  in  sand  or  silt  . 

Channel  in  Panama 
Bay 

3.79 

3.62 
3.21 
2.63 

1.49 

Channel  in  San  Juan 
River,  deepened  — 

Channel     in     Lake 
Nicaragua,     deep- 

1.48 
1.21 

Harbors     and     en- 
trances,    500    feet 

1.12 

The  speeds  in  the  foregoing-  table  are  plotted  on  figure  a  speeds  plotted 
2  as  ordinates  with  values  of  rx  as  abscissas.  Two  curves  drawn. 
appear,  one  for  type  A,  the  other  for  types  B,  C,  and  D. 
The  curve  for  type  A  is  an  asymptote  to  a  horizontal 
through  V  =  11.2*5.  The  curve  for  types  B,  C,  and  D  is 
asymptote  to  a  horizontal  through  V=10.625.  For  the 
larger  channels  neither  of  these  curves  can  be  much  in 
error.  At  the  other  extremity  both  curves  must  pass 
through  the  point  where  V='0  and  r1  =  l.  Tests  are 
needed  at  intermediate  points,  and  particularly  where  the 
value  of    i\   corresponds   with    the   standard   sections  in 

earth.  _  •     d  hr  u  h 

All  steamships  are  run  under  check  while  passing  through  st.  peciair  rFiats 
the  St.  Clair  Flats  Canal  where,  on  account  of  the  crowded  g^jJSJf*  by 
navigation,  more  than  one  hundred  vessels  passing  per 
day,  involving  frequent  meetings  of  ships  in  the  canal, 
speeds  are  limited  by  regulations  to  8  miles  per  hour. 
The  estimated  traffic  through  the  isthmian  canal  is  about 
ten  ships  per  day,  and  the  meetings  can  be  provided  for 
more  judiciously  by  reducing  the  speed  of  both  ships  at 
meeting  points,  and  in  the  narrower  channels  by  tying  up 
one  of  them. 

Information  has  been  sought  regarding  the  amount  of  speed  in  st.ciaii 
checking,  measured  by  the  revolutions  of  the  engines,  Flats  CanaL 
ordinarily  made  b}T  ships  passing  the  St.  Clair  Flats  Canal. 
In  open  water,  at  moderate  speeds,  the  speed  of  a  ship 
varies  almost  directly  with  the  number  of  revolutions;  in 
other  words,  with  moderate  speeds,  the  percentage  of  slip 
of  the  propelling  wheels  is  nearly  constant.  As  the  speed 
is  increased  beyond  that  suitable  for  the  model  of  the  ship, 
the  slip  increases,  and  at  high  speeds  the  increase  in  speed 
would  be  much  less  than  the  increase  in  the  number  of 


90  REPOKT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

revolutions.  In  a  canal  increase  of  slip  becomes  appre- 
ciable at  a  lower  speed  than  in  open  water.  If  the  number 
of  revolutions  were  increased  greatly  the  increase  of 
speed  would  be  materially  less,  but  if,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  number  of  revolutions  were  increased  a  small  amount 
the  increase  in  speed  would  be  in  corresponding  propor- 
tion. Inquiries  of  shipowners  and  navigators  elicited 
the  statement  that  on  approaching  the  canal  the  revolu- 
tions were  reduced  20  to  25  per  cent.  With  no  more 
reduction  than  this  it  might  be  concluded,  without  serious 
error,  that  with  the  ordinary  power  of  the  engines  the 
speed  through  the  canal  would  be  increased  in  like 
proportion.  If  this  rule  be  applied  to  the  average 
results  given  in  Table  II,  assuming  the  reduction  in 
revolution  before  entering  the  canal  to  have  been  20 
per  cent,  the  speeds  of  7.04,  7.25,  7.56,  8.83,  and  6.72 
miles  observed  would  become  8.80,  9.06,  9.30,  11.04,  and 
8.40  if  the  full  power  of  the  engines  were  used.  These 
are  plotted  in  figure  2,  in  the  points  G,  H,  I,  K,  and  L. 
The  very  low  value  of  the  observed  speed  in  the  last 
case  is  due  to  the  fact  that  two  of  the  three  ships  entering 
into  this  average  were  towing  other  ships,  one  having 
three,  the  other  two.  If  the  open-sea  speed  of  these  ships 
is  less  than  12^  miles  per  hour,  which  is  probable,  as  few 
lake  freighters  equal  it,  and  if  allowance  were  made  for 
this  the  points  G,  H,  etc.,  would  plot  a  little  higher. 
on0LakeaHu0ron  The  following  observations  have  been  taken  on  four  ships 
and  in  st.  char  for  the  purposes  of  this  studv.    Thev  were  of  the  largest 

Flats  Canal.  i  •„.   4.'         *.\       1    1 

class  now  navigating  the  lakes: 

1.  The  time  and  number  of  revolutions  across  Lake  Hu- 
ron. The  distance  being  known,  the  speed  and  number  of 
revolutions  per  minute  become  known. 

2.  While  in  the  open  lake  the  steam  was  throttled  to  the 
same  extent  as  during  the  passage  tli rough  the  St.  Clair 
Flats  Canal.  The  number  of  revolutions  were  taken  each 
minute  for  five  minutes.  It  is  assumed  that  the  speed  was 
reduced  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  revolutions. 

3.  The  time  passing  through  the  St.  Clair  Flats  Canal  was 
noted.  The  length  of  the  canal  being  known,  the  speed  in 
miles  per  hour  can  be  calculated.  The  comparison  of  the 
speed  under  check  in  Lake  Huron  with  the  speed  through 
the  canal  with  the  same  steam  pressure  and  valve  opening 
furnishes  the  percentage  of  loss  due  to  the  special  resist- 
ance in  the  canal.  If  the  increase  of  speed  with  the  engines 
developing  full  power  were  in  the  same  proportion  in  (he 
canal  as  in  open  sea  the  speed  to  be  expected  in  the  canal 
could  be  easily  determined.  The  process  used  here  is  as 
follows: 

SMp  No.  1. — When  running  at  full  speed  the  rate  was 
11.24  miles  per  hour;  number  of  revolutions  per  minute, 
74.42.  When  running  under  check,  with  same  steam  open- 
ing as  when  passing  through  the  canal,  the  number  of 
revolutions   was  56  per  minute,  and  the   speed  would  be 

56 
yr-jo  X  11.24  =  8.46   miles   per  hour.      In    the    canal   the 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  91 

speed  was  6.01  miles  per  hour.     The  loss  of  speed  duo  to 
canal  resistance  is  then  -  -g^  0.29,  or  29  per  cent. 

If  the  full  power  of  the  engines  had  been  used  with  the 
same  proportionate  loss  of  speed  on  account  of  canal 
resistance  the  speed  in  the  canal  would  have  been  11.42 
(1  —  0.29)  =  7.98  miles  per  hour. 

If  the  power  of  the  ship  had  been  sufficient  to  propel  it 
12.5  miles  per  hour  instead  of  11.24,  the  canal  speed  with 
full  power  of  engines  and  the  same  assumptions  as  to 
increase  of  speed  would  have  been  12.5  X  (1.00  —  0.29)  = 
8.88  miles.  For  this  ship  rx  =  8.50.  The  speed  is  plotted 
at  M,  Plate  II. 

Ship  No.  J.— Full  speed  in  open  lake,  11.51  miles  per 
hour.  Revolutions  per  minute  at  full  speed,  71.43.  Revo- 
lutions per  minute  in  open  lake  while  under  check,  43. 
Speed  in  canal  with  same  steam,  4. 88  miles  per  hour.  Fol- 
lowing the  same  method  as  before,  the  calculated  speed  with 
full  power  of  engines  capable  of  moving  the  ship  12£  miles 
per  hour  in  open  sea  would  be  8. 81  miles  per  hour.  In  this 
case  rx  =  7.79.     The  point  is  plotted  at  N. 

Ship  No.  3.—  Full  speed  in  open  lake,  10.61  miles  per 
hour.  Revolutions  per  minute  in  open  lake  at  full  speed, 
78.35.  Revolutions  per  minute  in  open  lake  while  under 
check,  59.  Speed  in  canal  with  same  steam,  6.75  miles 
per  hour.  Calculated  speed  in  canal  with  full  power  of 
engines  capable  of  moving  the  ship  12£  miles  per  hour 
in  open  lake,  10.56  miles  per  hour.  In  this  case  rx  =  7.68. 
The  point  is  plotted  at  V. 

Ship  No.  4..—  Full  speed  in  open  lake,  13.13  miles  per 
hour.  Revolutions  per  minute  in  open  lake  at  full  speed, 
84.79.  Revolutions  per  minute  in  open  lake  while  under 
check,  63.2.  Speed  in  canal  with  same  steam,  7.92  miles 
per  hour.  Calculated  speed  in  canal  with  full  power  of 
engines  capable  of  moving  the  ship  12£  miles  per  hour  in 
open  lake,  10.12  miles  per  hour.  In  this  case  rx  =8.14. 
The  point  is  plotted  at  W. 

There  is  considerable  discrepancy  in  these  results,  two 
of  the  points  (M  and  N)  falling  near  the  curve  of  calcu- 
lated speeds,  but  a  little  below  it,  the  other  two  falling 
considerably  above  it.  Considerable  variation  would  be 
produced  by  difference  in  ship  models.  The  variations 
may  also  be  due  to  inaccuracies  in  observations,  particu- 
larly in  regard  to  the  exact  steam  opening  while  the 
engines  were  under  check.  The  assumption  that  increase 
in  number  of  revolutions  will  give  the  same  proportion  of 
increase  in  speed  in  a  canal  as  in  open  sea  is  not  exactly 
true,  although  the  error  will  not  be  great,  with  the  chan- 
nel, increase  of  revolutions,  and  speed  taken  here.  If  the 
channel  were  smaller  the  error  would  be  greater.  Another 
consideration  to  be  taken  into  account  is  the  fact  that  the 
ships  passing  the  St.  Clair  Flats  Canal  have  more  water 
under  the  keel  than  assumed  for  types  B,  C,  and  D  in  the 
standard  earth  sections.     For  the  summit-level  sections, 


92  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

however,  the  clearance  will  be  about  the  same  as  in  the  St. 
Clair  Flats  Canal. 

Information  was  obtained  from  the  manager  of  one  of 
the  steamship  lines  giving  for  twro  ships  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  engines  in  open  lakes  and  in  the  canal. 
It  may  be  assumed,  without  great  error,  in  these  eases  that 
the  efficiency  of  the  engines  in  producing  speed  was  re- 
duced in  inverse  proportion.  The  data  and  calculations 
are  as  follows: 

Ship  Wo.  5. — Revolutions  per  mile  in  open  lake,  404; 
in  canal,  530.  Loss  in  efficiency  of  engines  for  producing 
speed =1  — £»a=: 23.8  per  cent.  Calculated  speed  in  canal 
with  engines  capable  of  moving  the  ship  12i  miles  per 
hour  in  open  lake  =  12i  x  (1  —  .238)  =  !). 52  miles  per  hour. 
In  this  case  ?\  =  7. 61.     The  point  is  plotted  at  X. 

Ship  Wo.  6. — Revolutions  per  mile  in  open  lake,  346; 
in  canal,  457.  Loss  in  efficiency  of  engines  for  producing 
speed  =1  — ||f  =  24.3  per  cent.  Calculated  speed  in  canal 
with  engines  capable  of  moving  the  ship  12i  miles  per 
hour  in  open  lake  =  12i  X  (1  — . 243)  =  9.46  miles  per  hour. 
In  this  case  7*1= 9.42.     The  point  is  plotted  at  Y. 

These  points  fall  near  the  curve  for  type  A.  These  cal- 
culations are  also  based  on  the  assumption  that  speed 
would  vary  directly  as  the  number  of  revolutions,  both  in 
open  lake  and  in  the  canal,  which,  as  above  stated,  is  some- 
what in  error. 
speeVsCmaaytebe  These  data,  taken  collectively,  appear  to  confirm  the 
too  high.  calculated  speeds  in  the  part  of  the  curve  near  M  and  N; 

but  the  data  being  inexact  and  the  basis  of  the  calculations 
involving  some  error,  it  seems  to  be  judicious  to  adopt  for 
the  present  discussion  a  little  lower  speeds  in  the  vicinity 
of  these  points.  To  the  right  of  these  points  the  possible 
error  is  less,  the  speeds  being  definitely  known  for  wide 
shoal  water.  To  the  left  of  the  given  points  the  data  are 
not  so  good  and  the  possibility  of  material  error  is  greater. 
The  St.  Clair  Flats  Canal  is  the  only  one  in  the  United 
States  traversed  at  speed  by  deep-draft  ships,  but  the 
channel  is  so  wide  (296  feet)  and  the  value  of  ?\  so  great 
that  the  observations  do  not  apply  directly  when  v,  is  less 
than  7.5.  In  the  canal  sections  of  the  isthmian  waterway, 
the  value  of  rx  will  vary  for  the  type  ships  from  7.59  to 
2.44.  (See  Table  III.)  Systematic  observations  on  such 
channels  with,  largo  ships  are  much  needed. 
sm'reHnui''1'^'1  The  Des*  opportunities  for  such  observations  would  be 
afforded  at  flic  Suez  Canal,  for  at  this  waterway  are  found 
a  channel  of  moderate  cross  section  and  a  heavy  traffic 
with  large  ships.  Only  two  observations  made  there  are 
available.  The  first  one  is  reported  by  Sir.Charles  Hart- 
lev  (Minutes  of  Proceedings,  Inst.  C.  E.,vol.  141,  p.  L69), 
who  cites  the  ease  of  the  steamship  Austral  on  a  passage 
made  in  1885. 

On  the  straight  readies  of  (lie  canal,  between  Lake  Timsah  and 
Suez,  the  ship  (inly  made")  knots  an  hour  with  A'.\  revolutions  of  her 
screw-.  Whereas,  in  the  open  sea,  with  the  same  number  of  revolu- 
tions, she  made  1 1  knots. 


EEPOET    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  ',>3 

There  was  a  tide  of  half  a  knot  per  hour  in  her  favor 
in  the  canal.  The  speed  of  11  knots  per  hour  is  almost 
identical  with  that  assumed  for  the  type  ships.  Deduct- 
ing from  the  observed  speed  for  the  tidal  current,  the 
corrected  speed  in  the  canal  would  be  4.5  knots  or  5.17 
statute  miles  per  hour.  If  this  speed  was  observed  be- 
tween Lake  Timsah  and  the  Bitter  Lakes,  the  value  of  rx 
would  be  2.95.  The  point  thus  determined  is  platted  atP 
in  figure  2.  If  the  speed  was  noted  on  the  larger  section 
between  the  Bitter  Lakes  and  Suez,  ?\  would  be  3.25,  and 
the  point  thus  determined  is  platted  at  Q.  The  clearance 
under  the  keel  of  the  Austral  was  less  than  assumed  for 
the  type  ships  in  the  isthmian  canal.  The  reduction  of 
speed  was  therefore  somewhat  greater  than  would  be  sus- 
tained by  the  latter.  The  second  observation  at  Suez  is 
reported  by  Mr.  Lionel  B.  Wells  (M.  P.  I.  C.  E.,  vol.  141, 
p.  208)  as  follows:  In  1898  he  had  visited  the  Suez  and 
traveled  along  the  canal  thence  to  Imailia.  The  passage 
occupied  from  5.80  p.  m.  until  11.15  p.  m.,  the  average 
speed,  irrespective  of  stoppages,  being  therefore  more  than 
6  knots  per  hour.  The  steamship  wTas  320  feet  long,  39 
feet  wide,  and  drew  about  21  feet,  her  gross  tonnage  being 
2,260  tons;  he  was  told  that  11  knots  was  good  speed  at 
sea.  In  the  canal  8  knots  per  hour  were  made  at  times, 
for  the  regulation  as  to  maximum  speed  (5.33  knots  per 
hour)  was  disregarded.  The  tide  was  against  the  ship, 
but  the  velocity  of  current  is  not  stated.  There  is  the 
same  uncertainty  here  as  in  Hartley's  observations  as  to 
the  section  of  the  canal  where  the  speed  of  8  knots  was 
observed.  The  enlargement  of  the  canal  to  the  dimensions 
reported  in  1899  is  supposed  to  have  been  completed.  The 
points  for  the  two  sections  are  platted  at  R  and  S  in  figure 
2  without  allowance  for  the  opposing  current.  The  ship 
had  nearly  the  same  clearance  under  the  keel  as  type  A 
will  have  in  the  isthmian  canal.  The  observation  is  there- 
fore applicable  to  that  type,  and  the  points  are  found  to 
fall  near  its  attainable  speed  curve. 

Referring  to  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  (Kiel)  Canal,  the  chief  f(^.s^*i?n8 

,'  •  -\r      v\..t      i  .i     j  '     /■»  ^-r*    -r    s*    i-i      at  Kiel  Canal. 

constructing  engineer,  Mr.  l<ulscher,  states  (M.  P.  I.  C.  L., 
vol.  141,  p.  207): 

Vessels  capable  of  making  16  knots  per  hour  in  the  open  sea  and 
having  an  immersed  midship  section  of  about  1,400  square  feet  only 
made  between  5  and  6  knots  per  hour  for  the  same  expenditure  of 
power  when  passing  through  that  canal,  which  had  a  cross-sectional 
water  area  of  4,520  square  feet.  *  *  *  Vessels  having  an  immersed 
midship  section  of  between  645  and  753  square  feet,  being  about  one- 
sixth  of  the  cross-sectional  water  area,  traversed  the  canal  without 
undue  expenditure  of  power  and  without  causing  objectionable  waves 
at  a  speed  of  about  6o  knots  per  hour. 

The  speed  for  the  ship  of  1,400  square  feet  section  is 
platted  at  T,  and  for  the  smaller  ship  last  mentioned  at  U, 
fig.  2. 

The  foregoing  data  from  the  Suez  and  Kiel  canals  indi- 
cate that  for  values  of  i\  considerably  less  than  7,  the 
calculated  speeds  for  types  B,  C,  and  D  are  too  high.     The 


94  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

material  reduction  of  speed  when  the  ship's  keel  is  near 
the  channel  bed  has  been  taken  into  account  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages.  An  analogous  reduction  of  speed  must  be 
incurred  when  the  ship's  sides  approach  the  sides  of  the 
channel,  and  this  may  not  have  been  fully  measured  by 
the  allowances  made  for  backward  current  and  depression 
of  water  surface.  A  new  curve  for  these  t}^pes  is  there- 
fore drawn  which,  will  coincide  with  the  so-called  "calcu- 
lated attainable  speed  curve"  in  very  wide  shoal  water, 
would  pass  a  little  below  G,  H,  I,  M,  and  N,  where  the 
calculated  speeds  are  certainly  not  much  in  error,  and 
thence  to  the  left,  where  the  data  are  less  definite,  deviates 
more  widely,  passing  below  T  and  a  little  above  P  and  Q. 
It  is  deemed  proper  to  give  greater  weight  to  G,  N,  and  M 
than  to  U.  The  new  curve  is  marked  "Type  ships  B,  C, 
and  D.     Final  curve  for  attainable  speeds." 

The  calculated  curve  for  type  A  is  well  supported  for 
values  ?\  of  7  to  8  by  Mr.  Wells's  observation  in  the  Suez 
Canal.  It  is  deemed  judicious,  however,  to  draw  a  new 
curve  for  this  type  also,  with  corresponding  reduction  of 
speed,  because  the  data  applicable  are  not  quite  so  full. 

The  final  curve  for  types  B,  C,  and  D  may  be  further 
tested  by  the  St.  Clair  observations.  Referring  to  the 
group  of  four  ships  in  Table  II  having  i\  between  11  and 
12,  the  record  shows  that  all  of  them  had  speeds  of  more 
than  8  miles  per  hour,  the  mean  being  8.83.  It  may  be 
accepted  as  certain  that  these  ships  ran  under  check  and 
that  their  average  sea  speed  is  less  than  12£  miles  per 
hour.  The  observed  speed  in  the  canal  is  platted  at  O 
in  figure  2  and  falls  but  little  below  the  final  curve;  that  is 
to  sa}T,  the  speed  by  the  curve  was  nearly  equaled  by  ships 
of  less  average  power  than  assumed  running  under  check. 
The  ships  of  this  group  are  not  remarkable  in  any  way. 
They  are  medium-sized  freight  ships  and  it  happened  that 
they  were  checked  less  while  passing  the  canal  than  the 
other  groups. 
fixSr("r'i)1i",kt  ^n  °  'slll!l^cr  channels,  where  formed  in  earth,  the 
wani  currents,  attainable  speeds  are  not  permissible  because  of  the  injuri- 
ous results  to  the  canal  banks.  This  injury  is  caused 
mainly  by  wave  wash,  but  to  some  extent  by  backward 
currents.  While  the  waves  produced  by  the  passage  of  a 
ship  are  not  directly  proportional  to  the  backward  cur- 
rent, there  seems  to  be  no  better  way  of  fixing  a  speed 
limit  than  by  reference  to  the  current.  In  the  Suez  Canal 
speeds  are  permitted  which  produce  backward  currents 
exceeding  4  feet  per  second.  In  the  Amsterdam  Canal 
the  largest  ships  are  limited  to  speeds  causing  a  backward 
current  of  about  2.3  feet  per  second.  In  both  cases  the 
banks  are  of  sandy  material,  easily  moved.  In  the  Man- 
chester Canal  the  largest  ships  are  permitted  a  speed  of  6 
miles  per  hour,  causing  a  backward  current  of  3.3  feet 
per  second.  These  currents,  it  should  be  said,  are  calcu- 
lated from  the  approximate  formula  v=  ~^_  .,  in  which 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  95 

v  is  the  velocity  of  back  current,  V  the  speed  of  the  ship, 
and  i\  the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing  the  wet  cross 
section  of  the  canal  by  the  ship's  midship  section.  The 
actual  velocities  are  a  little  greater,  and  in  the  Suez  and 
Manchester  canals  they  are  further  augmented  by  tidal 
currents.  Tides  and  Hoods  will  cause  currents  in  the 
Isthmian  Canal,  augmenting  the  calculated  backward  cur- 
rent, which,  it  is  assumed  for  this  discussion,  should  not 
exceed  3  feet  per  second,  or  2.05  miles  per  hour.  The 
resulting  limiting  speeds  are  shown  in  figure  2.  It  will 
be  noted  that  this  line  replaces  that  part  of  the  final  speed 
curve  concerning  which  any  question  could  plausibly  be 
raised. 

Finally,  speeds  arc  to  be  read  from  the  diagram,  as 
follows : 


Type. 


Ship  A 

Ships  B,C,D. 


Earth  chan- 
nels, 
from  line — 


a.    <1 
a     1) 


Rock  chan- 
nels, 
from  line— 


g    d 

f    b 


If  the  width  of  the  channel  were  not  increased  on  curves  Reduction  of 
and  the  speed  of  the  ship  were  not  reduced,  the  difficulty spee 
of  steering  and  the  risks  to  ships  would  be  greater  than 
on  tangents.  The  projects  for  the  isthmian  canal  provide 
for  a  widening  on  curves  which  varies  inversely  with  the 
radius  of  curvature,  and  possibly  this  may  fully  compen- 
sate. It  is  believed,  however,  that  a  reduction  of  speed 
would  be  made  on  approaching  any  curve.  If  practicable 
so  to  make  it,  such  a  reduction  might  vary  directly  with 
the  degree  of  curvature  and  inversely  with  the  width,  but 
a  schedule  thus  made  would  be  too  complex  for  prac- 
tical use.  Since  the  curves  on  the  Panama  route  are  gen- 
erally of  larger  radius  than  on  the  Nicaragua  route,  the 
reduction  of  speed  need  not  be  so  great.  A  reduction  of 
speed  of  20  per  cent  in  the  narrow  sections  of  the  Nicaragua 
route,  and  of  15  per  cent  in  the  narrow  sections  of  the 
Panama  route  would  seem  to  be  sufficient.  In  the  San 
Juan  River  and  the  harbor  entrances,  where  the  width  is 
greater  but  the  curvature  sharp,  the  reduction  may  be 
taken  15  per  cent;  in  Lake  Nicaragua  and  Panama  Bay, 
where  the  curvature  is  slight,  the  reduction  ma}7  be  10 
per  cent. 


96 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Table  IV. — Schedule  of  speeds  proposed  as  a  basis  for  calculating  the  time 
of  transit  through  the  Panama  and  Nicaragua  canals. 

[Speeds  in  statute  miles  per  hour.] 


Rock  cuts: 

East  and  west  of  summit  level 
Nicaragua 

West  divide,  Nicaragua 

Culebra  cut,  Panama 

Canal  section  in  firm  earth 

Canal  section  in  sand  and  silt 

Channel  in  Panama  Bay 

San  Juau  River,  where  deepened  . 
Lake  Nicaragua,  where  deepened. 

Lake  Bohio 

San  Juan  River,  where  not  deep 
ened 

Lake  Nicaragua,  where  not  deep 
ened. 

Harbor  and  harbor  entrances 


Tangents  in- 
curves. 


Tvpe 
A. 


Tangents . . 

Curves 

Tangents . . 

Curves 

Tangents  . . 

Curves 

[Tangents . . 
■[Curves  » ... 
[Curves •> ... 
[Tangents  . . 
■(Curves  a ... 
[Curves b . .. 
/Tangents  . . 

(Curves 

[Tangents . . 

\Curves 

/Tangents.  . 

(Curves 

(Tangents I      10.0 

(Curves 9.0 

(Tangents |      10.0 

i  Curves 8.5 

L2.5 


6. 5 

8.5 
7.0 
6.  5 
9.5 
s.  5 
9.5 
8.0 
LO.O 
9,  o 


Tvpe 
B. 


(Tangents .. 
(Curves 


10.0 

8.  r> 


0.0 
5.0 
6.0 
5.0 
6.5 
5.5 
7.0 
6.0 
5.5 
7.5 
6. 5 
6.0 
8.  -r. 
8.0 
8. 5 
7.5 
9.0 
8.0 

LO.O 
9.0 
9.5 
8.0 

12.5 

9.0 


Type 
C. 


5.0 
4.0 
5.5 
5.0 
5. 5 
4.5 
6.0 
5.0 
4.5 
7.0 
6.0 

8.  •". 
7.5 
8.5 
7.0 
8. 5 
7.5 

10.0 
9.0 
9.0 
7.5 

12.5 

9.0 


Type 
D. 


■l..r> 
3.5 
4.5 
4.0 
5.0 
4.0 
4.5 
4.0 
3.5 
6.0 
5.  o 
5.0 
8.0 
7.5 
8.0 
7.0 
8.5 
7.5 
9. 5 
8. 5 
9. 0 
7.5 
12.5 

S.5 
7.0 


'  Nicaragua. 


The  foregoing  schedule  applied  to  the  two  routes  gives 
the  times  of  transit  across  the  Isthmus  shown  in  Tables  V 
and  VI,  but  without  allowance  for  delays  at  meeting  points 
and  at  locks. 


Table  V. — Tifne  of  transit  through  the  Panama  ('nun/  without  allowance 

for  meetings  or  lockages. 


.Tangents  or 
curves. 

Dis- 
tance. 

Type 
A. 

Type     Type 

Type 
D. 

Canal  section: 

Stat. 

miles. 

L0.76 
6.85 
:;.  is 
2.50 
3.00 
8. 02 
3.90 
.51 
.  39 
2. 00 
6.  is 
6.50 

Hours. 
1.35 
.  98 
.11 
,36 
.37 
.  16 
.11 
.06 
.04 
.  24 
.62 
.72 

Hour*. 
1.54 
1.11 
.46 
.38 
.  1. 

.  46 
.07 
.04 
.27 
.  62 
.72 

limns. 

1.80 

1.37 
.50 
.  (2 
.55 
.67 
.  46 
.07 
.04 
.27 
.  62 
.72 

Hourt. 
2. 39 

[Tangents 

.58 

Culebra  cut 

.60 

75 

Channel  in  Panama  Bay 

.  19 

07 

Colon  Harbor  and  entrance  ... 

.05 

.  29 

Lake  Bohio 

[Tangents 

(Curves 

.  65 
.76 

49. 09 

6. 02 

6.71 

f.49 

8.  8 1 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


97 


Table  VI. —  Time  of  tr ansit  through  the  Nicaragua  Canal  without  allow- 
ance for  meetings  or  lockages. 


Canal  section: 
Firm  earth  . 

Sand  or  silt. 


Rock,  West  divide 

Rock,  exclusive  of  West 

divide 

San  Juan  River: 

Where  deepened 

N<  >t  deepened 

Lake  Nicaragua: 

Where  deepened 

Not  deepened 

Harbors  and  entrances 


Total 


Tangents  or 

curves. 


Dis- 
tance. 


(Tangents . 
iCurves  ... 
(Tangents . 
(Curves  ... 
(Tangents. 
(Curves  . . . 
(Tangents . 
ICurves  ... 


(Tangents . 
\Curves  . . . 
(Tangents . 
\Curves  ... 


(Tangents . 
iCurves  . .. 


(Tangents . 
(Curves  ... 


Stat. 

mih  a. 
17.99 
10. 45 
19.93 
8.  39 
4.79 
3.89 
2.94 
2.32 

12. 58 
13.77 
5.15 

7.86 

26.69 
1.56 

42. 27 
2.04 
1.04 


183. 66 


Type 

A. 


Hours. 

2. 25 

1.61 

2.34 
1.29 
.64 
.65 
.39 
.39 

1.32 
1.72 

.52 
.  92 

2.67 
.17 

3.38 
.20 
.12 


20. 58 


Type 
1$. 


Hours. 

2.57 

1.90 

2.66 

1.40 

.80 

.78 

.49 

.46 

1.  18 

1.84 

.54 

.98 

2.97 
.19 

3.38 
.23 

.14 


22. 81 


Type 
C. 


Hours. 

3.00 

2.  32 

2.85 

1.53 

.87 

.78 

.59 


1.48 

1.97 

.57 

1.05 

3.14 
.21 

3.38 
.23 
.14 


24.  69 


Type 
D. 


Hours. 

4.00 

2.99 

3.32 

1.68 

1.06 

.97 

.65 

.66 

1.57 

1.97 

.57 

1.05 

3.14 
.21 

3.38 
.24 
.15 


27.61 


To  obtain  the  full  time  of  transit  the  time  consumed  by 
lockage  and  the  dela}rs  at  meeting  points  are  to  be  added. 

The  time  required  for  lockage  is  here  taken  to  be  the 
delay  caused  b}T  a  lockage.  It  is  the  period  beginning  by\™c9kage.ume 
when  the  ship  begins  to  slacken  speed  on  approaching  a 
lock  and  ending  when  it  has  acquired  full  speed  after  leav- 
ing it,  less  the  time  that  is  required  to  pass  over  the  same 
distance  at  full  canal  speed.  The  delay  while  waiting  for 
the  locking  of  another  ship  will  be  considered  further  on. 

The  channel  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lock  is  taken  to  be  of 
standard  canal  section  in  firm  earth.  While  this  is  not 
true  in  every  case,  the  resulting  error  is  not  material. 
The  approaching  ship  must  reduce  speed  and  be  under  per- 
fect control  while  yet  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
lock.  Its  movements  while  approaching,  passing,  and 
leaving  the  lock  are  supposed  to  be  as  follows: 

1.  The  speed  of  the  approaching  ship  is  to  be  reduced 
to  1.7  miles  per  hour  (150  feet  per  minute)  at  a  point  700 
feet  distant  from  the  lock-gate  quoin.  This  reduction  of 
speed  is  to  be  made  at  the  rate  of  1  mile  per  hour  while 
moving  500  feet. 

Observations  on  a  large  number  of  lake  freight  ships 
show  that  when  the  engines  are  stopped  the  speed  is  re- 
duced at  an  average  rate  of  1  mile  per  hour  while  moving 
less  than  100  feet.  (See  report  U.  S.  Board  of  Engineers 
on  Deep  Waterwa^ys.)  A  like  increase  of  speed  occurs 
when  the  engines  are  again  started. 

3.  The  ship  is  to  continue  at  the  speed  of  1.7  miles  per 
hour  until  its  stern  is  within  150  feet  of  the  lock-gate 
quoin  (200  feet,  if  moving  down  stream)  and  then  is  to 
come  to  a  stop  in  the  next  200  feet  and  during  two  and 
two-thirds  minutes,  backing  the  wheel  if  necessary. 

Observations  on  35  ships  entering  the  lock  of  the  St. 
Marys  Falls  Canal  show  that  a  stop  from  a  speed  of  125 
feet  per  minute  is  made  in  100  feet  and  in  1.1  minutes. 
S.  Doc.  51,  pt  2 7 


98 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


3.  The  time  required  to  open  or  close  a  pair  of  lock 
gates  is  taken  at  two  minutes. 

At  the  Ymuiden  lock,  on  the  Amsterdam  Canal,  the  ob- 
served time  was  one  and  one-third  minutes. 

4.  The  time  required  for  tilling  and  emptying  the  sev- 
eral locks  is  given  in  the  following  table,  VII.  (See  Ap- 
pendix A  for  details  of  calculation.) 

Table  VII. — Time  required  for  filling  and  emptying  larks. 


FilliiiL 


Panama  route. 


Mia.  Sec. 


Lower  lock  at  Bohio 13 

Upper  lock  at  Bohio I  1(5 

Upper  lock  at  Pedro  Miguel 13 

Lower  lock  at  Pedro  Miguel 10 

Miraflores  lock 13 


Lock  No.  1 
Lock  No.  2 
Lock  No.  3 
Lock  No.  4 
Lock  No.  5 
Lock  No.  6 
Lock  No.  7 
Lock  No.  8 


A. "■((,"  (/./a  route. 


14  56 

10  42 

10  42 

14  43 

12  49 

13  17 
13  17 
12  18 


5.  A  ship  leaving  the  lock  is  to  acquire  a  speed  of  1.7 
miles  per  hour  while  moving  300  feet,  requiring  four 
minutes,  and  is  then  to  gain  speed  at  the  rate  of  1  mile  per 
hour  while  moving  500  feet,  until  full  canal  speed  is 
attained. 

Observations  of  30  ships  leaving  the  lock  of  the  St. 
Marys  Falls  Canal  gave  as  mean  results  an  acquired  speed 
of  1.7  miles  per  hour  while  moving  200  feet  in  two  and 
one-third  minutes,  and  then  an  increase  of  speed  of  1  mile 
per  hour  while  moving  3(30  feet.  The  observations  ex- 
tended only  until  a  speed  of  3  miles  per  hour  was  attained. 

These  rules  applied  to  the  Bohio  locks  result  in  the 
time  interval  given  in  the  next  table: 

Table  VIII. — Time  required  to  pass  Bohio  Jocks. 
[In  minutes.] 


Reducing  speed  to  1.7  miles  per  hour 

Moving  at  1.7  miles  per  hour  until  stern  is  175  feet  from 
lock  Kate  quoin 

Coming  to  full  stop  in  first  lock 

Closing  lock  gates 

Pilling  (or  emptying)  first  lock 

Opening  second  gates 

Moving  into  second  lock: 

At  la  mini,'  speed  (if  1.7  miles  per  hour 

Proceeding  at  this  speed  300  feet 

Coming  to  full  slop  in  second  lock 

Closing  second  gates 

Filling  (or  emptying)  second  lock 

Opening  third  gates 

Moving  out  of  lock  and  attaining  full  speed: 

Attaining  speed  of  1.7  miles  per  hour 

Increasing  to  full  canal  speed 

Time  required  to  traverse  this  distance  at  full  canal 
speed minutes. 

Time  lost  at  locks do... 

Distance  traversed  feet . 


Type 

Type 

Type 

Type 

A. 

B. 

c. 

D. 

8.8 

8.0 

7.2 

5.5 

6.2 

6.  2 

7.1 

7.8 

2.7 

2.7 

2.7 

2.7 

2.0 

•J.  ii 

2.0 

2.0 

13.1 

L3.  1 

13.1 

13.1 

2.0 

2.  0 

2.0 

2.0 

4.0 

1.0 

l.o 

4.0 

2.0 

2.0 

2.  0 

2.0 

2.7 

2.7 

2.7 

2.7 

2.  0 

2.0 

2.0 

2.  0 

L6.3 

16.:; 

L6.8 

16.3 

•J.ti 

2.0 

2.0 

2.0 

4.0 

l.o 

4.0 

4.0 

s.s 

8.0 

7.2 

5.5 

76.6 

75.0 

74.3 

71.6 

12.6 

12.8 

18.0 

13.6 

61.0 

62.  2 

61.3 

58.0 

S..SSC, 

7,886 

r>,ssr, 

5, 386 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


99 


Those  arc  the  net  delays  if  all  movements  are  made 
without  loss  of  time.  In  practice  this  would  not  be  possi- 
ble. In  1894  the  lock  at  the  St.  Marys  Falls  Canal  was 
worked  nearly  to  its  full  capacity,  and  the  tonnage  through 
it  was  about  0.62  of  the  theoretical  capacity  of  the  lock. 
Probably  ships  were  awaiting-  lockage  90  to  95  per  cent  of 
the  time.  If  this  is  correct,  about  50  per  cent  should  be 
added  to  the  calculated  time  of  lockage  to  obtain  the  time 
used  in  actual  work.  This  allowance  is  adopted  for  the 
present  discussion.  The  resulting  time  lost  by  lockages 
is  given  for  the  two  routes  in  Tables  IX  and  X. 


Tablk  IX. —  Time  lost  by  lockages  on  the  Panama  route. 


Bohio  locks minutes. . 

Pedro  Miguel  locks do 

Miraflores  lock do 


Total. 


{minutes. 
h 


Type 
A. 


64.0 
58. 5 
36.4 


(hours i    2.65 

Add  50  per  cent  for  sundry  delays 1. 32 

Total  delays  for  lockages hours..     3.97 


Type 
B. 


62.2 
56.7 
34.  S 


Type 
C. 


153.7     161.2 


61.3 
55. 8 
34. 1 


2.56 
1.28 


2.52 
1.26 


3.78 


Table  X.— Time  lost  l»j  lockages  on  the  Nicaragua  mute. 


Atlantic  slope: 

Lock  No.  1 minutes.. 

Lock  No.  2 do 

Lock  No.  3 ."'.'.'.'.do'.'.'.'. 

Lock  No.  4 do'.'.'.'. 

Pacific  slope: 

Lock  No.  5 do 

Lock  No.  6 do. .  '.'. 

Lock  No.  7 do. '. '.' 

Lock  No.  8 do. '. '. '. 

{minutes., 
hours 

Ana  w  per  cent  tor  sundry  delays 

Total  delay  for  lockages hours.. 


Type 
A. 


37.9 
33.7 
33.7 
37.7 

35.8 
36.3 
36.3 
35.3 


286.  7 


4.78 

2.39 


Tvpi' 
B. 


36.3 
32.1 
32.1 
36.1 

34.2 
34.7 
34.7 
33.7 


273. 9 


4.57 
2. 28 


6.85 


Type 
C. 


35.6 
31.4 
31.4 
35.4 

33.5 
34.0 
34.0 
33.0 


268.3 


4.47 
2.23 


Type 
D. 


58.0 
52.  5 
31.3 


2.36 
1.18 


Type 
D. 


32.8 
28.6 
2S.6 
32.6 

30.7 
31.2 
31.2 
30.2 

245.  9 


4.10 
2. 05 


Meetings  occurring  in  the  excavated  channels  will  cause.  Delays  at  meet 
delay.     No  allowance  need  be  made  for  meetings  in  deepmgP°m  ' 
water  in  Lake  Nicaragua,  Lake  Bohio,  or  the  San  Juan 
River.     Meetings  may  also  occur  at  locks. 

It  is  obvious  that  "if  two  ships  of  type  D  meet  in  the  Meetings  in 
regular  canal  section  one  must  tie  up  while  the  other channtls 
passes  at  reduced  speed.  Ships  of  type  A  could  meet  any- 
where, but  one  would  probably  tie  up  while  the  speed  of 
the  other  would  be  reduced.  In  channels  200  to  300  feet 
wide  it  is  not  likely  that  either  ship  would  tie  up,  but  both 
would  reduce  speed. 

Since  a  ship  of  any  type  may  meet  another  of  any  type, 
a  vast  number  of  possible  cases  will  arise.  IMs  not 
practicable  to  investigate  each  on  a  different  basis,  and  the 


100 


KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


same  rules  will  be  assumed  to  appl}7  to  all.     These  rules 
are  as  follows: 

1.  In  the  section  of  150  feet  bottom  width,  passing- 
places  are  assumed  to  be  5  miles  apart  where  all  meet- 
ings must  occur.  One  of  the  two  ships  about  to  meet  will 
tie  up  at  the  passing  place  and  await  the  other.  As  an 
average,  the  waiting  ship  will  arrive  at  the  passing  place, 
while  the  other  is  2£  miles  distant.  It  will  be  assumed 
that  the  moving  ship  passes  the  waiting  ship  at  half  speed, 
maintaining  the  minimum  speed  for  an  average  distance 
of  2,000  feet.  The  rates  of  reduction  and  increase  of  speed 
are  taken  the  same  as  for  the  calculations  of  delays  at  locks. 
The  delay  to  each  of  the  two  ships  is  calculated  and  the 
mean  taken.  In  order  to  simplify  the  calculations  it  is 
assumed  that  the  approaching  ships  are  moving  before 
reducing  speed  at  the  rates  scheduled  in  Table  IV  for  canal 
section  in  firm  earth  on  tangents. 

2.  In  the  channels  200  to  300  feet  wide  neither  ship  will 
stop,  but  both  will  reduce  speed  to  4  miles  per  hour, 
maintaining  this  rate  for  an  average  distance  of  2,000  feet. 
In  order  to  simplify  the  problem  the  reductions  will  be 
calculated  from  the  speeds  scheduled  in  Table  IV  for 
tangents  in  the  San  Juan  River  where  deepened. 

Meetings  in      The  delay  caused  by  a  meeting  in  the  canal  section  is 


narrow 
sections. 


can  al 


sb.0wn  in  Table  XL 


Table  XI. — Delay  >ii  meeting  points  in  canal  section  InO  feet  wi<l<    ai 

bottom. 

[In  minutes.] 


Type 

A. 


Type    Type 
B.  C. 


Type 
P. 


Delay  to  waiting  ship: 

Elapsed  time  while  reducing  speed  to  1.7  miles  per 

hour 

Elapsed  time  from  speed  of  1.7  miles  per  hour  to 

full  stop 

Elapsed  time  waiting  lor  meeting  ship  to  run  2| 

miles 

Elapsed  time  to  attain  speed  of  1.7  miles  per  hour  . 
Elapsed  time  to  attain  full  canal  speed 


Total  elapsed  time , 

Total  distance  traversed   feet., 

Time  required  to  move  this  distance  at  full  canal 
speed 


Delay  to  waiting  sliip 


21.2 

l.d 


45. 5 
6,800 

'.'.7 


35.8 


Delay  to  moving  ship: 

Elapsed  time  while  reducing  speed  to  half  speed  . . 
Elapsed  time  while  running  2,000  feel  at  half  speed. 

Elapsed  time  while  regaining  full  canal  speed 

Total  elapsed  time 

Total  distance  traversed  ai  reduced  speed  . .  .feel . . 

Time  required  to  move  tins  distance  at   full  canal 

Speed  

Delay  to  moving  ship 


13.  I 

6, (KM) 


8.  5 
1.9 


Total  delay  fur  both  Bhips 
Mean  delay  fnr  both  ships  . 


(minutes, 
[hours  . . . 


1(1.7 

20.8 

.84 


23.4 
4.0 
8.0 


16.1 
5,800 


9.  I 


36.7 


3.9  3.9 
5. 6  ti.  5 
3. 9        3. 9 


14.3 
5,600 


8. 9 
5.  I 


12.  ! 
21.] 

.  35 


7.2 


26.3 

I. n 
7. 'J 


17.  I 

I.  si  10 


38.3 


3.  9 
7.6 
3.9 


16.4 
5,000 


9.  I 
6.0 


14. 8 

'."J.  1 
.37 


5.5 

2.7 

36.2 
4.0 
5.5 


68.9 

3,300 


45. 0 


3.9 
10.1 
3.9 


17.  <) 
1,260 


10.7 
7.2 


52.2 
26.1 
.43 


REPORT    OK    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


101 


Assuming  that  a  moan  of  five  ships  enter  the  canal  each 
wav  per  day,  each  ship  will  meet  one  going  in  the  oppo- 
site direction  every  two  and  four-tenths  hours  as  an  aver- 
age. The  number  of  meetings  in  the  canal  sections  will 
be  the  quotient  arising  from  dividing  the  total  number  of 
hours  required  to  traverse  them  by  2.4. 

Let  T  =  time  required  to  traverse  the  canal  sections  of 
the  route  without  meetings,  in  hours. 

n  =  number  of  meetings. 

t  =  time  lost  at  each  meeting,  in  hours. 
Then  T-\-nt  =  total  time  in  canal  sections. 

T  +  nt_      T  _      (7) 


2.4 


2.4 -£ 


T  is  obtained  in  Tables  V  and  VI;  t  from  table  XI.  Ap- 
plying the  formula  there  results  the  number  of  meetings 
and  the  delays  given  in  Tables  XII  and  XIII. 

Table  XII.— Number  of  meetings  for  each  ship  in  the  canal  sections  of  the 
Panama  route  and  delays  therefrom. 


Number  of  hours  traversing  sections  of  160  feet,  bottom 

width,  excluding  meetings 

A  verage  number  of  meetings -' 

Delay  in  transit hours. . 


Type 

Type 

Type 

Type 

A. 

B. 

C. 

D. 

3.93 

4.53 

5. 31 

6.53 

1.91 

2.21 

2.62 

3.31 

.65 

.77 

.97 

1.42 

Table  XIII. — Number  of  meetings  for  each  ship  in  the  canal  sections  of 
the  Nicaragua  route  and  delays  therefrom. 


Number  of  hours  traversing  sections  of  150  feet,  bottom 

width,  excluding  meetings 

A  verage  number  of  meetings 

Delav  in  transit hours. . 


Type 
A. 


9.56 
4.64 
1.58 


Type 
B. 


11.06 
5.40 
1.89 


Type 
C. 


12.  52 
6.17 

2. 28 


Type 
D. 


15. 32 
7.78 
3.35 


The  delays  to  a  ship  in  transit  on  account  of  meetings  in 
the  wide  channels  is  calculated  in  the  same  manner  as  for 
the  canal  sections. 

Table  XIV. — Delay  at  a  meeting  point  in  tlie  channel  in  San  Juan  River, 
Lake  Nicaragua,  or  Panama  Pay. 

[In  minutes.] 


Elapsed  time  while  reducing  speed  to  4  miles  per  hour. 
Elapsed  time  while  running  2,000  feet  at  4  miles  per 

hour 

Elapsed  time  while  regaining  speed 


Total  elapsed  time minutes. . 

Total  distance  traversed  feet. . 

Time  required  to  traverse  this  distance  at  full  allowed 

speed minutes. . 

_  ,       .      ,  .  f minutes.. 

Delay  to  ship Uiours  . 


Tvpe 
A. 

Type 
B. 

Type 

C. 

Type 
D. 

3.9 

3.2 

2.3 

0.7 

5.6 
3.9 

5.6 
3.2 

5.6 
2.3 

5.C 
.7 

13.4 

6,000 

12.0 

5, 000 

10.2 
4,000 

7.0 
2,500 

8.5 
4.9 
.08 

8.1 
3.9 
.07 

7.6 
2.6 
.04 

6.4 
.6 
.01 

102 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Table  XV. — Number  of  meetings  for  each  ship  in  the  channel  excavated  in 
Panama  Bay  and  delays  therefrom. 


Type 
A. 

Type 
B. 

Tvpe     Tvpe 
C.          D. 

0.47 
.20 
.02 

0.53 
.23 
.02 

0.53         0  50 

.23  1          24 

.01            .01) 

Table  XVI. — Number  of  meetings  for  each  ship  in  the  channel  excavated 
in  the  San  Juan  River  and  Lake  Nicaragua. 

Number  of  hours  traversing  channel 

Average  number  of  meetings 

Delays  in  transit hours.. 


Type 
A. 


5.84 

2.50 

.20 


Type 
B. 


0.43 

2.  76 

.19 


Tvpe    Tvpe 
C.  D. 


6.75 

2.86 

.11 


6.84 

2.87 

.03 


Meetings 
locks. 


It  is  not  likely  that  a  full  working  force  will  be  provided 
for  both  sets  of  locks,  the  duplicate  locks  being  provided 
to  enable  repairs  to  be  made  to  either  separate!}'  without 
closing  the  canal  to  navigation  and  as  insurance  against 
delay  to  navigation  in  case  of  accident  to  either  lock.  It 
is  assumed,  however,  that  both  sets  will  be  in  use,  when  in 
al order.  If  a  ship  should  arrive  while  another  is  being 
locked  it  will  have  to  wait  until  the  other  is  out  of  the  way, 
or  until  some  of  the  working  force  can  bo  spared  to  attend 
to  it.  Except  at  the  initial  locks,  ships  following  each 
other  will  be  spaced  by  previous  lockages,  and  so  will  delay 
each  other  but  little.  Meetings,  however,  are  as  likely  to 
occur  at  locks  as  anywhere  else  in  proportion  to  the  time 
consumed  there.  If  the  second  ship  arriving  were  obliged 
to  wait  until  the  first  one  was  entirely  clear  of  the  lock  and 
toieIchaship.' la>  approach,  the  average  delay  when  one  occurred  would  be 
one-half  the  time  required  for  a  lockage  (not  the  time  lost 
by  lockage).  Only  one  of  two  meeting  ships  would  suffer 
this  delay  and  the  average  loss  of  time  to  each  ship  would 
be  one-fourth  the  time  required  for  a  lockage.  In  prac- 
tice, however,  the  delay  would  probably  be  a  little  less 
because,  after  the  first  ship  has  been  tied  up  in  the  lock, 
a  part  of  the  force  could  be  spared  to  begin  operating  the 
duplicate  lock.  The  time  thus  saved  would  provide  for  all 
delays  to  ships  following  each  other.  The  full  allowance 
will  therefore  be  made  here  for  meeting  ships  and  none  for 
following  ships.  The  Dumber  of  meetings  is  the  total  delay 
for  Lockages  as  obtained  from  Tables  IX  and  X.  by  applying 
formula  (7).  Thetime  required  for  passing  the  locks  is  the 
calculated  time  plus  thealfowance  of  50  per  cent  for  sundry 
delays.  The  time  lost  by  a  meeting  at  the  Bohio  locks  is 
estimated  as  shown  in  Table  XVII. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 
Table  XVII. — Delay  caused  by  a  meeting  at  Bohio  lucks. 


103 


[Interval  between  arrival  of  ship  at  a  point  700  feet  from  the  lock-gate  quoin  and 
the  point  when  in  leaving  the  lock  it  lias  attained  a  speed  of  1.7  miles  per  hour. 
This  is  taken  to  he  the  maximum  delay  which  a  second  ship  would  meet.  Data 
from  Table  VOL] 

[In  minutes.] 


Type 
A. 


Type 
B. 


Type 
C. 


Type 
L>. 


Moving  at  1.7  miles  per  hour  until  stern  is  175  feet 

from  lock-gate  quoin 

('(iming  to  full  stop  in  lock 

Closing  lock  gates 

Filling  (or  emptying)  first  lock 

Opening  se»  ind  gates 

Moving  into  second  lock 

( 'li  ising  second  gates 

Filling  (or  emptying)  lock 

Opening  third  gates. . 

Attaining  speed  ot  1.7  miles  per  hour 

Maximum  delay  to  waiting  ships 

Average  delay  to  waiting  ships 

Average  delay  to  both  meeting  ships 

Average  delay  with  50  per  cent  added 


6.2 
2.7 
2.0 

13.1 
2.0 
8.7 
2.0 

16.3 
2.0 
4.0 


6.2 

2.7 
2.0 

13.1 
2.0 
8.7 
2.0 

16.3 
2.0 
4.0 


7.1 
2.7 
2.0 

13.1 
2.0 
8.7 
2.0 

16.3 
2.0 
4.0 


59. 0  59. 0  59. 9 

30. 0  30. 0  30. 0 

15.0  I     15.0  I  15.0 

22. 0  22. 0  23. 0 


7.8 
2.7 
2.0 

13.1 
2.0 
8.7 
2.0 

16.3 
2.0 
4.0 


60.6 
30.0 
15.0 
23. 0 


From  the  foregoing-  table  the  average  delay  to  all  ships 
at  the  Bohio  flight  of  two  locks  would  be  fifteen  minutes. 
In  a  similar  way  the  average  delay  at  other  locks  is  calcu- 
lated, with  the  following  results: 

Table  XVIII. — Delays  caused  by  meetings  at  each  of  the  locks  or  flights 
of  the  Panama  route. 

[In  minutes.] 


Type 
A. 


Type 
B. 


Type 
C 


Type 
D. 


At  Bohio  locks 

At  I'edro  Miguel  locks 

At  Miraflores  lock 

Total 

„  (minutes. . 

Mean {hours.... 

Mean,  with  50  per  cent  added hours.. 


15.0 
13.0 
8.0 


36.0 

12.0 

.2 

.3 


15.0 
13.0 
8.0 


15.0 
14.0 
8.0 


36.0 

12.0 

.2 

.3 


37.0 

12.0 

.2 

.3 


15.0 
14.0 
8.0 


37.0 

12.0 

.2 

.3 


Table  XIX. — Delays  at  meetings  at  each  of  the  locks  of  the  Nicaragua 

route. 

[In  minutes.] 


Type 
A. 

Type 
B. 

Type 
C. 

Type 
D. 

8.0 
7.0 
7.0 
8.0 
7.0 
8.0 
8.0 
7.0 

8.0 
7.0 
7.0 
8.0 
7.0 
8.0 
8.0 
7.0 

8.0 
7.0 

7.0 
8.0 
8.0 
8.0 
8.0 
8.0 

8.0 

7.0 

7.0 

8.0 

8  0 

8.0 

8.0 

At  Lock  No.  8 

8.0 

Totals 

60.0 

7.5 

.12 

.18 

60.0 
7.5 
.12 
.18 

62.0 
7.8 
.13 
.19 

62.0 

Mean 

Mean  with  50  per  cent  added 

[minutes  . . 
hours.. 

7.8 
.13 
.19 

104 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


These  delays  for  each  meeting  multiplied  by  the  number 
of  meetings  give  the  following  tables,  XX  and  XXI: 

Table  XX. — Number  of  delays  while  awaiting  lockage  on  the  Panama 

route  and  delays  therefrom. 


Number  of  delays  per  transit 

Time  of  each  delay hours. . 

Total  delay 


Type 
A. 

Type 
B. 

Type 

C. 

1.89 
.30 
.57 

1.83 
.30 
.55 

1.80 
.30 
.54 

1 

Type 
b. 


1.69 
.30 

.51 


Table  XXI. — Number  of  delays  while  awaiting  lockage  on  the  Nicaragua 
route,  and  delays  therefrom. 


Number  of  delays  per  transit 

Time  of  each  delay hours. . 

Total  delay 


Type 

Tvpe 

Type 

A. 

B. 

C. 

3.23 

3. 09 

3. 02 

.18 

.18 

.19 

.58 

.56 

.57 

Type 
D. 


2.78 
.19 
.53 


The  several  time  intervals  are  summed  up  in  the  follow- 
ing table,  giving  the  total  time  of  transit  by  each  route: 


Table  XXII. — Time  of  transit  across  isthmus. 

[In  hours.] 


Panama  route. 

Time  without  allowance  for  lockage  or  meetings 

Lockages 

Meetings  in  canal  section 

Meetings  in  channel  in  Panama  Bay 

Meetings  at  locks 

Total  time  of  transit 

Nicaragua  route. 

Time  without  allowance  for  lockage  or  meetings 

Lockages 

Meetings  in  canal  sections 

Meetings  in  channels  in  San  Juan  River  and   Lake 

Nicaragua 

Meetings  at  locks 

Total  time  of  transit 


Tvpe    Tvpe    Tvpe    Type 
A.  B.  C.  D. 


6.  02 

3. 97 

.65 

.02 

.57 


11.23 


7.  17 
L.58 

.20 
.58 


6.71 
3. 8 1 

.77 
.02 


7.  I '.I 

3.78 

.97 

.01 

.64 


11.89     12.79 


22.  SI 

6. 85 

1 .  89 

.19 

,56 


32. 30 


21.69 
6.  7(1 
2.  28 


8.  SO 

3.  54 

1.42 

.00 

.51 


14.27 


27.  61 
6.16 
3.35 

.03 

..r.;; 


34.35      37.67 


These  estimates  are  for  ships  having  a  sea  speed  of  12A 
statute  miles  per  hour.  It  is  assumed  that  passing  places. 
where  ships  can  tie  up,  will  be  provided  at  intervals  of 
5  miles  in  all  canal  sections,  and  that  the  route  will  he 
so  efficiently  lighted,  either  by  fixed  lights  along  the  route 
or  by  lights  carried  by  the  ships,  or  by  both,  as  experience 
may  indicate  that  navigation  may  he  continued  by  night 
as  well  as  by  day.  Should  the  ships  be  powered  for  a  less 
sea  speed  the  time  of  transit  will  not  he  increased  iti  sim- 
ple inverse  proportion,  nor  could  the  time  of  transit  he 
much  reduced  if  the  sea  speed  were  considerably  greater. 
If  no  provisions  he  made  for  passing  places,  or  if  the 
lighting  be  inadequate,  the  estimates  do  not  apply. 


APPENDIX  G,      FIG. 


S  Doc-'V'  3  57    1 


APPENDIX   G.   FI6    2 


Appendix  H. 
DISCHARGE  OF  THE  CANALIZED  SAN  JUAN  RIVER. 


The  San  Juan  River  flows  with  very  little  fall  through  a  flat,  swampy 
valley  until  the  tributary,  Rio  Sabalos,  is  reached,  about  26  miles 
from'  the  lake.  Within  "the  next  IS  miles,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Machuca,  the  river  descends  the  Toro,  Castillo,  and  Machuca  rapids, 
as  well  as  several  smaller  ones.  In  the  first  26  miles  of  its  course  the 
fall,  at  mean  stages,  is  only  about  4  feet,  but  in  the  next  IS  miles  the 
fall  is  about  45  feet.  From  the  Rio  Machuca  to  the  mouth  of  the  San 
Carlos,  a  distance  of  about  13  miles,  the  fall  is  very  slight. 

If  the  dam  is  built  at  Conchuda  the  water  will  be  raised  over  the 
whole  length  of  the  river  from  that  point  to  the  lake,  entirely  drown- 
ing all  the  rapids  and  adding  about  50  feet  to  the  depth  of  the  lower 
portion  of  the  river,  but  only  4  oi  5  to  the  upper  portion.  Therefore, 
when  the  canalized  river  is  discharging,  the  condition  of  nature  will 
be  reversed  and  nearly  all  the  slope  will  be  found  in  the  upper  portion, 
where  the  cross  section  is  changed  but  little.  In  the  lower  portion, 
where  the  cross  section  is  increased  from  ten  to  twenty  times,  the  slope 
will  be  very  slight. 

It  is  known  from  actual  observations  what  the  concurrent  elevations 
of  lake  surface  and  discharges  have  been  during  the  season  of  obser- 
vation. It  is  also  approximately  known  from  rainfall  and  other 
observations  in  the  drainage  basin  of  the  lake  what  discharges  must 
be  expected  if  the  variation  of  the  lake  surface  is  to  be  regulated 
within  the  desired  limits.  In  this  investigation  of  the  discharge  of 
the  San  Juan  River  the  problem  has  been  so  treated  as  to  determine 
the  hydraulic  mean  radius,  the  coefficient  of  roughness,  and  the  slope 
for  assumed  discharges  of  20,000,  30,000,  40,000,  50,000,  60,000,  and 
70,000  cubic  feet  per  second  for  each  elevation  of  lake  surface  104, 106, 
108, 110,  and  112.  In  order  to  attain  these  ends  the  well-known  Chezy's 
form  of  formula  for  mean  velocity  of  discharge,  with  Kutter's  coeffi- 
cient, has  been  used.     The  following  is  its  form: 

n  s  i — 


-7=(  41.65  -f- 
in  which 


yV  v  *     J 


8  —  the  sine  of  the  inclination  of  the  water  surface  to  a  horizontal. 
r  =  the  hydraulic  radius  =  area  of  the  normal  water  section  di- 
vided by  the  wetted  perimeter. 
n  —  coefficient  of  roughness. 
v  —  mean  velocity  in  river. 


105 


106 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


In  the  present  case,  0.024  was  taken  as  the  coefficient  of  roughness, 
n.     The  significance  of  this  value  will  be  discussed  later. 

To  obtain  r  and  v,  20  sections  of  the  river  valley  were  taken  at 
various  points  between  the  lake  and  the  site  of  the  dam.  The  position 
of  these  sections  is  shown  in  figure  1. 

Table  1  gives  the  distances  of  each  section  in  feet  from  Fort  San 
Carlos,  measured  along  the  present  river  channel. 

Table  1. 


Number  of  section. 

Distance 
from 
lake. 

Number  of  section. 

Distance 
from 
lake. 

Number  of  section. 

Distance 
from 
lake. 

1 

Feet. 

0 
23, 500 
42, 500 
65, 000 
70, 500 
8G,  000 
137,000 

8 

Feet. 
153,000 
177,000 
183, 000 
191,000 
193, 500 
206, 000 
212, 000 

15 

Feet. 
228, 000 

■> 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

16 

239, 000 

3  .. 

17 

259,000 

4... 

18 

269, 000 

5 

19 

283,000 

6... 

20 

300,500 

7 

326,500 

These  sections  were  all  platted  to  a  scale  of  40  feet  to  an  inch.  In 
those  sections  in  which  excavation  is  required  to  give  35  feet  draft 
with  water  at  elevation  +  104  the  line  of  excavation  was  platted  on  the 
section.  The  wetted  perimeters  were  then  measured  by  a  chartometer 
for  elevations  of  water  surface  of  104,  106,  108, 110,  and  112.  Corre- 
sponding areas  were  then  taken  off  by  a  planimeter.  These  areas, 
wetted  perimeters,  and  the  resulting  hvdraulic  radii  are  given  in 
Table  2.  > 

There  is  considerable  distance  between  sections  Nos.  6  and  7.  This 
portion  of  the  river  was  studied  some  time  ago  quite  thoroughly  by 
Mr.  A.  P.  Davis.  He  found  that  the  river  had  a  nearly  uniform  sec- 
tion, and  as  the  average  was  almost  exactly  the  same  as  at  No.  4  that 
section  was  used  for  the  length  E,  figure  1. 

From  the  lake  down  to  Rio  Sabalos,  where  the  river  flows  through 
extensive  swamps,  a  rise  of  the  water  surface  to  elevation  104  will  flood 
considerable  area  on  both  sides  of  the  river  and  thereby  add  greatly  to 
the  cross  section.  This  increased  area  will,  however,  be  in  swamps 
with  dense  vegetation,  and  in  order  that  the  capacity  of  the  river  may 
not  be  overestimated  this  overflow  has  not  been  considered.  The 
cross  section  has  been  taken  as  though  the  banks  were  vertical  at  the 
side  of  the  present  river  bed;  but  as  the  banks  above  the  original  sur- 
face under  such  a  supposition  are  composed  of  water,  those  portions 
have  not  been  added  to  the  wetted  perimeter,  which,  as  will  be  seen  in 
Table  2,  has  been  taken  as  constant  in  sections  Nos.  1,  2.  4,  and  5  and 
equal  to  the  actual  earth  perimeter  between  the  present  banks. 

In  figure  1  it  is  seen  that  there  are  three  cut-off  lines — San  Fran- 
cisco, Palo  de  Arco.  and  Santa  Cruz.  The  combined  discharge  of  a 
cut-off  and  the  river  bend  or  curve  which  is  cut  off  will  evidently  be 
the  total  discharge  of  the  river.  The  canal  sections  at  these  points  are 
all  alike  and  are  called  section  No.  21,  for  which  the  areas  for  normal 
sections,  wetted  perimeters,  and  hydraulic  radii  are  given  in  Table  2. 

The  river  from  the  lake  to  the  dam  was  divided  into  10  short  lengths, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  107 

A,  B,  C,  etc.,  as  shown  in  figure  L.     It  was  assumed  that  each  of  these 
Lengths  had  a  uniform  section  throughout,  and  that — 

Section  No.  1  is  typical  of  length  A. 
Section  No.  -'  is  typical  of  length  B. 
Section  No.  4  is  typical  of  length  C. 
Section  No.  5  is  typical  of  length  D. 
Section  No.  6  is  typical  of  length  E. 
Section  No.  7  is  typical  of  length  F. 
Section  No.  9  is  typical  of  length  G. 
Section  No.  10  is  typical  of  length  H. 
Section  No.  14  is  typical  of  length  I. 
Section  No.  18  is  typical  of  length  K. 

The  next  step  was  to  find  by  Kutter's  formula  the  slopes  required 
at  each  section  to  give  discharges  of  20,000,  30,000,  40,000,  50,000, 
60,000,  and  70,000  second-feet,  or  cubic  feet  per  second,  for  each  of 
the  following  elevations  of  water  surface  at  the  sections  102,  104,  106, 
108,  110,  and  112.  These  slopes  are  given  in  Table  3.  Having  de- 
termined the  slopes  of  Table  3,  the  curves  of  water  surface  of  the  San 
Juan  River  were  plotted  in  figure  3  in  the  following  manner: 

The  lengths  A,  B,  C,  etc.,  on  that  plate  correspond  to  the  divisions 
of  the  river  in  figure  1.  The  ordinates  are  elevations  in  feet  above 
mean  sea  level.  The  abscissas  of  the  curves  of  water  surface  are  dis- 
tances in  feet  from  the  lake,  measured  along  the  course  of  the  river. 

The  slopes  given  in  Table  3  are  for  elevations  of  water  surface  104, 
106,  etc.,  only,  but  the  water  surface  may  be  at  any  elevation.  In 
order  to  obtain  the  slopes  at  any  elevation,  the  curves  j^i^ PsPin  e^c, 
were  constructed. 

To  illustrate  the  manner  of  obtaining  all  of  these  curves,  the  process 
will  be  followed  through  for  the  curves  p1  ph  and  p6  pn. 

If  the  fourth  slope,  0.0000195,  Table  3,  be  multiplied  by  10,000,  the 
result,  0.195  feet,  will  be  the  amount  that  the  river  will  fall  in  10,000 
feet  of  length  A,  if  the  mean  elevation  of  water  surface — i.  e.,  the  ele- 
vation of  the  midpoint  of  that  length — is  112.  The  fall,  0.195  feet,  is 
plotted  as  an  abscissa  from  a  b,  the  beginning  of  length  A,  at  elevation 
112  and  the  pointy,  obtained. 

In  the  same  way  the  slope  for  section  No.  1,  elevation  110,  and  a  dis- 
charge of  70,000  second-feet,  was  multiplied  by  10,000  and  plotted  at 
elevation  110  in  the  point  je>2. 

Points p3, 2)*->  andy>5  were  obtained  in  a  similar  manner.  The  curve 
P\  P<z was  then  drawn  with  a  spline  through  these  points.  Any  abscissa 
of  this  curve  gives  the  fall  that  will  occur  in  10,000  feet  of  length  A  if 
the  river  is  discharging  70,000  second-feet  and  the  elevation  of  water 
surface  at  midpoint  of  that  length  is  that  at  which  the  abscissa  was 
measured. 

Length  B  includes  the  San  Francisco  cut-off.  The  length,  measured 
along  the  river,  is  35,000  feet,  and  measured  along  the  canal  line  is 
27,000  feet. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  river  has  a  uniform  section — that  of  No.  2 — 
throughout  length  B. 

All  the  slopes  for  section  No.  2,  given  in  Table  3,  were  multiplied 
by  17,500,  the  half  length  of  the  river  portion  of  length  B.  The 
results  were  plotted  in  the  curves  Rx,  R2,  etc.,  tig.  2.  As  an  example, 
the  third  slope,  0.0000185,  given  for  an  elevation  of  112  feet  for  the  mid- 
point of  the  length  of  section  No.  2,  for  a  discharge  of  40,000  second- 
feet,  was  multiplied  by  17,500.     The  product  is  0.324,  which  is  the 


108  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

fall  in  feet  between  the  beginning  and  middle  of  the  river  portion  of 
length  B.  This  fall  of  0.324  feet  was  plotted, as  an  ordinate  in  point 
pt,  fig.  2.  In  a  similar  manner  points  p%  and  pa  were  plotted.  The 
curve  Rj  was  then  drawn  with  a  spline  through  the  points  plf  p2,  p3 
and  made  tangent  to  the  horizontal  axis  of  coordinates  at  the  origin. 

The  ordinates  to  this  curve  give  the  fall  for  half  the  length  of  the 
river  portion  of  length  B  for  any  discharge  when  the  elevation  of  the 
water  at  the  middle  point  is  112. 

In  the  same  way  the  slopes  for  section  21,  in  Table  3,  were  multi- 
plied by  13,500  to  obtain  the  ordinates  for  plotting  curves  C,,  Ca,  etc. 

Any  horizontal  line  drawn  like  that  through  lix  will  indicate  by  the 
extremities  of  its  intercept  between  the  curves  C,  and  Rx  the  concur- 
rent discharges  of  the  canal  and  river  portions,  the  fall  of  the  mid- 
point of  each  portion  below  its  beginning  (or  height  above  its  ending) 
being  given  by  the  ordinate  of  the  horizontal  intercept.  As  an  illus- 
tration, the  horizontal  intercept  through  \  is  so  drawn  as  to  be  bisected 
by  the  verticle  ordinate  erected  at  the  discharge  abscissa  of  35,000 
second-feet.  Again,  the  horizontal  intercept  through  It.,  is  bisected 
by  the  vertical  ordinate  erected  at  the  discharge  abscissa  of  30,000 
second-feet,  and  similarly  for  all  the  others.  The  point  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  horizontal  intercept  \  with  the  curve  Rj  shows  that  the 
discharge  of  the  river  portion  is  38,000  second-feet,  while  the  point  of 
intersection  of  the  same  line  with  the  curve  C1  shows  that  the  discharge 
of  the  canal  portion  is  32,000  second-feet.  The  combined  discharge  of 
the  two  portions  is  therefore  70,000  second-feet. 

The  measured  ordinate  of  hy  is  0.27  foot,  the  fall  in  half  the  length 
of  both  the  cut-off  canal  line  and  the  length  B  of  the  river,  corres- 
ponding to  the  combined  discharge  of  70,000  second-feet,  and  to  the 
elevation  of  water  surface  of  112  at  the  middle  of  both  the  cut-off  line 
and  the  river  portion.  This  fall  of  0.27  foot  was  plotted  as  an  abscissa 
in  point ^>fi,  figure  3. 

In  the  same  way^>7,^>8,  etc.,  were  obtained  and  the  cure pcpn  drawn. 
The  abscissas  measured  from  cd  to  this  curve  give  the  fall  in  half  the 
length  of  either  of  the  two  channels  of  the  San  Francisco  cut-off  when 
the  combined  discharge  is  70,000  second-feet  and  the  elevation  of  the 
water  surface  at  the  midpoint  of  length  of  channel  is  that  at  which 
the  abscissa  was  measured.  Curves  for  discharges  of  20,000,  30,000, 
40,000,  50,000,  and  60,000  cubic  feet  per  second  were  obtained  in  a 
similar  manner. 

A  set  of  curves  for  each  of  lengths  C,  E,  F,  H,  I,  and  K  were 
plotted  in  the  same  way  as  were  those  for  length  A.  Curves  for 
lengths  I)  andG,  the  Palo  de  Arco  and  Santa  Cruz  cut-off  lines,  were 
obtained  in  the  same  manner  as  those  for  Length  B. 

The  method  of  obtaining  the  curves  of  water  surface  in  figure  3 
may  be  illustrated  by  taking  curve  X  as  an  example.  Remembering 
that  the  abscissas  to  the  line  p^p^pb  are  the  falls  of  water  surface 
for  a  Length  of  L0,000  feet,  while  the  latter  is  also  the  distance  between 
two  consecutive  vertical  lines  on  the  diagram,  a  point  o1  was  found 
with  the  dividers  on  the  lineal  such  that  <>x<tx  is  equal  to  the  abscissa 
oxxx.  The  length  (/lol  was  then  measured  down  from  elevation  110  on 
a  line  10,000  feet  downstream  from  ab and  the  point/!  found.  Points 
<ix  and  r,  were  then  connected  by  a  straight  line  extended  to  /.,.  This 
line,  </,/',/*,,  represents  the  water  surface  of  the  first  20,000  feet  of  the 
river  when  the  lake  is  at  elevation  110  and   the   river   is   discharging 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  109 

70,000  .second-feet,  for  the  fall  nirx  in  10,000  feet  is  the  abscissa  of  the 
curve PiP6  at  elevation  109.68,  which  is  the  elevation  at  the  middle 
point  of  'VVV 

As  the  distance  from  ra  to  the  beginning  of  length  B  is  very  small, 
the  line  was  extended  at  the  same  slope  to  point  <t.v  In  the  same  man- 
ner as  before  a  point  02  was  found  on  line  c  d  such  that  ae  <>,,  is  equal 
to  the  abscissa  <>.,  xv  The  distance  a2  <k,  was  then  measured  down  from 
/>.,.  the  same  elevation  as  ".,  on  c,  ds,  which  is  halfway  between  c  a 
and  ^/'and  the  point  rs  located,  it  being  remembered  that  the  abscissas 
of  the  curve pt  j>n  are  the  falls  of  water  surface  for  half  the  length  B. 
The  line  ./.,  rs  was  then  drawn  and  extended  to  i\.  In  the  same  manner 
the  line  was  extended  from  length  to  length.  And  in  the  same  way 
all  the  lines  of  watei  surface  shown  in  figure  3  were  constructed.  All 
of  this  was  done  to  a  vertical  scale  on  which  hundredths  of  a  foot 
could  be  easily  read. 

At  the  end  of#length  K,  at  the  extreme  right-hand  side  of  figure  3, 
are  drawn  curves,  beginning  on  the  vertical  line  drawn  through  the 
extremity  of  that  length,  representing  the  location  of  the  Conchuda 
Dam.  These  curves  are  so  drawn  as  to  make  their  horizontal  ordinates 
or  abscissas  represent  the  various  discharges  in  cubic  feet  per  second 
used  in  the  preceding  investigations.  There  is  one  such  curve  for 
each  of  the  elevations  of  lake  surface,  represented  by  even  numbers, 
from  106  to  112,  both  inclusive.  The  abscissas  of  each  of  these  curves, 
therefore,  represent  the  different  discharges  for  the  varying  elevations 
(at  which  they  are  drawn)  of  the  water  surface  at  the  dam,  and  corre- 
sponding to  the  elevation  of  water  surface  shown  at  the  left  side  of 
the  plate,  there  being  one  such  elevation  for  each  curve.  There  is 
thus  given  in  this  figure  3  all  the  information  which  is  really  required 
to  determine  the  discharge  of  the  canalized  river  for  any  elevation  of 
lake  surface  or  any  elevation  of  water  surface  at  the  dam  within  the 
prescribed  limits.  It  is  convenient,  however,  to  place  this  information 
regarding  the  discharges  in  a  separate  figure,  and  this  is  done  in  fig- 
ure 4.  The  latter  plate  contains  curves  which  show  the  elevation  of 
water  surface  at  the  dam  corresponding  to  any  assumed  discharge  at 
a  given  elevation  of  water  surface  at  the  lake.  The  vertical  ordinates 
of  the  curves  are  elevations  of  lake  surface,  while  the  abscissas  of  the 
same  curves  are  the  discharges  in  cubic  feet  per  second,  each  curve 
corresponding  to  one  of  the  given  elevations  at  the  dam,  102, 104, 106, 
and  108  feet.  These  two  figures  (3  and  4)  exhibit  complete  informa- 
tion regarding  discharges  of  the  canalized  river  corresponding  to  ele- 
vations of  surface  either  at  the  lake  or  at  the  dam. 

It  is  evident  that  the  minimum  elevation  of  the  water  at  the  dam 
will  be  fixed  by  the  elevation  of  the  sills  of  Lock  No.  4,  and  that  at  the 
time  when  the  discharging  capacity  of  the  river  is  most  desired,  viz, 
at  the  time  of  flood,  the  water  at  the  dam  will  always  be  held  at  the 
minimum  elevation. 

As  low  water  in  the  summit  level  has  been  fixed  by  the  Commission 
at  elevation  104,  the  curve  marked  "elevation  of  water  surface  at  dam 
104,"  is  of  the  greatest  practical  use.  The  other  curves  were  developed 
to  cover  the  field  and  show  what  might  be  accomplished  in  the  way  of 
increasing  the  discharge  bv  depressing  the  summit  level. 

A  set  of  curves,  XX.  XXI.  XXII,  XXIII,  XXIV,  XXV,  figure  3, 
were  constructed  in  the  same  manner  as  curves  I,  II,  III,  etc.,  except 
that  the}T  were  drawn  from  right  to  left  and  starting  from  the  dam  at 
elevation  104. 


110  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  ordinate.-;  at  the  left-hand  end  of  these  curves  should  check  with 
those  of  curve  III,  figure  4,  which  they  do. 

For  any  elevation  of  the  lake  the  maximum  discharge  of  the  river 
may  be  read  from  curve  III,  figure  4. 

A  description  of  the  use  to  which  this  curve  was  put  will  be  found 
in  Mr.  Davis's  report  to  the  Commission. 

The  question  now  arises  as  to  whether  or  not  the  velocities  in  the 
river  at  times  of  maximum  discharge  will  be  dangerous  to  navigation. 
To  be  on  the  safe  side  a  discharge  of  70,000  second-feet  is  assumed. 
It  is  evident  from  line  XXII,  tigure  3,  that  the  maximum  velocity  will 
occur  in  length  F.  The  average  elevation  of  water  surface  in  the  last 
20,000  feet  of  this  length  at  time  of  70,000  second-feet  discharge  (see 
line  XXII,  tigure  3)  is  about  106  and  in  table  3  it  is  seen  that  for  that 
discharge  at  section  No.  7  and  an  elevation  of  water  surface  of  106  the 
velocity  is  4.2  feet  per  second.  There  is  an  apparent  possibility  that 
higher  velocities  might  occur  in  one  of  three  cut-oft  ^nes,  but  exami- 
nation shows  that  they  will  not. 

Many  }Tears  of  use  has  demonstrated  that  Kutter's  formula  expresses 
faily  well  the  relation  between  the  velocity,  area  of  cross  section,  wet- 
ted perimeter,  slope,  and  frictional  resistance  of  a  stream.  The  only 
point  needing  discussion  is  the  value  which  was  used  for  the  coefficient 
of  roughness  n. 

To  test  the  correctness  of  0.024  as  a  value  of  n  the  same  process 
which  has  been  described  as  applied  to  the  canalized  river  was  applied 
to  the  natural  river  and  the  results  compared  with  known  discharges 
and  known  elevations  of  water  surface. 

Table  4  shows  the  properties  of  the  sections  Nos.  la  and  4a,  which  are 
exactly  the  same  as  sections  Nos.  1  and  4  of  Table  2,  except  that  they 
are  sections  of  the  natural  instead  of  the  canalized  river.  Sections  Nos. 
2  and  5  of  Table  2,  being  at  the  cut-off  lines,  are  already  of  the  nat- 
ural river.  Table  5  gives  the  slopes  for  sections  Nos.  la  and  4.,.  obtained 
by  Kutter's  formula,  using  0.024  as  the  value  of  n.  From  slopes  for 
the  natural  river  sections,  Nos.  la,  3,  4a,  and  5,  the  curves  of  water 
surface  shown  in  figure  5  were  obtained  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as 
those  of  figure  3. 

In  1898  a  gauging  station  was  established  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Sabalos,  and  in  1899  another  was  established  at  Isla  Grande.  Daily 
readings  of  these  gauges  were  made  and  a  large  number  of  current- 
meter  observations  of  the  discharge  of  the  river  were  taken.  As  the 
curves  of  figure  5  were  constructed  for  the  same  discharges  and  eleva- 
tions of  lake  as  those  observed,  they  furnish  a  means  of  checking  the 
accuracy  of  the  method  of  investigation  by  observing  the  agreement 
of  the  elevation  of  water  surface  at  the  gauging  stations  given  by  the 
theoretical  curves,  based  on  Kutter's  formula,  with  the  actual  observed 
elevation  of  water  surface. 

As  an  example,  the  mean  elevation  of  lake  from  December  11  to  20, 
1898,  was  106.46  (see  Report  of  Nicaragua  Canal  Commission,  pp.  212, 
219,  220),  and  the  mean  discharge  of  the  river  at  that  time  was  26,230 
second-feet.  Curve  1,  figure  5,  was  constructed  for  the  above  dis- 
charge, starting  with  elevation  106.46  at  the  lake,  in  the  same  way 
that  the  similar  curves  of  figure  3  were  constructed.  At  the  Sabalos 
gauge  the  curve  shows  an  elevation  of  water  surface  of  101.96.  The 
mean  of  the  actual  observed  elevations  for  that  time  was  L01.88.  In 
the  same  wa}r  the  other  curves  were  constructed  and  the  comparisons 
made. 


REPORT    OF    TILE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  Ill 

The  agreement  of  the  elevations  given  by  the  theoretical  curves  of 
water  surface  and  the  observed  elevations  is  quite  as  close  as  could  be 
expected,  and  it  would  seem  that  confidence  can  be  placed  in  the  accu- 
racy of  the  curves  of  figures  8  and  4,  although  figure  5  does  not  cover 
quite  so  large  a  range  as  figure  3,  either  in  length  of  river  or  in  the 
elevation  of  water  surface. 

There  will  be  practically  no  fall  between  Rio  Sabalos  and  the  dam, 
so  that  figure  5  covers  all  that  part  of  the  river  that  has  much  influ- 
ence on  the  problem. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  make  the  assumption  that  the  method  of 
investigation  applies  with  equal  truth  to  the  natural  river  and  to  the 
deeper  canalized  river.  This  assumption  involves  the  general  correct- 
ness of  Kutter's  formula,  which  is  fairly  well  established. 

The  value  which  has  been  used  for  the  coefficient  of  roughness,  n, 
has  been  referred  to  as  possibly  needing  some  discussion.  The  value 
of  the  same  coefficient  for  such  rivers  as  the  Mississippi,  as  well  as  some 
others  of  large  mean  radii,  will  be  found  given  as  about  0.032,  although 
in  other  similar  cases,  like  the  Missouri  River,  values  nearly  or  quite 
as  low  as  0.02  will  be  found.  In  the  former  of  these  sets  of  cases, 
however,  there  are  some  if  not  many  instances  where  the  slope  or  some 
other  element  of  Kutter's  formula  is  of  uncertain  value,  involving  a 
corresponding  uncertainty  in  that  of  n. 

The  hydraulic  mean  radius  of  the  San  Juan,  used  in  the  preceding 
computations,  is  generally  large,  running  from  9  or  10  feet  to  more 
than  50  feet.  Finally,  it  is  a  river,  on  the  whole,  with  not  a  very 
rough  bed,  although  there  are  stretches  where  thick  water  grasses  or 
other  vegetation  encroach  upon  its  borders.  The  means  taken  to  secure 
a  correct  value  of  n  have  already  been  described  in  this  Appendix, 
and  it  will  there  be  seen  that  the  value  used  gives  results  when  applied 
to  the  natural  river  which  are  closely  confirmed  by  actual  discharge 
gaugings. 

It  may  still  be  thought  that  the  value  of  n  used,  i.  e.,  0.024,  is  too 
small,  and  that  it  satisfies  the  conditions  and  checks  with  observations 
on  the  natural  river  so  well  in  the  foregoing  investigation,  because  the 
sections  used  as  typical  may  be  smaller  than  the  average  section  of  the 
length  for  which  the}'  were  assumed  to  be  typical. 

The  question  now  arises:  Has  any  material  error  been  introduced 
into  the  results  by  the  possible  choice  of  too  small  sections  for  the 
computations? 

As  an  illustration,  let  a  rectangular  section  be  taken  1,000  feet  wide 
by  12  feet  deep.  With  a  slope  of  0.00002  and  a  coefficient  of  rough- 
ness of  0.024,  this  section,  by  Kutter's  formula,  will  discharge  20,750 
second-feet.  If  this  section  were  taken  too  small,  and  if  it  should  be 
enough  broader  to  have  the  same  discharge  (20,750  second-feet),  with 
the  same  slope  (0.00002),  and  a  coefficient  of  roughness  (/?  =  0.032), 
then  such  a  section  would  be  1,255  feet  wide  by  12  feet  deep.  The 
problem  is:  What  will  be  the  error  in  using  the  smaller  section  with 
the  smaller  coefficient  (n= 0.024)  instead  of  the  larger  section  with 
the  larger  coefficient  (n— 0.032)  when  the  depth  of  water  is,  say,  20 
feet  instead  of  12  feet? 

With  20  feet  depth  of  water  in  the  smaller  section,  the  sectional  area 
is  2,000  square  feet,  the  hydraulic  radius  is  19.23,  and,  by  Kutter's 
formula,  if  n  =0.024  and  the  slope  is  0.00002  the  discharge  will  be 
50,400  second-feet. 


112 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


With  20  feet  depth  of  water  in  the  larger  section,  the  sectional  area 
will  be  25,100  square  feet,  the  hydraulic  radius  will  be  10.39,  and,  by 
Kutter's  formula,  if  n=0.032  and  the  slope  is  0.00002  the  discharge 
will  be  50,950  second-feet,  or  an  error  of  less  than  1  per  cent  on  the 
sate  side. 

These  hypothetical  sections  have  about  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
sections  of  the  upper  part  of  the  river,  and  from  this  example  it  would 
seem  that  there  can  be  no  appreciable  error  in  the  final  results,  even 
if  too  small  sections  were  taken,  which  is  not  probable. 

Table  2. 


Num- 
ber of 

Eleva- 
tion of 

Sectional 

Wetted 

Hydrau- 
lic 
radius. 

Num- 
ber of 

Eleva- 
tion of 

Sectional 

Wetted 

Hydrau- 

sec- 
tion. 

\V.  S.  at 
section. 

area. 

perim- 
eter. 

sec- 
tion. 

W.S.at 

section. 

area. 

perim- 
eter. 

lic 
radius. 

1 

112 

24,540 

1,060 

23.15 

9 

106 

15, 790 

504 

21.22 

1 

no 

22, 480 

1,060 

21.19 

9 

104 

14,790 

504 

39. 30 

1 

108 

20,  120 

1,060 

19.25 

9 

102 

13,790 

504 

27.  30 

1 

106 

18, 360 

16, 300 

1,060 

17.31 

10 

112 

1 

104 

1,060 

15.37 

10 

no 

20, 790 

604 

31.  36 

2 

112 

14,540 

645 

22. 50 

10 

108 

19.670 

596 

33.00 

2 

110 

13,280 

645 

20. 59 

10 

106 

IS,  r,50 

588 

31.50 

2 

108 

12,02(1 

645 

18.64 

10 

104 

17,  130 

580 

30.06 

2 

106 

10,  760 

645 

16.68 

14.72 

10 

102 

16,360 

576 

2.s.  36 

2 

104 

9,  400 

645 

12 

110 

37,260 

1 ,  341 

27.  77 

2 

102 

8,  230 

645 

12.75 

12 

108 

34,700 

1,314 

26.  52 

2 

100 

7.110 

605 

11.76 

12 

106 

32,180 

1 ,  287 

25.  oo 

3 

110 

12,840 

780 

16.46 

12 

104 

29,700 

1 ,  260 

23. 55 

3 

108 

LI,  320 

770 

14.70 

13 

110 

40, 350 

1,470 

27.42 

3 

106 

9,800 

760 

12.00 

13 

108 

37,  17ii 

1.  117 

25. 91 

3 

104 

8,  280 

710 

11.66 

13 

106 

34,590 

1,  117 

21.  Id 

4 

112 

20, 060 

720 

27. 80 

13 

104 

31,710 

1,400 

22.  65 

4 

110 

18,540 

720 

25.  75 

11 

112 

29,  ISO 

848 

34.  70 

4 

108 

17,020 

720 

23. 62 

14 

110 

27, 930 

828 

33.  75 

4 

106 

15,500 

720 

21.  55 

14 

108 

26,  370 

sos 

32.60 

4 

104 

13, 980 

720 

19.  42 

14 

106 

24,810 

TVs 

31.50 

4 

102 

12,  620 

720 

17.50 

14 

104 

23,  250 

70S 

30. 30 

5 

112 

16,230 

820 

19.90 

11 

102 

21 . 790 

744 

29.  25 

5 

lid 

14, 610 

820 

17.81 

15 

no 

51,240 

1,399 

36. 60 

5 

108 

12,990 

820 

15. 85 

15 

104 

43. 260 

1,360 

31.80 

5 

106 

11  370 

820 

L3.86 

16 

110 

10,560 

1,083 

37.40 

5 

KH 

9,  750 

820 

1 1 .  SO 

16 

104 

34,380 

1 ,  032 

33.30 

5 

102 

8,650 

815 

10.  62 

17 

110 

14,880 

779 

:>7.50 

5 

100 

7,050 

811 

8.  70 

17 

104 

10,260 

752 

53. 60 

6 

llii 

1.5,370 

801 

19.20 

18 

112 

32,980 

090 

17.  10 

6 

108 

L3.830 

794 

17.41 

is 

110 

31,720 

688 

46.48 

6 

106 

12, 290 

787 

15.61 

18 

108 

30,  160 

670 

45.50 

6 

104 

10,  750 

780 

13.79 

is 

106 

29,  lso 

667 

11.35 

7 

112 

110 

18 

is 

101 
102 

27,  930 
20.750 

011 
630 

43.  36 

12.  15 

19,380 

710 

26.  20 

7 

L08 

L7.960 

736 

24.41 

19 

no 

82,610 

630 

51.75 

7 

106 

16.540 

732 

22.55 

19 

104 

89,260 

600 

48.  7^ 

7 

nil 

15.120 

728 

20.76 

20 

no 

17.310 

925 

51. 16 

7 

102 

1  1.  100 

721 

19.  15 

20 

101 

42, 150 

880 

17.  85 

8 

110 

27,560 

943 

20.71 

21 

112 

9,  106 

316 

29.  SO 

8 

108 

25,730 

93 1 

27. 70 

21 

110 

8,840 

310 

28. 66 

8 

106 

2:;,  0211 

925 

25.  68 

21 

108 

8, 282 

304 

27.  25 

8 

llll 

22,130 

916 

23.  75 

21 

106 

7.  732 

298 

25.91 

9 

112 

18,880 

504 

37,  in 

21 

104 

7.  190 

292 

21.03 

9 

lid 

17,  MO 

104 

■ 

21 

102 

6,656 

286 

23.  26 

9 

1II.S 

16,800 

604 

.   33.30 

Table  3. 


3ei 
tion 

null'.- 
ber. 

tion 

W.S.at 

section. 

Dis- 
charge, 
cubic  teel 

per  Bec- 

ond. 

Velocity, 
feel  per 
second. 

Slope 
ii     .024. 

Sec- 
tion 
num- 
ber. 

Eleva- 
tion 
W.S.al 
section. 

i'i- 
charge, 
cubic  feel 
per  sec- 
ond. 

Velocity, 
feel  per 
second. 

Slope 

n  =  .021. 

1 

112 

10, 

1.6030 

0. 00000325 

l 

110 

.5II.IIOU 

2.  22  1 1 

.0000108 

50,0(11) 

2.0376 

.OOOOOOs 

60, 

2.6690 

.00110192 

60,000 

2.4400 

. 000012 

70.000 

:;.  1137 

.0000305 

70,000 

2. 8526 

.0000195 

l 

ins 

20,000 

.9795 

.00 L66 

1 

110 

20.HII0 

.  8899 

.1 Oil 

30,000 

1.  1092 

IK 0103, 

30,000 

1.8346 

0276 

40,  000 

1.9580 

.  0000092 

in.  iioo 

1.7792 

.0000055 

50,000 

2.  1  ISO 

.0000185 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


113 


T \ i; lie  :!---( 'ontinued. 


Sec- 
tion 
num- 
ber. 

Eleva- 
tion 

W.S.at 
section 

Dis- 
charge, 
cubic  tee 

per  sor- 
dini. 

Velocity 
feel  per 

a ml. 

Slope 
11—  (121. 

Sec       Eleva 

lion         lion 
imiii-    \V.  S.  ol 
ber.     section 

charge    Velocity, 

cubic  feel    feel  per 

per  so       second, 

olid. 

Slopr 

n=.024. 

1 

108 

60, 

2.9382 

0.000802 

5 

108 

10,  000 

3.0794 

0.000049 

70,000 

3.4280 

.0000465 

5 

106 

!0, 

1.7  5!  in 

.0000151 

l 

106 

20,000 

l.iiv.il 

.01100027 

30,000 

2.6385 

.0000125 

30,000 

1.6340 

.0000072 

hi, 

3.5178 

.0000865 

40, 000 

2.1786 

.0000168 

5 

mi 

20,000 

2.  0514 

.0001  31 

50,000 

2.7234 

.0000818 

30,000 

3. 0770 

.OOOOS 

mi.  onn 

3.2680 

.  000049 

10. (100 

1.  1026 

.  00015  I 

70,000 

3.8128 

.  000074 

5 

102 

20,000 

2. 3122 

.000010 

l 

KM 

20,000 

1 . 2270 

.0000044 

30,1 

:;.  ins:; 

.000125 

L.8405 

.000014 

III. 000 

1.6212 

.0002:15 

to,  000 

2.  1510 

.  0000292 

5 

100 

20,  000 

2.  8370 

.00011 

50, 000 

3.0675 

.  000051 

30,000 

1.2.551 

. 000257 

60, 000 

3.6810 

.  000083 

10,000 

5.6737 

. 00045 

Tll.OOO 

1.2945 

.000118 

7 

112 

10,000 

1 .  9230 

.00.10031; 

2 

111' 

20,  000 

1.3756 

.0000026 

50,000 

2.  1040 

.01 101 I06S 

30, 000 

2.  0633 

. 0000074 

60, 000 

2.8846 

.000013 

40, 000 

2.7510 

.  0000185 

70, 000 

3.3652 

.000021 

2 

110 

20, 000 

1.506)1 

.  00000308 

7 

110 

20, 000 

L.0526 

.  000001 

30,000 

2.2501 

.  00000875 

30, 000 

1 .  5788 

.  0000026 

10,000 

3.0121 

.  0000235 

40, 000 

2.  1050 

.0000053 

50, 000 

3. 7650 

.0000135 

50, 000 

2. 6314 

.  0000108 

2 

L08 

20,000 

1. 6639 

.  0000063 

60,  000 

■1.1577 

||  N 11 12 

30,000 

2. 4957 

.  0000215 

70, 000 

3.6840 

. 0000318 

to.ooo 

3. 3277 

.  0000158 

7 

108 

20,000 

1.1136 

.0000011 

50,000 

4. 1596 

.0000812 

30,000 

1.6703 

.0000035 

2 

106 

20, 000 

1. 8587 

.0000113 

40,000 

2.2271 

. 0000066 

30,000 

2. 7880 

.  000035 

50,000 

2.7839 

. 000016 

40, 000 

3.7174 

.  0000725 

60, 000 

3.  340S 

.0000270 

50, 000 

4.6468 

.  000125 

70,000 

3. 8975 

.  0000425 

2 

KM 

20, 000 

2. 1075 

.  000022 

7 

106 

20, 000 

1.2092 

.0100010.5 

30, 000 

3. 1612 

.  000065 

30, 000 

1. 813S 

.001,00.5 

40, 000 

4.2148 

.  000122 

40, 000 

2.4184 

10122 

50,000 

5.2688 

.0002 

50, 000 

3.0230 

.00002.5 

1 

102 

20, 000 

2.  1302 

.0000IO5 

60, 000 

3. 6277 

-.000011 

30, 000 

3.6452 

.  0001075 

70, 000 

1. 2320 

.0000015 

40, 000 

1.8602 

.000225 

7 

101 

20, 000 

1.3227 

.0000027 

2 

100 

20, 000 

2. 8128 

.  000067 

30,  000 

1. 9840 

.0000071 

30, 000 

4.2192 

.0001660 

40, 000 

2.6454 

.000017(1 

40, 000 

5. 6255 

.  00031 

50,  000 

3.3067 

.0000315 

4 

112 

40, 000 

1.9940 

. 00000399 

60,000 

3.9681 

. 0000555 

50, 000 

2.  1022 

. 0000077 

70,  000 

1.6205 

.0000825 

60, 000 

2.0010 

.  0000149 

7 

102 

20,  000 

1.4185 

.0000038 

70,000 

:;.  isoo 

.000024 

30, 000 

2.1276 

.  0000125 

4 

110 

20, 000 

1.0787 

.000001  is 

40,000 

2.8368 

30, 001) 

1.6181 

.  0000025 

50.000 

3.5460 

.0000502 

40, 000 

2.  1575 

. 000006 

00, 000 

1.2555 

.  000081 

50. 000 

2.6968 

.0000120 

70, 000 

1.0613 

.0001175 

60, 000 

3. 2362 

.0000227     i            9 

112 

40, 00() 

2. 11S6 

.  000002 1 

70, 000 

3.  7750 

.0000359 

50,  000 

2.6482 

.  0000013 

4 

108 

20, 000 

1. 1751 

.0000016 

60.000 

:;.  1780 

.  000008 

30, 000 

1.7025 

.00000404 

70, 000 

:  1.7075 

.0000142 

40, 000 

2.  3501 

.00000985              9 

110 

•JO.  000 

1.1210 

.  00000062 

50, 000 

2.9376 

.0000204 

30, 000 

1 .  6S16 

.00000156 

60, 000 

3.5251 

. 000035 

40, 000 

2.  2420 

. 00000325 

70, 000 

4. 1130 

. 0000525 

50, 000 

2.S025 

. 0000061 

4 

10G 

20,000 

1.2903 

.  0000025 

60, 000 

3. 3630 

. 0000118 

30, 000 

1.0350 

. 00000675 

70, 000 

3.9235 

. 0000196 

40, 000 

2.  5806 

. 000017 

9 

108 

20, 000 

1.1005 

.00000070 

50,000 

3.2258 

. 0000327 

30, 000 

1.7860 

. 000002 

60, 000 

3.8710  I 

.  0000526 

10.000 

2.3810 

. 0000041 

70, 000 

1.510,0 

. 000070 

50, 000 

2.  9760 

. 0000087 

4 

104 

20, 000 

1.4306 

.  0000039 

110,000 

3.5715 

.  00001 6.s 

30, 000 

2.  1  160 

.0000125 

70,000 

4.1665 

. 0000275 

40,000 

2.8612 

.000020 

9 

106 

20, 000 

L.  2667 

.O0000107 

50, 000 

3.5766 

..1 

30, 000 

1.0000 

. 00000277 

60, 000 

1.2020 

.0000? 

10,000 

2. 5330 

.  00000605 

70, 000 

5.0071 

.000119 

50.000 

::.  moo 

.000013 

4 

102 

20, 000 

1 .  5.S  is 

.  0000063 

60,000 

3. 8000 

.0000212 

30,000 

2. 377 

.0000212 

70, 000 

1.  1330 

.0000:  is 

40, 000 

. 000045 

9 

104 

20, 000 

1 . 3522 

. 00000142 

50, 000 

3.9618 

.0(10070 

30, 000 

2. 0285 

. 00000375 

5 

112 

4(1,000 

2,  1644 

.0000175 

40, 000 

2.7010 

.  0000089 

50,000 

1.0806 

.000033 

50, 000 

3.3806 

.  000019 

00.1. 

3.6970  : 

.0000..:; 

60, 000 

4.0570 

.  0000385 

70, 000 

4.3130  1 

.0001  IS 

70, 000 

4.  7330 

.0000520 

5 

111) 

20, 000 

1.4511 

.0000048 

9 

102 

20,000 

1.  1502 

.  00000195 

30, 000 

2.1767 

.000016 

30,000 

2. 1756 

. 0000053 

40, 000 

2. 9021 

.000035:: 

40, 000 

'.'.0000 

.00001  1 

5 

108  , 

20, 000 

1.5396 

. 0000074 

50. 1 

3.  6258 

.0000276 

30, 000 

2.  3095 

. 000024 

60,000 

4.2511 

.  0000475 

3.  Do 

a.  54.  r 

t  2 

-S 

114  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Table  3 — Continued. 


Sec- 
tion 
num- 
ber. 

Eleva- 
tion 
W.  S.  at 
section. 

Dis- 
charge, 
cubic  feet 
per  sec- 
ond. 

Velocity, 
feet  per 
second. 

Slope 
n=.024. 

Sec- 
tion 
num- 
ber. 

Eleva- 
tion 
W.  S.  at 
section. 

Dis- 
charge, 
cubic  feet 
per  sec- 
ond. 

Velocity, 
feet  per 
second. 

Slope 
n=.024. 

9 

102 

70, 000 

5. 0762 

0. 000072 

14 

104 

70,000 

3. 0108 

0. 000012 

10 

112 

40, 000 

1. 8256 

. 00000185 

14 

102 

20, 000 

.9179 

. 0000005 

50, 000 

2. 2820 

.  00000325 

30, 000 

1. 3768 

. 000001 15 

60,000 

2. 7385 

.  0000055 

40, 000 

1.8357 

.1111011113 

70, 000 

3. 1950 

.  0000092 

50,  000 

2. 2946 

. 0000052 

10 

110 

20,000 

.9620 

. 00000046 

60, 000 

2. 7536 

.  0000095 

SO,  000 

1.4429 

. 00000125 

70,000 

3. 2125 

.  0000168 

40,000 

1. 9239 

. 0000023 

18 

110 

20, 000 

.  6305 

.  00000011 

50,000 

2.4050 

.  000004 

30, 000 

.9458 

.  0000002 

60, 000 

2. 8860 

.0000072 

40, 000 

1. 2609 

. 00000039 

70, 000 

3. 3670 

.  0000125 

50, 000 

1. 5762 

.  00000075 

10 

108 

20, 000 

1.0168 

.  0000006 

60, 000 

1.8915 

.  0000011 

30, 000 

1. 5252 

.  00000145 

70, 000 

2. 2067 

.  0000016 

40, 000 

2. 0335 

.  00000295 

18 

108 

20, 000 

.  6566 

.00000012 

50, 000 

2. 5420 

. 00000535 

30, 000 

.  9849 

.  00000025 

60, 000 

3. 0504 

.  0000095 

40, 000 

1.3132 

.  0000005 

70, 000 

3. 5586 

.  0000172 

50, 000 

1.6415 

.  0000009 

10 

106 

20, 000 

1. 4782 

.  00000074 

60, 000 

1.9698 

.  0000014 

30, 000 

1.6173 

.  00000178 

70, 000 

2. 2981 

.  0000019 

40, 000 

2. 1563 

.  0000037 

18 

106 

20, 000 

.6854 

.00000011 

50, 000 

2. 6955 

.  00000725 

30, 000 

1.0281 

.  0000002S 

60, 000 

3. 2347 

.  000014 

40, 000 

1. 3707 

.  00000055 

70, 000 

3. 7737 

.  000023 

50, 000 

1.7134 

.  000001 

10 

104 

20, 000 

1.1175 

.  0000009 

60, 000 

2. 0562 

.0000015 

30, 000 

1. 7212 

.  00000245 

70, 000 

2. 3988 

. 0000025 

40,000 

2. 2949 

.  00000492 

18 

104 

20, 000 

.7161 

.000000 IS 

10 

104 

50,000 

2.8686 

.  00001 

30, 000 

1. 0741 

. 00000038 

60, 000 

3. 4424 

. 000019 

40, 000 

1. 4321 

.  00000065 

70, 000 

4.0160 

. 0000308 

50, 000 

1. 7902 

.00000102 

10 

102 

20, 000 

1.2225 

. 00000122 

60, 000 

2. 1482 

. 0000016 

30,000 

1.8336 

.  0000032 

70,000 

2. 5061 

. 0000026 

40,000 

2.4449 

.  000007 

18 

102 

20, 000 

.7477 

. 0000002 

50, 000 

3. 0561 

.  000015 

30, 000 

1. 1217 

.00000045 

60, 000 

3. 6675 

.  0000262 

40, 000 

1. 4953 

. 0000007S 

70, 000 

4.2786 

. 0000418 

50, 000 

1.8692 

.0000014 

14 

112 

40, 000 

1. 3568 

.  000001 

60,000 

2. 2431 

. 000002 

50, 000 

1. 6960 

. 0000016 

70, 000 

2. 6170 

.  0000032 

60. 000 

2. 0352 

.  0000025 

21 

112 

20,000 

2.1266 

.  000004 

70, 000 

2. 3745 

. 00000375 

30, 000 

3. 1895 

. 000015 

14 

110 

20, 000 

.7161 

.  00000023 

40, 000 

4. 2525 

.  0000375 

30, 000 

1.0741 

.  0000006 

50, 000 

5.3160 

.  000072 

40, 000 

1.4321 

.  00000122 

21 

110 

20, 000 

2. 2625 

.  00000525 

50, 000 

1. 7902 

.00000198 

30, 000 

3. 3937 

.  0000202 

60,000 

2. 1482 

.  00000322 

40, 000 

4.6248 

.0000480 

70, 000 

2. 5061 

. 00000 195 

50, 000 

5. 6560 

.OOOOS'.I 

14 

108 

20,  000 

.  7585 

. 0000002S 

21 

ins 

20, 000 

2.  H60 

. 000007 1 

30, 000 

1.1376 

.00000075 

30, 000 

3.  6224 

. 000028 

40, 000 

1.5168 

.00000119 

40, 000 

4.8295 

.ooooi;;.  ■ 

50, 000 

1.8961 

. 0000025 

50, 000 

6.0370 

.000113.5 

60, 000 

2. 2764 

. 0000038 

21 

lor, 

20, 000 

2. 5868 

.0000105 

70, 000 

2. 6545 

.  00000635 

30, 000 

3.  SS00 

.  0000378 

14 

106 

20, 000 

.8062 

. 00000039 

40, 000 

5.  1731 

,000086 

30,000 

1.2092 

. 0000009 1 

50, 000 

6,  1670 

.  0001 135 

10,000 

1.6122 

,0000017s 

21 

104 

20, 000 

2.  78 IS 

.0000158 

50, 000 

2.0152 

.  0000032 

30, 000 

4.1725 

.0000515 

60,  000 

2.4184 

. 00000508 

40,000 

5.5631 

. 000106s 

70,000 

2.4214 

.000O0S5 

50,000 

6.9640 

.  0001SJJ 

14 

L04 

20,000 

.8603 

.000000  IS 

21 

102 

'JO,  000 

3.0049 

. 0000225 

:;o,ooo 

1.2903 

. 0000012 

30, 000 

4.5074 

.  0000686 

40, 000 

1.7201 

.0000028 

lo.ooo 

6.0094 

.000112 

50,000 

2. 1606 

. 0000039 

50,000 

7. 5120 

.  0002325 

60,000 

2. 5806 

1007 

Table  4. 


Num- 
ber of 
sec 

t  ion. 

Eleva- 
tion of 

W.S.at 
section. 

Sectional 
area. 

Wetted 
perim 
eter. 

Hydrau- 
lic ra- 
dius. 

Num- 
ber of 
sec 

Hon, 

Eleva- 
tion of 

W.S.at 
section. 

Sectional 
area. 

Wetted 
perim- 
eter, 

Hydrau- 
lic ra- 
dius. 

18.87 
17.95 
16.10 
14.20 
12.36 

la 
la 
la 
1a 
la 

107 
106 
104 
102 
100 

13,060 
12, 040 
10,000 
7, 960 
5, 720 

1,060 

1,000 

1,060 

1,032 
800 

12.30 

11.35 
9.  1 1 
7.73 
7.  15 

•la 
•la 
4a 
'a 
•la 

107 
106 

101 
102 
100 

18,250 
12,680 

11,230 
9,880 
8,630 

700 
700 
700 
696 
690 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 
Table  5. 


115 


Num- 
ber of 
sec- 
tion. 

Eleva- 
tion 
W.S.at 
section. 

Dis- 
charge, 
cubic  feet 
per  sec- 
ond. 

Velocity, 
feet  per 
second. 

Slope 

»  =  .024. 

Num- 
ber of 
sec- 
tion. 

t, 

Eleva- 

li.in 
W.S.at 

si'd  lull. 

Dis- 
charge, 
cubic  feet 
per  sec- 
ond. 

Velocity, 
feet  per 
second. 

Slope 
n=.024. 

la 

107 

10,000 

0.765 

0.0000025 

107 

30,000 

2.267 

0. 0000158 

20,000 

1.630 

. 000014 

la 

106 

10, 000 

.  795 

. 00000125 

30,000 

2. 295 

.000037 

20, 000 

1.590 

.  00000605 

la 

lOti 

10,000 

.830 

.0000035 

30, 000 

2. 385 

.00002 

20,000 

1.661 

. 00002 

40, 000 

3. 020 

.  000038 

30,000 

2.490 

. 0000525 

la 

lui 

10, 000 

.  890 

.  00000195 

40, 000 

3. 320 

. 000138 

20, 000 

1.770 

.  0000108 

la 

101 

10, 000 

1.000 

.  0000082 

30, 000 

2. 670 

. 000034 

20, 000 

2.000 

. 0000425 

40, 000 

3.590 

.  000071 

30, 000 

3.000 

.00011 

4a 

102 

10, 000 

1.010 

. 0000034 

10,000 

4.000 

.  000225 

20, 000 

2.030 

.  000021 

la 

102 

10,000 

1.256 

.000024 

30,000 

3.030 

0000575 

20, 000 

2.513 

.  000125 

40, 000 

4.050 

. 0001175 

30,000 

3.770 

.  000237 

'a 

100 

10, 000 

1.172 

.  0000065 

la 

100 

10,000 

1.750 

.  000052 

20, 000 

2.315 

. 000039 

20, 000 

3.500 

. 0002225 

30, 000 

3.520 

. 00014 

la 

107 

10, 000 
20, 000 

.756 
1.511 

.  000001 
. 00000485 

APPENDIX  H.      FIG.    1 


Lake     Nicaragua 


S  Doc^Y;*/'2  57    1 


APPENDIX  H,  F1G.3 


Distance  in  feet  from  Lake 


S  Doc^^/^57    1 


APPENDIX  H,      FIG.  4 


S  Doo^»a.57    1 


APPENDIX  H,        FIG.    5 




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Distance  irh  feet  from  Lake 

S  Doc^V^57    l 


APPENDIX  H,       FIG.  6 


Nov.       Dec.      Jan.     Feb.      Mar    April    Map     June   July      Aug.     Sept,     Oct.      Nov.     Dec.    Jan.     Feb.     Mar    April   May 


J 


S  Doc/4  oi    1 


Appendix  T. 

REPORT    OF   HYDROGRAPHIC   INVESTIGATIONS   IN   NICARAGUA 
MADE  FOR  THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION. 


By  Arthur  P.  Davis,  Chief  Sydrographer. 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 118 

Stream  measurements 119 

Pacific  slope - 120 

Grande  River 120 

Tola  River 120 

Lake  Nicaragua 124 

Viejo  River -  125 

Nueva  River 126 

Quebrada  Honda 126 

Station  at  Tipitapa 127 

Station  at  Fort  San  Carlos 133 

Frio  River 136 

Dry  season  inflow 136 

San  Juan  River 140 

Station  above  Savalos 142 

Station  at  Castillo 144 

Tributaries  of  San  Juan  above  Boca  San  Carlos 147 

Ochoa  Station  on  San  Juan  River 153 

Machado  River 163 

San  Francisco  River 164 

Sarapiqui  River 164 

San  Juanillo  River 166 

Miscellaneous  tributaries  to  San  Juan  River 168 

Indio  River 171 

Negro  branch 171 

Rainfall 172 

Daily  rainfall  on  Lake  Nicaragua r 174 

Daily  rainfall  at  Ochoa 180 

Daily  rainfall  at  Greytown 181 

Monthly  rainfall  at  all  stations 182 

Evaporation 186 

Observations  on  evaporation  pans 186 

Dry  season  evaporation  from  Lake  Nicaragua 186 

Control  of  Lake  Nicaragua 187 

Season  of  maximum  supply 191 

Season  of  minimum  supply 192 

Temperature  and  relative  humidity 195 

Sediment 197 

Wind  movement 200 

117 


118  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fig.    1.  Momotombo  from  the  west. 

2.  San  Juan  River  above  Toro  Rapids. 

3.  Elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua. 

4.  Elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua  if  all  water  bad  been  held. 

5.  Mica  Island,  San  Juan  River. 

6.  Sediment  trap. 

7.  Gauging  San  Juan  River  at  Ochoa. 

8.  Fluctuations  of  San  Juan  and  San  Carlos  rivers. 

9.  Hill  on  left  bank  of  San  Juan  River. 

10.  Head  of  San  Juanillo,  on  San  Juan  River. 

11.  Castrilo  Rapids. 

12.  Surf  at  Grey  town. 

13.  Monthly  rainfall  at  Masaya  and  Granada. 

14.  Comparative  rainfall  at  Greytown,  Fort  San  Carlos,  and  Granada. 

15.  Comparative  rainfall  at  all  stations. 

16.  Lowering  sediment  trap  on  Sarapiqui. 

17.  Diagram  of  wharf  at  Granada. 

18.  Rise  of  lake,  with  no  outflow  or  evaporation,  compared  with  rainfall  at 

Granada. 

19.  Rise  of  lake,  with  no  outflow  or  evaporation,  compared  with  rainfall  at 

Masaya. 

20.  Discharge  capacity  of  canalized  San  Juan  River. 

21.  Estimated  inflow  to  lake  during  1897. 

22.  Fluctuation  of  lake  during  driest  and  wettest  years. 


Washington,  D.  C,  March  25,  1901. 

Sir:  1  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  on  the  hydrog- 
raphy of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  route.  It  includes  a  full  account  of 
the  work  prosecuted  by  me  under  your  authority,  and  also  the  more 
important  of  the  results  of  the  hydraulic  investigations  made  for  the 
Nicaragua  Canal  Commission. 

During  a  portion  of  the  time  covered  by  these  investigations  I  was 
absent  from  Nicaragua  on  duties  requiring  my  presence  in  Panama, 
Washington,  and  Paris.  At  such  times  the  work  was  in  the  immedi- 
ate charge  of  Mr.  H.  C.  Hurd,  until  he  was  required  for  office  work  in 
Washington  in  November,  1900,  since  which  date  Mr.  Fred  Davis  has 
had  charge  of  fieldwork  in  Nicaragua.  Acknowledgments  are  due  to 
these  gentlemen  for  their  care  and  fidelity  in  the  discharge  of  their 
duties. 

Yours,  with  respect,  Arthur  P.  Davis, 

Chief  /I yd i ■< ><//•( ipher. 

Rear-Admiral  J.  G.  Walker, 

President  1*1 hrm '<m  Canal  Commission. 


HYDROGRAPHY    OF    NICARAGUA    CANAL    ROUTE. 

The  hydrographic  observations  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
consisted  in  the  main  of  a  continuation  of  those  inaugurated  by  the 
Nicaragua  Canal  Commission,  some  extension  of  rainfall  observations 
in  the  basin  tributary  to  Lake  Nicaragua  being  the  principal  difference. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  119 

The  information  required  relates  to  the  solution  of  four  principal 
problems. 

First.  Water  supply  for  the  use  of  the  canal  and  to  replace  loss  by 
leakage  and  evaporation. 

Second.  The  quantity  of  rainfall  and  volume  of  streams  considered 
as  obstacles  to  construction. 

Third.  The  volume  and  habit  of  excessive  floods  with  reference  to 
their  permanent  control  and  discharge  without  injury  to  the  canal  or 
other  property. 

Fourth.  The  evaporation  from  Lake  Nicaragua,  this  being  thepiin- 
cipal  draft  upon  the  water  supply. 

The  desired  information  therefore  required  an  investigation  of  the 
discharge  of  all  streams  of  importance  which  it  was  proposed  to  con- 
trol during  construction  or  for  which  it  was  necessary  to  provide 
diversion  channels  or  spillways;  and  measurements  of  rain  fall  at  points 
as  widely  distributed  as  possible  throughout  the  basin  of  Lake  Nica- 
ragua, San  Juan  River,  and  the  adjacent  region. 

It  also  required  an  approximate  determination  of  the  rate  of  evapo- 
ration on  Lake  Nicaragua  and  some  investigation  of  the  sediment 
carried  by  the  larger  rivers. 

STREAM   MEASUREMENTS. 

The  general  method  used  in  observing  the  regimen  and  discharge  of 
streams  is  substantially  as  follows: 

A  point  is  selected  as  near  as  may  be  to  the  location  at  which  knowl- 
edge is  desired,  having  reference  to  the  condition  of  the  stream  itself, 
the  aim  being  to  secure  high  permanent  banks  on  both  sides  of  the 
river,  a  straight  channel  as  uniform  in  depth  and  velocity  as  may  be, 
and  avoiding  any  location  which  is  a  short  distance  above  an  important 
tributary,  and  which  for  this  reason  might  be  affected  in  the  matter  of 
backwater  by  floods  in  that  tributary.  A  gauge  is  placed  in  the  stream 
near  one  bank,  graduated  to  feet  and  tenths,  and  so  situated,  if  pos- 
sible, as  to  be  read  conveniently  from  the  shore.  It  is  usually  possible 
to  fasten  such  a  gauge  in  deep  water  to  the  trunk  of  an  overhanging 
tree  and  in  a  vertical  position.  The  height  of  water  indicated  by  this 
gauge  is  read  and  recorded  usually  twice  every  day  and  the  mean  of 
the  two  readings  taken  as  the  mean  gauge  height  for  that  date.  At 
various  intervals,  depending  upon  the  facilities  available  and  the  change 
of  gauge  height,  measurements  of  discharge  are  made  with  a  current 
meter.  Soundings  are  taken  at  known  distances  from  an  assumed 
initial  point  and  the  velocity  measured  by  submerging  an  electric 
current  meter  at  six-tenths  of  the  measured  depth  and  holding  it  in  that 
position  for  a  length  of  time  sufficient  to  make  a  good  determination  of 
the  velocity  at  that  point,  usually  one  hundred  seconds  or  more.  This 
operation  is  repeated  at  short  intervals  for  the  entire  width  of  the 
stream,  and  from  these  observations  the  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per 
second  is  computed  for  each  section  by  multiplying  the  depth,  width, 
and  measured  velocity  together.  The  discharge  of  the  several  sections 
being  added  together  form  a  result  for  the  discharge  of  the  entire 
stream.  At  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  gauging  a  careful  note  is 
made  of  the  stage  of  the  water  indicated  on  the  river  gauge,  and  the 
mean  of  those  two  observations  is  taken  as  the  mean  gauge  height  at 


120 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


the  time  of  observation.  It  is  the  effort  to  have  such  observations  well 
distributed  with  reference  to  the  height  of  water  in  the  river  in  order 
to  show  the  relation  of  the  indications  of  the  gauge  rod  to  the  actual 
discharge  of  the  stream.  This  relation  is  found  to  be  reasonably 
definite  and  uniform  for  most  of  the  streams,  and  by  plotting  the  gauge 
heights  as  ordinates  and  the  discharge  results  as  abscissas  their  general 
relation  is  established  and  a  curve  is  drawn,  satisfying  as  nearly  as 
possible  all  the  observations  made.  Where  no  such  relation  could  be 
established  the  measurements  only  are  published. 

PACIFIC    SLOPE. 

All  streams  with  which  the  canal  is  concerned  flow  eventually  into 
the  Atlantic,  except  the  Grande  and  its  tributaries.  This  stream  rises 
in  the  hills  of  the  continental  divide,  and  empties  into  the  Pacific- 
Ocean  at  Brito.  The  canal  line  follows  its  valley  from  the  deep  divide 
cut  to  the  sea.  The  principal  tributary  is  the  Tola  River,  which 
enters  from  the  north  and  which  formerly,  in  common  with  the  other 
headwaters  of  the  Grande,  flowed  into  Lake  Nicaragua.  The  reces- 
sion of  the  continental  divide  toward  the  lake  turned  them  toward  the 
Pacific,  and  the  proposed  canal  cut  through  the  divide  is  the  site  of 
the  former  stream  bed  of  this  drainage. 

GRANDE    AND    TOLA   RIVERS   AT    THEIR   JUNCTION. 

A  gauge  was  kept  on  the  Grande  River  a  short  distance  below  the 
junction  of  the  Tola,  and  the  latter  river  was  observed  about  a  mile 
above  its  mouth. 

During  a  portion  of  the  dry  season  the  Grande  is  entirely  diw  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Tola,  and  the  waters  of  the  latter  are  ponded  for  some 
distance  up  the  Grande. 

A  perceptible  quantity  of  the  water  is  lost  by  evaporation  and  seep- 
age from  this  pond,  so  that  for  a  time  the  discharge  of  the  Tola  at  the 
station  was  slightly  greater  than  that  of  the  Grande  below  the  mouth 
of  the  Tola. 

The  largest  Hood  yet  observed  at  this  station  occurred  on  the  22d 
day  of  October,  1900,  when  5,450  cubic  feet  per  second  was  flowing  in 
the  Grande  below  the  Tola. 

Daily  gauge  In  ight  of  Gram  1 1   Itim-  at  Tula  Gauge  Slulion  j<>r  1899. 


Day. 
1 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Day. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1.55 

1 .  52 
I.  •! 
1.5] 
1.64 

1 .  7'.) 
L.59 

1.63 

L.  54 

1    ,. 
1 .  52 
1.6] 
1.50 
1 .  52 
1.68 

1.45 

l..r>0 
1.50 
1.50 
I.  16 
1 .  19 
1.52 
1 .  83 
1 .  59 
l . :.  i 
l .  52 
l . :.  I 
L.55 
1.76 
L.  63 
1.70 

2.  42 
2.  29 
2.  2] 
2.  16 

•_>.  15 
■   L3 
2.  i;: 
2.  in 

2.  20 

2.  Ill 
•J.  IIS 

2.08 
2.06 

2.  06 

.Mil 

2.46 
2.34 
2.30 
2.  25 
2.  14 
2.  14 
2.11 
2.  11 
2. 10 

•J.  IIS 
2.11 
2.08 

'J.  OS 
•J.  OS 
2.07 
2,  oi 

17  . 

1.60 

1 .  52 

1 .  .r).S 

1 .  .r>2 
1 .  52 
1.51 
1.50 
1 .  53 
I  60 
1 .  88 
L.65 
1.57 

1 .  56 

2.  1  1 
2.06 

1.51 
1 .  52 
1.64 
1 .  55 
L.68 
1.51 
1.50 
L.61 
L.5] 
1 .  52 
1.49 
1.50 
1.47 
1.46 

•J.  OS 

1.69 
1.55 
1.60 
1.60 
1.86 
i.'.u 

1 .  97 

2.  70 

1.60 

7.  65 
4.42 
3.38 
2.  77 
2.60 

2. 02 

2.0-2 
2.02 

2.01 
2.00 
2.  OH 
2.01 

2.  02 
2.03 

2.02 

2.00 
2.  10 

8.10 
3.30 

2.02 
2.01 
2.00 
2.00 
1 .  07 
1 .  96 
1 .  99 
1 .  99 
1 .  98 

1 .  07 
1.97 
1.95 
1 .  95 
1.95 
1.94 

2 

is.. 

;; 

19 

20... 

A... 

21 

22               

6 

28 

9 

24. 

25.. 

10... 

26.. 

11... 

27 .-... 

28.. 

12... 

13 

1.60 
L.  51 

1 .  52 
L.50 

'.".I 

30 

11 

15 

1G 

11. 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Daih/  (/inn/,'  bright  iif  llritnilf  Hirer  at  Tola  Gauge  Station  for  1900. 


121 


Day. 

.Inn. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Bept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

l 

1.96 

1.95 
1.95 
1.93 

1 .  93 
1.93 
1.93 
1 .  92 
1.92 
1.92 
1.92 
1.92 
1.95 
1.94 
1.91 
1.93 
1.92 
1.92 
1.91 
1.89 
1.89 
1.88 
1.88 
1.87 
1.87 
1.87 
1.87 
1.87 
1.87 
1.87 
1.87 

1.86 
1.86 
1.S6 
1.85 
1.84 
l.si 
l.si 
1 .  82 
L.  82 
1.81 
1.81 
1.80 
l.si 
1.80 
1.78 
1.78 
1.79 
1.78 
1.78 
1.76 
1.75 
1.75 
1.74 
1.73 
1.73 
1.72 
1.72 
1.71 

1.71 
1.71 
1.71 
1.71 
1.71 
1.71 
1.71 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.70 
1.69 
1.68 
1.68 
1.67 
1.67 
1.67 
1.66 
1.65 
1.65 
1.64 
1.63 

1.62 
1.62 
1.62 
1.62 
1.62 
1.62 
1.62 
1.62 
1 .  62 
1.62 
1.62 
1.62 
1.61 
1.61 
1.61 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.60 
1.59 
1.58 
1.58 
1.58 
1.58 
1.58 
1.58 
1.58 
1.58 
1.58 
1.58 

1.58 
1.58 
1.58 
1.58 
1.57 
1.57 
1.56 
1.56 
1.56 
1 .  55 
1.54 
1.54 
1.67 
1.63 
1.77 
1.67 
1 .  68 
1.63 
2.23 
1.87 
3.02 
1.89 
1.79 
2. 04 
2.12 
2.04 
2.15 
1.95 
1.98 
1.90 
2.59 

1 .  91 
1 .  79 
1.75 
1.92 

1 .  Si 
2.09 
4.32 
3.61 

2.  62 
2.  5 1 
2.34 
2.09 
2.05 
2.14 
2.  01 

2.112 
2.  13 
2.0(1 
1.96 
2. 05 
2.51 
2.15 
2.12 
2.63 
2.07 
2.04 
2.01 
2.49 
2.13 
2.47 

2.65 
2. 80 
2.  99 
2.51 

2.  61 

4.87 

2.  5s 
2.  15 

2.  16 

;;.  75 
4.S4 
:;.  95 

3.  13 
2.  76 
2.  63 
2.60 
2.  12 
2. 49 
2.  i:: 
2.39 
2.34 
2.51 
2.  15 
2.38 
2.35 
2.31 
2.29 
2.30 
2.29 
2.27 
2.33 

2.27 
2.2^ 
2.  22 
2.19 
2.  IS 
2.  IS 
2.16 
2.  13 
2.  1  1 
2. 12 
2. 10 
2.11 
2.  14 
2.14 
2.12 
2.10 
2.07 
2.05 
2.05 
2.11 
2.10 
2. 12 
2.11 
2.15 
2.12 
2.14 
2.13 
2.09 
2.08 
2.07 
2.08 

2.09 

2.  05 
2.U1 
2.08 
2. 16 
2.11 
4.87 
3. 87 
3.07 
2.  S3 
2.67 
2. 58 

2.  51 
2.  15 
2.39 

2.  SO 
3.32 
2.81 
1.1)5 
3.28 
3.02 

3.  52 
4.52 
4.35 
3.47 
3.77 
3.24 
3.09 
5.45 
6.00 

6.00 
4.20 
1.  35 
L30 
4. 05 
5.07 
3. 95 
3.  ss 
5.67 
3.80 
3.77 
3.74 
3.62 
3.63 
3.47 
3.50 
3.55 
3.50 
3.65 
4.64 
8.00 
8.90 
7.15 
6.12 
5.90 
4.S9 
4.64 
4.32 
4.20 
3.99 
3.81 

3.76 
3.  67 
;;  60 
3. 57 
3.52 
3.46 
3.37 
3.34 
3.32 
3.30 
3.27' 
3.21 
3.19 
3.17 
3.13 
3.13 
3.11 
3.08 
3.08 
3.07 
3.07 
3.06 
3.04 
3.03 
3.01 
2.  99 
2.96 
2.94 
2.94 
2.94 

2.93 

2.  91 
2.90 
2.88 
2.85' 
2. 84 
2.  82 
2.80 
2  7S 
2.  77 
2.75 
2.  75 
2.75 
2.  72 
2^70 
2.  70 
2.  70 
2.69 
2.68 
2. 68 
2.67 
2.66 
2.64 
2.63 
2.60 
2.59 
2.58 
2. 57 
2.57 
2.54 
2.53 

2 

4 

6 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Rating  table  for  Grande  River  at  Tola  Gauge  Station. 
[This  table  is  applicable  only  from  August  13,  to  December  31, 1899,  and  May  19, 1900,  to  March  29, 1901.] 


Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

1.3 

0 

3.3 

212 

5.3 

781 

7.3 

1,484 

1.4 

4 

3.4 

236 

5.4 

816 

7.4 

1,519 

1.5 

7 

3.5 

260 

5.5 

851 

7.5 

1,554 

1.6 

11 

3.6 

284 

5.6 

886 

7.  6 

1,589 

1.7 

14 

3.7 

308 

5.7 

921 

7.7 

1,624 

1.8 

18 

3.8 

332 

5.8 

956 

7.S 

1,659 

1.9 

21 

3.9 

356 

5.9 

991 

7.9 

1,694 

2.0 

25 

4.0 

380 

6.0 

1,027 

8.0 

1,730 

2.1 

34 

4.1 

409 

6.1 

1,062 

8.1 

1,764 

2.2 

42 

4.2 

438 

6.2 

1,097 

S.2 

1,800 

2.3 

51 

4.3 

467 

6.3 

1,132 

8.3 

1,835 

2.4 

60 

4.4 

496 

6.4 

1,167 

8.4 

1,870 

2.5 

73 

4.5 

524 

6.5 

1,202 

8.5 

1,905 

2.6 

87 

4.6 

553 

6.6 

1,238 

8.6 

1,941 

2.7 

100 

4.7 

582 

6.7 

1,273 

8.7 

1,976 

2.8 

118 

4.8 

611 

6.8 

1,308 

8.8 

2,011 

2.9 

136 

4.9 

640 

6.9 

1,343 

8.9 

2,046 

3.0 

155 

5.0 

675 

7.0 

1,378 

9.0 

2,081 

3.1 

173 

5.1 

710 

7.1 

1,413 

9.1 

2,116 

3.2 

191 

5.2 

745 

7.2 

1,448 

9.2 

2,151 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Grande  River  below  month  oftJie  Tola,  1898. 


Discharge. 

Total. 

Months. 

Discbarge. 

Months. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

j    Total. 
Mean. 

January  (6-31). 
February 

Sec.feet. 
75 
55 
40 
35 
85 
1,990 
2,030 

Sec.feet. 
60 
41 
25 
17 
17 
17 
55 

Sir. fnt. 
69 
19 
35 
26 
28 
110 
121 

Acre-feet. 
3,340 
2,720 
2,150 
1.  190 
1,720 
6, 550 
7,440 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Total 

Si  eject. 

'115 

2, 975 

2,065 

1,028 

190 

Sec.feet. 
45 
55 
260 
190 
97 

Secjeet.  A  eve-feet. 

67            4, 120 

253           15,050 

596          36,650 

282          16,780 

May 

130            7,990 

July 

. , 106, 000 

122 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Grande  River  at  Tola  gauge  station. 


Month. 


1899. 
August  13-31.. 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Total 

1900. 

January  

February  

March 


Discharge. 


Maxi-      Mini- 
mum,    mum. 


See. feet. 

37 

18 

2,081 

385 


Sec. feet. 
7 
6 
5 
26 
19 


2,081 


Mean. 


Sec. feet, 

11 

8 

113 

14 

32 


Total. 


Acre-feet. 

401 

496 

6,954 

2,646 

1,954 


12, 451 


762 

482 
343 


Month. 


1900. 

April 

May 

June 

July , 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year  . . 


Discharge. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Mini- 
mum. 


Sec. feet.  Sec. feet. 

2 

2 

16 

48 

29 

26 

260 

144 

69 


5 

216  i 

953 

1,272 

5'.; 

5,400 

5, 450 

382 

142 


5, 450 


Sir.  fat. 

3 

19 

63 

123 

36 

238 

603 

197 

105 


119 


Total. 


Acrt  -frit. 
182 
1,196 
3,745 
7,569 
2,225 
14, 166 
37, 008 
11,746 
6,434 


85,918 


Daily  gauge  height  of  Tola,  River,  1  mile  above  its  mouth,  for  1899. 


Day. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Day. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1     

2.06 
2.05 
2.04 
2.04 
2.06 
2.15 
2.09 
2.05 
2.03 
2.03 
2.03 
2.03 
2.03 
2.02 
2.04 
2.05 

1.98 
2.01 
2.00 
2.01 
1.99 
2.02 
2.04 
2.23 
2.09 
2.02 
2.02 
2.03 
2.04 
2.03 
2.03 
2.11 

2.40 
2.38 
2.32 
2.28 
2.26 
2.26 
2.26 
2.25 
2.29 
2.31 
2.21 
2.20 
2.19 
2.18 
2.17 
2.13 

2.41 
2.34 
2.28 
2.26 
2.22 
2.20 
2.17 
2.16 
2.15 
2.14 
2.16 
2.14 
2.15 
2.14 
2.13 
2.13 

17 

2.00 
2.02 
2.02 
2.00 
2.02 
2.00 
2.00 
2.01 
2.06 
2.14 
2.08 
2.06 
2.04 
1.98 
1.64 

2.02 
2.03 
2.07 
2.04 
2.03 
2.02 
2. 02 
2.00 
2.01 
2.03 
2.00 
2.01 
2.00 
1.99 

2.12 
2.03 
2.00 
2.03 
2.02 
2.15 
2.21 
2.18 
2.23 
2.97 
5.32 
4.70 
3.30 
2.75 
2.50 

2.11 
2.10 
2.10 
2.11 
2.16 
2.14 
2.16 
2.15 
2.16 
2.15 
2.  21 
2.26 
2. 82 
2.97 

2.10 
2.08 
2.07 
2.07 
2.05 
2.04 
2. 08 
2.08 
2.07 
2.07 
2.  07 
2.07 
2.06 
2.05 
2.05 

2 

18 

3  .. 

19 

4 

20 

6... 

21 

6.. 

22 

7... 

23 

8 

24*. 

9... 

25 

10                     I 

26 

11 

27 

12... 

28..... 

13. 

2.00 
2.02 
2.05 
2.02 

29 

14 

30 

15. 

31 

16 

Daily  gauge  height  of  Tola,  River,  1  mile  above  its  mouth,  for  1900. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1 

2.04 
2.04 
2.04 
2.04 
2.03 
2.03 
2.  02 
2.  02 
2.02 
2.01 
2.01 
2.01 
2.03 
2.03 
2.1)2 

2.03 

2.01 
2.01 
2.01 
2.00 
1.99 
1 .  98 
1.98 
1 .  98 

1.98 
1.98 
1.97 
1.97 
1.97 
1.97 
1.97 

1.96 
1.96 
1.95 
1.95 
1.94 
1.93 
1.93 
1.91 
1.91 
1.91 
1.91 
1.91 
1.91 
1.91 
1.91 
1.90 
1.90 
l.'.m 
1.90 
1 .  90 
1.90 

l.'.KI 
1.90 
1.90 
1.89 
1.89 
1 .  89 
1.89 

1  89 

1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.79 
1.79 
1.79 
1.79 
1.79 
1.79 
1.78 
1.78 
1.78 
1.78 
1.77 
1.77 
1.77 
1.77 
1.77 
1.77 
1.77 
1.77 
1.76 
1.76 
1.76 

1.76 
1.76 
1.76 
1.76 
1.75 
1.75 
1.74 
1.74 
1.74 
1.74 
1.74 
1.73 
1.82 
1.82 
1.96 
1 .  S3 
1.84 
1.80 
2. 02 
1.93 
2.00 
1.83 
1.81 
2.67 
2.18 
1.99 
1.96 
1 .  92 
1.91 
1.89 
1.95 

1.84 
1.86 
1.83 
2. 02 
1.95 
2.20 
2.19 
3.18 
2.39 
2.17 
2.  21 
2.10 
2.05 
2.  12 
2.02 
2.00 
2.07 
2.02 
1.99 
2.11 
2.40 
2.21 
2.14 
2.35 
2.11 
2.08 
2.08 
2.51 
2.11 
2.  60 

2.75 
2.31 
2.29 
2.  42 
2.55 
2.48 
2.  36 
2.30 
2.30 
2.52 
2.66 
2.27 
2.55 
2.53 
2.60 
2.47 
2.39 
2.46 
2.43 
2.  12 
2.39 
2.58 
2.50 
2.44 
2.40 
2.35 
2.31 
2.  31 
2.  30 
2.29 
2.  31 

2.26 
2.19 
2.21 
2. 20 
2.18 
2.19 
2.21 
2.16 
2.14 
2.09 
2.10 
2.07 
2.07 
2.22 
2.08 
2.03 
2.  02 
2.00 
1.99 
2.08 
2.06 
2.11 
2.09 
2.26 
2.12 
2.16 
2.  14 
2.07 
2.07 

2.  ot; 

2.08 

2.07 
2.  06 
2.  01 
2.08 
2.15 
2.09 
2.80 
2.55 
2.35 

2.  30 
2.33 
2.30 
2.28 
2.25 
2. 20 
2.72 
2.88 
2.64 
3.47 
3.07 
2.91 
3.01 
3.62 
3.57 
3.20 
3. 13 

3.  ()•"> 
2.  95 
1.92 
5.00 

5.  00 
4.42 
3.67 
4.30 
3.90 
4.42 
4.20 
3.78 
3.65 
3.61 
3.54 
3.49 
3.46 
3.  44 
3.24 
3.09 
3.  31 
3.22 
3.62 
3.60 
5.53 
10.82 
6.09 
6.24 
4. 72 
4.30 
1.06 
3.85 
3.70 
3.  55 
3.  50 

3.31 
3.24 
3.17 
3.05 
2.99 
2.91 
2.85 
2.77 
2.70 
2.70 
2. 66 
2.61 
2.55 
2.54 
2.52 
2.52 
2.52 
2.47 
2.  17 
2.41 
2.40 
2.37 
2.32 
2.  29 
2.  28 
2.  24 
2.  22 
2.20 
2.19 
2.  IS 

2.16 
2.  13 
2.  12 
2.  09 
2.08 

2.  ot; 

2.  01 
2.01 
2.03 
2.03 
2. 02 
2.01 
2.00 
1.99 
l .  98 
1.98 
1 .  97 
1.96 
1.95 
1.95 
1.93 
1.93 
1.91 
1.88 
1.87 

1.81 

1.84 

1.83 

l.Sl 

1.78 

1.78 

2 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
I 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

89 
89 
89 
88 
88 
88 

SS 

87 
87 
87 
87 

87 
86 
86 

st; 
86 
st; 
86 
86 
86 
86 
86 
85 
s", 
s.r. 

SI 

84 
88 

82 

SI 

3 

4 

6 

8 

9 

10 

11... 

12 

13 

14 

ir> 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29...             

30 

31 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 
Rating  table  for  Tula  River,  1  mile  above  its  mouth. 

[This  table  is  applicable  only  from  August  13,  1899,  to  April  30,  1900.] 


123 


Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Feet. 
1.0 

M 
1.2 
1.3 
1.1 
1.5 
i.e. 

1.7 
1.8 
1.9 
2.0 
2.1 

Sec.  ft. 

Feet. 
2.2 
2.3 
2.4 
2.5 
2.6 
2.7 
2.8 
2.9 
3.0 
3.1 
3.2 
3.3 

Sec.  ft. 
24 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
93 
106 
119 
132 
145 

Feet. 
3.4 
3.5 
3.6 
3.7 
3.8 
3.9 
4.0 
4.1 
4.2 
4.3 
4.4 
4.5 

Sec.  ft. 
158 
171 
184 
197 
210 
223 
236 
249 
262 
275 
288 
301 

Feet. 
4.6 
4.7 
4.8 
4.9 
5.0 
5.1 
5.2 
5.3 
6.4 
5.5 
5.6 
5.7 

Sec.  ft. 
314 

327 
340 
353 
366 
379 
392 
405 
418 
431 

1 

3 
5 
7 

12 
18 

Rating  table  for  Tola  River. 
[This  table  is  applicable  only  from  May  1, 1900,  to  October  20, 1900.] 


Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Fed. 
1.0 
1.1 
1.2 
1.3 
1.4 
1.5 
1.6 
1.7 
1.8 
1.9 
2.0 
2.1 
2.2 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 
2.3 
2.4 
2.5 
2.6 
2.7 
2.8 
2.9 
3.0 
3.1 
3.2 
3.3 
3.4 
3.5 

Second-feet. 

49 

59 

70 

81 

93 

105 

118 

131 

145 

161 

177 

193 

209 

Feet. 
3.6 
3.7 
3.8 
3.9 
4.0 
4.1 
4.2 
4.3 
4.4 
4.5 
4.6 
4.7 
4.8 

Second-feet. 
225 
241 
257 
273 
289 
305 
321 
337 
353 
369 
385 
401 
417 

Feet. 
4.9 
5.0 
5.1 
6.2 
5.3 
5.4 
5.5 
5.6 
5.7 
5.8 
5.9 
6.0 
6.1 

Second-feet. 
433 
449 
465 
481 
497 
513 
529 
545 
561 
577 
593 
609 

10 
14 
19 
25 
32 
40 

Rating  table  for  Tola  River. 
[This  table  is  applicable  only  from  October  21,  1900,  to  March  29,  1901.] 


Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

1.0 

10 

2.4 

145 

3.8 

369 

5.2 

593 

1.1 

14 

2.5 

161 

3.9 

385 

5.3 

609 

1.2 

19 

2.6 

177 

4.0 

401 

5.4 

625 

1.3 

25 

2.7 

193 

4.1 

417 

5.5 

641 

1.4 

32 

2.8 

209 

4.2 

433 

5.6 

657 

1.5 

40 

2.9 

225 

4.3 

449 

5.7 

673 

1.6 

49 

3.0 

241 

4.4 

465 

5.8 

689 

1.7 

59 

3.1 

257 

4.5 

481 

5.9 

705 

1.8 

70 

3.2 

273 

4.6 

497 

6.0 

721 

1.9 

81 

3.3 

289 

4.7 

513 

6.1 

737 

2.0 
2.1 
2.2 

93 
105 
118 

3.4 
3.5 
3.6 

305 
321 
337 

4.8 
4.9 

5.0 

529 
545 
561 

6.2 

6.3 
6.4 

2. 3 
1 

131 

3.7 

353 

5.1 

577 

10.82 

1,651 

124  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Tola  River  1  mile  above  its  mouth,  1898. 


Discharge. 

Total. 

Months. 

Discharge. 

Months. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean. 

Total. 

June  (9-30).... 
Julv 

Si  C.  ft  1 1. 
355 
163 
57 
364 
452 

Sec.  feet. 
12 
21 
20 
39 
130 

Sec. feet. 
53 
46 
30 
112 
246 

Acre-feet. 
2,310 
2, 830 
1,840 
6, 660 
15, 125 

November 

December 

Total.... 

Sec. feet. 
270 
100 

Sec. feet. 
100 
65 

Sec. feet. 
160 
79 

Acre-feel. 
9, 520 
4,860 

August 

September 

October 

452 

12 

106 

43, 145 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Tola  River  at  1  mile  above  its  mouth. 


Discharge. 

Total. 

Months. 

Discharge. 

Months. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

M illi- 
nium. 

Mean. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean. 

Total. 

1899. 
August  (13-31). 
September, 
October 

Si  c.  feet. 
26 

17 
408 
173 

41 

Sec.  feet. 
2 

8.5 

8 
18 
15 

Sec. feet. 
13 
14 
49 
30 
20 

Acre-feet. 

490 

841 

2,993 

1,759 

1, 256 

1900. 

Sec. feet. 
5.3 
89 

187.3 
99 
47 

Sec.fect. 
4 
11 
15 
28 
24 
28 
145 
111 
66 

Sec. feet. 
5 
19 
40 
62 
34 
120 
370 
179 
89 

Acre-feet. 
276 

1,182 
2,384 
3,840 

June 

Julv 

December  , 

August 

2,023 
7  154 

Total 

408 

2 

26 

7,345 

October 

November 

December 

The  year. 

3,047 
291 
113 

22, 765 
10, 679 
5,496 

1900. 

January  

February  

15.3 
11.7 
9.5 

10 
7 
5 

13 
8 
6 

770 
428 
381 

3,047 

4  '          79 

57, 378 

LAKE    NICARAGUA. 

Lake  Nicaragua  is  one  of  the  notable  fresh-water  lakes  of  the  world. 
It  has  an  area  of  2,975  square  miles.  It  greatest  length  is  from  north- 
west to  southeast,  and  is  about  100  miles.  Its  extreme  width  is  about 
45  miles. 

West  of  the  center  is  an  island  occupied  by  the  volcanoes  Ometepe 
and  Madera,  which  stand  about  5,000  feet  above  the  lake  level,  adding 
greatly  to  the  scenic  beauty. 

Madera  is  the  most  southern  of  a  line  of  volcanoes  of  comparatively 
recent  origin,  which  extends  in  a  northwesterly  direction  nearly  to  the 
Bay  of  Fonseca,  including  Ometepe,  Zapatero,  Mombacho,  Chiltepe, 
Momotombo,  and  many  others. 

The  prevailing  easterly  trade  winds  cause  a  moderately  heavy  surf 
to  beat  almost  constantly  on  the  western  shore,  causing  the  formation 
of  a  decided  beach  on  that  side,  while  on  the  eastern  shore  aquatic  vege- 
tation grows  far  out  into  the  water.  This  shore  is  flat  and  muddy,  with 
no  well-marked  beach. 

Except  in  the  southeastern  portion  the  lake  is  deep,  reaching  at  one 
point  near  the  southern  foot  of  Madera  to  a  depth  of  200  feet. 

Lake  Nicaragua  receives  the  waters  of  a  large  number  of  tributaries, 
the  most  important  being  Rio  Frio  and  Rio  Pisoteon  the  southern  end, 
which  rise  in  the  high  mountains  of  Costa  Rica  and  maintain  some  How 
throughout  the  dry  season,  and  Malacatolla  and  Tipitapaon  the  north- 
ern end,  the  latter  bringing  the  waters  of  Lake  Managua.    The  drain- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


125 


age  area,  as  estimated  from  the  best  information  obtainable,  is  as 
follows: 

Square  miles. 

Area  of  land  surface  draining  directly  to  Lake  Nicaragua 6,  640 

Area  of  Lake  Nicaragua 2, 975 

Lake  Managua  and  tributary  basin 3,  035 

Total 12,  450 

VIEJO    RIVER. 

This  stream  rises  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jinotega,  and  flows  in  a 
southerly  direction  to  Lake  Managua,  being  therefore  in  the  basin  of 
Lake  Nicaragua. 

The  station  on  this  river  is  about  500  yards  above  the  ford  known  as 
Pasa  Real,  where  the  Matagalpa-Leon  road  crosses  the  stream.  A 
record  was  kept  for  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Commission  irom  February 
1, 1898,  to  Januaiy  22, 1899.  The  station  was  reestablished  in  August, 
1899,  and  a  record  kept  till  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  observer  at  this  station  also  made  some  observations  of  the  dis- 
charge of  the  Nueva  River,  which  approaches  very  near  the  Viejo  at 
this  point,  but  flows  into  the  Atlantic. 

Rating  table  for  Viejo  River,  near  crossing  of  Matagalpa-Leon  road. 

This  table  is  applicable  only  from  August  18.  1899,  to  January  22, 
1900: 


Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 

height. 

Discharge. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

2.0 

15 

3.4 

165 

4.8 

516 

6.2 

1,034 

2.1 

21 

3.5 

183 

4.9 

548 

6.3 

1,073 

2.2 

27 

3.6 

202 

5.0 

581 

6.4 

1,112 

2.3 

33 

3.7 

220 

5.1 

615 

6.5 

1,151 

2.4 

10 

3.8 

241 

5.2 

650 

6.6 

1,190 

2.5 

18 

3.9 

263 

5.3 

686 

6.7 

1,230 

2.6 

57 

4.0 

286 

5.4 

723 

6.8 

1,270 

2.7 

67 

4.1 

310 

5.5 

761 

6.9 

1,310 

2.8 

78 

4.2 

335 

5.6 

800 

7.0 

1,350 

2.9 

90 

4.3 

361 

5.7 

839 

7.1 

1,401 

3.0 

103 

4.4 

398 

5.8 

878 

7.2 

1,452 

3.1 

117 

4.5 

426 

5.9 

917 

7.3 

1,503 

3.2 

132 

4.6 

455 

6.0 

956 

7.4 

1,554 

3.3 

148 

4.7 

485 

6  1 

995 

7.5 

1,605 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Viejo  River  at  crossing  <>f  Matagalpa-Leon  road,  1898. 


Months. 


1898. 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August  . . . 
September 


Discharge. 

Total. 

Maxi- 

Mini- 

mum. 

mum. 

Sec. feet. 

Sec. feet. 

Sec. feet. 

Acre-feet. 

35 

15 

24.0 

1, 332 

25 

5 

13.0 

800 

5 

3 

3.6 

214 

5, 520 

2 

324.0 

19, 920 

15,600 

50 

2, 170. 0 

129, 120 

2,400 

155 

613.0 

37, 680 

2,750 

125 

330.0 

20, 290 

9,745 

220 

1,765.0 

105, 025 

Months. 


1898. 

October 

November 

December 

1899. 
January 

The  year . 


Discharge. 


Maxi-      Mini- 
mum,    mum. 


Sec.  feet. 

3,830 

253 

92 


94 


15, 600 


Sec. feet. 

23C 

74 

39 


35 


Mean. 


Total. 


Sec.  feet.  Acre-feet. 

965.0  !  59,340 

130. 0  7, 735 

59. 0  3, 630 


3,013 


536.0 


388,099 


126  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Viejo  River  at  crossing  of  Matagalpa-Leon  Road. 


Months. 

Discharge. 

Total. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

August  18  31 

1899. 

Sec.  feet. 

110 

93 

9,014 

322 

681 

Sec.  feet. 

24 

18 
18 
100 
40 

Sec.  feet. 

't,.k 

40.4 
863.7 
159.7 

98.6 

Acre-feet. 
1,327 

2,406 

53, 110 

9,505 

6, 066 

9,014 

18 

268. 0 

72, 414 

1900. 

40 

33 

35.3 

1,541 

NUEVA    RIVER. 

This  station  is  at  the  bend  of  the  Nueva  River,  where  it  approaches 
nearest  the  Viejo,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paso  Real,  and  was  intended 
to  throw  light  on  the  quantity  of  water  that  might  be  added  to  the 
supply  for  Lake  Managua  by  diverting  this  river  into  it. 

Measurements  were  made  by  wading  at  low  water  and  by  means  of 
floats  at  high  water.  The  stage  of  the  river  was  ascertained  by  meas- 
uring downward  with  a  tapeline  from  a  nail  driven  in  an  overhanging 
trunk  of  a  tree.  These  measurements  were  carried  on  by  the  same 
observer  who  had  charge  of  the  station  on  the  Viejo. 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Nueva  River  near  Viejo  River. 


Months. 


Discharge. 


Maximum.  Minimum.      Mean. 


Total. 


1899 

August  19-31 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Total 

1900. 
January  1-22 


Sec.  feet. 

242 

64 

2,602 

402 

820 


2.602 


Sec.  fni. 
52.0 
8.4 
L8.0 
62.0 
27.0 


Sec.  feet. 
79.  6 
21.1 

177.1 
170. 3 
155.6 


8.4 


196.  o 


Acre-feet. 

2,053 

1,303 

29, 886 

10, 136 

9,568 


52, 396 


QUEliRADA    HONDA. 


This  stream  is  tributary  to  the  Viejo  River  about  2  miles  below  the 
station  on  the  latter.  A  gauge  was  placed  one-half  mile  above  the 
wagon  ford  on  the  road  from  Leon  to  Matagalpa,  and  graduated  to 
feet  and  tenths.  At  low  water  measurements  were  made  by  wading; 
at  high  water,  by  means  of  floats. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


127 


Di&chargt    mxis/ir,',, huts  made  on  (Jiu'hmda  Honda  ahonernssi ,,,/  .Wafiirja/jHt-Lron  road. 
[Hydrographer,  Fred  Davis.    No  flow  from  August  18  to  October  10.] 


October  10 . . . 
October  15 . . . 
October  17... 
October  20 . . . 
Octobers;... 
October  29  . . . 
November  8  . 
November  16 
November  23 
December  3. . 
December  16. 
December  30. 


January ' 


Date. 


1899. 


Meter 
number. 


Gauge 
height. 


Fnt. 
3.78 
3.72 
4.40 
4.20 
13.30 
7.30 
4.70 
4.56 
4.50 
4.60 
4.45 
4.28 


Area  of 
section. 


Sijimri  ft. 
3.70 
2.15 
28 

19.50 

535. 60 

169. 50 

24.50 

4.80 

3.90 

12.80 

1.50 

(") 


Mean 
velocitv. 


Ft.  per  nee. 

0.62 

.43 

1.70 

1.14 

4.28 

3.01 

.85 

.52 

.61 

7.43 

1.50 


Discharge. 


Square  feet. 

1.92 

.92 

47.72 

22.20 

2, 293. 4 

510. 7 

20.82 

2.49 

2.37 

9.51 

2.25 


*  Floats.  t>  No  flow. 

Note. — Seventy  per  cent  of  maximum  surface  velocity  used  in  calculations. 


TIPITAPA. 

The  gauge  in  this  river  is  about  100  yards  above  Tipitapa  Falls,  and 
serves  both  to  register  the  stage  of  the  river  and  the  height  of  Lake 
Managua,  upon  which  the  stage  of  the  river  depends.  During  low 
water  the  river  was  too  sluggish  above  the  falls  for  accurate  measure- 
ments with  current  meter,  and  gaugings  were  made  from  the  bridge 
below  the  falls.  As  the  river  rose  it  became  very  turbulent  and  swift 
at  the  bridge,  but  at  the  same  time  the  velocity  in  the  upper  river 
increased  and  good  measurements  were  made  above  the  falls.  Obser- 
vations of  rainfall  and  evaporation  were  also  made  at  this  point. 

Lake  Managua  lies  to  the  northwest  of  Lake  Nicaragua  and  drains 
into  the  latter  through  Rio  Tipitapa.  Its  area  is  about  438  square 
miles. 

Reports  of  the  discharge  of  Tipitapa  River  are  conflicting.  All 
agree  that  the  stream  goes  dry  in  the  latter  part  of  every  dry  season. 
Some  authorities  assert  that  it  has  been  dry  for  several  years  in  suc- 
cession, the  inflow  during  the  rainy  season  being  insufficient  to  com- 
pensate for  evaporation,  while  others  maintain  that  there  is  more  or 
less  outflow  every  year  in  the  rainy  season.  Investigations  were  there- 
fore made  to  determine  roughly  the  feasibility  of  diverting  the  Rio 
Nueva,  which  now  drains  into  the  Rio  Grande  into  the  Rio  Viejo,  and 
finally  into  Lake  Managua.  Near  the  station  on  Rio  Viejo  the  two 
rivers  approach  within  about  a  mile  of  each  other  and  the  intervening 
country  is  low  and  flat.  The  river  channels  are  30  to  40  feet  deep,  and 
a  cut  of  this  depth  connecting  the  two  could  be  made  to  conduct  the 
waters  of  Rio  Nueva  into  Rio  Viejo,  if  a  dam  were  built  in  Rio  Nueva 
below  the  point  of  connection.  There  is  rock  on  the  bottom  of  Rio 
Nueva  showing  fairly  good  foundation  for  such  a  structure,  but  the 
excavation  of  the  canal  would  be  almost  entirely  alluvial  earth. 


128  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Daily  gauge  height  of  Tipitapa  River  at  Tipitapa,  1899. 


Day.            Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Day. 

Aug. 

Sept.    Oct. 

Nov. 

Dee. 

1 

2.  95 
2.  98 

3.01 
3.01 
3.06 
3.02 

2.  96 

3.02 

3.07 
3.00 
2.  99 
2.  '.17 
2.99 
2.  96 
2.  96 
2.  98 

2.80 
2.  75 
2.82 
2.80 
2.  7.") 
2.80 
2. 85 

2.  92 
2.90 
2.88 
3.08 
3.10 
3. 28 
3.31 

3.  42 
3. 43 

5. 55 
5.51 
5. 51 
5.  It; 
5.49 
5.48 

5.  16 
5.54 
5.63 
5.62 
5.56 

6.  62 
5.62 
5.52 
5.51 
5.  19 

5.  77 
5.74 
5. 69 
5.68 

6.  66 
5.62 
5.65 
5.61 
5.61 
5.59 
5.  57 
5.  51 
5.  58 
5.56 
5.53 
5.51 

17 

2.87 

2.92 

::.  63 
3. 60 
3  55 
3.53 
3.46 
3.65 
3.80 
4.10 
4.32 

5.  1 1 
5.  16 
5.  16 
5.  42 
5.44 
5.47 
5.  IT 
5.  16 
5.  19 
5.1» 
5. 55 
5. 62 
5. 65 
5.77 

5.37 
5.33 
5.31 
5.32 
5.  28 
5.  23 
5.25 
5.  20 
5. 19 
5.  15 
5.16 
5.  1 1 
5.16 
5.13 
5.07 

2 

18 

3 

19 

2.  >s 

4 

20 

2.87 
■2.  83 
2.S7 
2. 85 
2.  85 
2.  90 
•2.  92 
2.97 
2.  95 
2.97 
2.93 
2.92 

■2.  82 
2.81 
2.  86 
2.73 
2.73 
2.  73 

5 

6 

7 

8 

21 

22  

23 

L'4   

•25 

9                      

10 

26 

2.84      1.61 

11 

•27 

'2.  72 
2.73 
2.69 
2.75 

1.92 
5.39 
5.53 

5.53 

12 

13 

28  

■29 

14 

30 

15 

31 

16 

Daily  gauge  height  of  rri/>it<ij><t  River  at  Tipitapa,  1900. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

(let. 

1 

5.09 
5.04 
5.00 
5. 03 
1.92 
4.92 
4.89 
!.'.>:; 
1.90 
4.  91 
4.93 
4.89 
4.86 
4.84 
4.90 
4.88 
4.90 
4.80 
1.  85 
1.69 
1.74 
4.  74 
1.  72 
1.72 
1.78 
1.65 
1.68 
4.72 
1.61 

1.58 
L59 

4. 53 

4.47 

1.  11 
4.48 
4.  Id 
4.44 
4.46 

1.35 
4.  40 
4.40 
4.  17 
4.  12 
4.43 
4.35 
4.32 

1.34 
4.33 

1.27 
4.17 
4.14 
4.16 

1.  15 

4.15 
4.17 
4.09 
4. 08 
1.15 
L09 

4.06 

3.91 

3.  94 

3.82 

3.73 

3.78 

3.84 

3.78 

3.  72 

3.78 

3.75. 

3.73 

3.  72 

3.68 

3.74 

3.77 

3.75 

3.65 

3.66 

3.64 

3. 53 

3.37 

3.48 

3.52 

3.52 

3.54 

3.49 

:;.  19 

3.50 

3.50 

3.42 

3.33 
3.33 
3.31 
3.33 
3.25 
3.21 
3.21 
3.  28 
3.25 
3.28 
3.22 
3.16 
3.14 
3.12 
3.07 
3.01 
2.  97 
3. 02 
•2.96 
2.  HI 
2.93 
2. 92 
2.96 
2. 96 

3.01 
3.01 

2.  '.1 1 

2. 96 

2.  92 

2.96 
2.  94 
2.88 
2.77 
2.66 
2.66 
2.66 
2.66 
2.62 
2. 63 
2.64 
2.67 
2.63 
2.71 
2.77 
2.  SI 
2.  SI 
2.82 
2.81 
2.90 
2.  96 
2.  99 
2.98 
3.03 
3.06 
3.06 
3.23 
:•>.  26 
3. 51 
3.6] 

3.51 

3.  12 
3.56 
3.61 
3.81 
4.07 
4.13 
4.63 
4.57 
1.57 
4.65 
4.80 
1.77 
1.  64 
4.72 

4.  75 
1.71 
4.77 
4.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.78 

4.80 

5.  17 

1.99 
l.'.ts 
1.98 
1.95 
1.90 
1.95 

5.01 
5.07 
5. 15 
5.2:; 
5.26 

5.  20 
5.11 

5.  27 
5.  41) 

5.  07 

5.86 
5.99 

5.90 

6.07 

o.  i;; 

0.  1  1 
6.20 

0.  25 

6.22 

0.  20. 

6.26 

6.  22 
6.  21 
0..2I 
0.  22 
0.21 
6.20 

0,.  10 
6. 21 
0,.  22 
6. 15 

6. 14 
6.17 
6.  1 1 
6.12 
6.09 
6.09 
6.09 
6.08 
0,.  1 1 
6.10 
0.  07 
6.03 
i.93 
5.91 
5.  92 
5.91  ' 
5.  91 
5.  90 
5.84 
5.82 
5.83 
5.  S3 
5.83 
5.85 
5.85 
5.  S7 
5.  82 
5.  78 
5.71 
5.75 
5.  72 

5.  72 
5.73 
5.  73 
5.  75 
5.73 
5.75 
5.  70. 
5.77 
5.78 

;..  7s 
5.75 
5.  70, 
5.71 
5.  73 
5.  73 
5.  70, 
5.  75 
5.73 
5.72 
5.  72 
5.  70 
5.73 
5.  73 
5.77 
5.  75 
5.75 
5.  7  1 
5.75 
6.75 
5.78 

5.78 
5.86 

5.  95 

6.10 
6.17 

6.  is 
6.18 
6.17 
6.  15 
6.16 
6.37 
6.48 
0.  10 

6.  4S 
6.50 
6.48 
6.52 
6.50 
6.51 
6.50 
6.74 
6.90 
6.96 
7.30 
7.20 
7.18 
7.19 
7.19 

7.  19 
7.20 

7.2:; 

•> 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

•21 

•22 

23 

24... 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31... 

Rating  table  for  Tipitapa  River  <it  'J'i/>il<i]»i. 
[This  table  is  applicable  only  from  August  20.  L899,  toOctober  30,  1900.] 


height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

PiM-haw. 

Gauge 
height 

Discharge. 

AW/. 

feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

/■;  -  /. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  Jot. 

2.0 

1 

8.8 

30 

5.0 

280 

0,.  2 

1,200 

2.7 

2 

8.  9 

39 

5.1 

820 

6.3 

1,287 

2.S 

3 

4.0 

IS 

5. 2 

375 

6.4 

l,S76 

2.9 

4 

1. 1 

60 

5. :; 

no 

6.5 

1,462 

3  0 

6 

1.2 

72 

5.  1 

500 

6.6 

1 . ... ,1 1 

::.l 

s 

1.0 

90 

5.  5 

587 

6.7 

1,0,07 

:;.  2 

10 

1.  1 

110 

5.  0, 

075 

6.8 

1 ,  725 

3.3 

12 

4.5 

0:i, 

).  / 

762 

6.9 

1,812 

:;.  1 

11 

1.0, 

1.,.: 

-  0 

7.0 

1 .  900 

16 

4.7 

L80 

937 

7.1 

1 ,  987 

3.6 

18 

4.8 

210 

6.0 

1.025 

7.2 

2,075 

:;.  7 

21 

1.9 

2 15 

6.  1 

1.112 

7.3 

2. 102 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  129 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Tipitapa  River  at  Tipitapa,  1898. 


Months 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Discharge. 

Mini- 
mum. 


L808.  Srr.  fat.  Srr.  fat 

February 126  37 

Uarch 36  3 

April 4  0 

May 18  0 

June 700  13 

July 922  280 

August 930  487 

September 3,230  |        910 


e. 

Total. 

Mean. 

Sec.  feet. 

Art'  ft. 

77.0 

1,275 

16.6 

1 ,  020 

0.5 

29 

3.8 

234 

121.0 

7,200 

662.  0 

40,  700 

626.0 

38,490 

2,  045. 0 

121,690 

Mouths. 


October . . . 
November 
December. 


Discharge. 


Maxi-      Mini- 
mum,    mum. 


Sec.  feet. 

5,380 
5,500 
2, 630 


1899. 
January  (1-28)      1,470 


The  year.      5, 580 


8ec.  feet. 

2, 910 
2,150 
1,470 


950 


Mean. 


Sec.  ft  <  I. 
4,  040.  0 
3,  640.  0 
1 ,  950.  0 


Acrejt. 
248,  no 
216,600 
119,900 


1,210.0         55,200 


1,208.0       853,748 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Tipitapa  River  at  Tipitapa. 


Discharge. 

Total. 

Discharge. 

Months. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean. 

Months. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini"  !    Mean 
mum.  '   Mean- 

Total. 

1899. 
August  20-31... 
Sept*  mber 

Sec./eet. 
5 

7 

Sec./eet. 

3.0 

2.0 

2.0 

517.0 

308.0 

Sec./eet. 

4.0 

4.5 

101.5 

612.7 

545.0 

Acre-/eet. 

97 

266 

6,244 

36,459 

33, 505 

1900. 
,  March 

Sec./eet. 

55 

13 

17 

358 

1,275 

1,348 

866 

2,804 

Sec./eet. 

5.7 

.4 

.2 

12.0 

284.0 

749.0 

762. 0 

832.0 

Sec./eet. 

25.0 

8.0 

5.0 

173.0 

919. 0 

974.0 

801.0 

1,527.0 

Acre-/t. 

1,515 

474 

October 631 

309 

November                 824 
December 824 

June 

Julv 

10,  277 
56, 500 
59, 900 
47, 667 
93,917 

Total  .... 

1900. 

Januarv  

Februarv 

August 

September 

October 

Total 

824 

2.0 

291. 0 

76, 571 

316 
137 

148.0 
58.0 

223.0 
94.0 

13, 724 
5, 232 

2, 804 

2.0 

400.0 

289,515 

REGIMEN    OF   LAKE    NICARAGUA. 

The  rise  and  fall  of  the  lake  is  the  most  important  element  in  the 
measurement  of  the  water  supply  to  the  summit  level  of  the  canal,  the 
rate  of  inflow  and  of  evaporation.  To  obtain  this  element  with  the 
greatest  possible  accuracy,  four  gauge  rods  were  established  at  approx- 
imately equal  intervals  on  the  margin  of  the  lake,  at  Sapoa,  Granada, 
San  Ubaldo,  and  Fort  San  Carlos,  upon  which  daily  observations  were 
taken. 


S.  Doe.  54,  pt  2 9 


130 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Daily  elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua  as  indicated  by  the  gauge  rod  at  Sapoa,  for  the  year  1899. 

[Elevation  of  zero  of  rod,  100.02  feet.] 


Day. 

July. 

A.ug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec 

102.  65 
102. 60 
102. 67 
102. 62 
102. 65 
102. 65 
102.  68 
102.  68 
102.  64 
L02.59 
102.59 
102. 60 
102.  58 
102.59 
102.62 
102.59 

102.60 

102. 65 

102. 66 
102. 69 

102. 71 
102. 74 

102. 72 
102.84 
102. 85 
102.  97 
103. 12 
103. 12 
103. 17 

103. 25 

103. 26 

103.  23 

103. 19 

103. 21 
103. 23 
103.2.5 
103. 26 
103. 25 
103.24 
103. 28 

103. 28 
103. 25 

103. 22 

103. 20 

103. 21 
103.21 
103. 17 
103. 19 
103. 19 
103.21 
103.20 
103.27 

103. 29 
103.  34 
103. 38 
103. 35 
103. 37 
103. 35 
103. 35 
103. 33 
103. 32 

103.  32 
103.34 
103.34 
103. 33 
103.34 
103. 35 

103. 35 

103. 36 

103. 36 

103. 37 

103. 37 

103. 38 
103. 48 
103. 64 
103. 67 
103. 69 
103. 71 
103. 75 
103. 82 
103. 81 
103.  SO 
103. 84 
103. 91 
103. 91 
103. 91 
103.  91 
103. 98 
104. 12 
104.28 
104.31 
104. 37 

104. 33 
104.33 
101.31 
104.36 
104.31 
104. 27 
104.28 

104. 34 

104. 51 

104. 54 
104.51 
104.57 
104. 64 

104. 52 
104.58 
104.53 
104.51 
101.49 
104.50 
104. 52 
101.  19 
101.53 
101.56 
101.5.5 

104. 55 
104. 57 

104. 63 

104. 64 
104. 71 
104. 96 

104.94 

104.97 
101.07 
105.05 
106. 1 1 
104.98 

101.05 
104.91 
104.89 
101.95 
104.91 
104.90 
101.91 
104.95 
104.97 
101.93 
101.91 
104. 93 
L04.87 
1()1. 88 
KH.7I 
101.77 

1  III.  05 
104. 67 
104. 74 
101.73 
104.64 
104. 65 
104. 65 
104.  60 
104. 52 



6                   

10            

11                

1  '         

13             

M                 

15 

16                

102.36 

102. 35 

102. 36 
102. 38 
102. 40 
102. 42 
102.42 
102. 52 
102.60 
102. 59 
102.  08 
102. 61 
102. 68 
L02.69 
102. 68 
102. 71 

17      

IS 

19  

20 

2]   

22  

23 

24     

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31  .               

Daily  elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua  as  indicated  by  the  gauge  rod  at  Sapoa  for  the  year  1900. 

[Elevation  of  zero  of  rod:  January  1  to  July  31,  100.02  feet;  Aug.  1  to  Dec.  31,  97.19  feet.] 


Hay. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Auk.     Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dee. 

1... 

104. 49 

104.08 

103. 26 

102.  46 

101.57 

102. 03 

102.  65 

104.04    101.50 

105.53    107.39 

106.88 

2... 

104.47 

104.06 

103. 25 

102.  53 

101.55 

102. 10 

102.  67 

104.07    104.56 

10.5.76     107.39 

106.77 

3... 

104.62 

103. 96 

103.28   102.33 

101.55 

102. 05 

102.66 

OH.  os    104.58 

105.76    107.37 

106.  77 

1... 

101.51 

103.89 

L03.31    102.28 

101.53 

102.  08 

102.71 

nil.  18    104.66 

105.05    107.35 

106. 75 

5... 

L04.52 

103.  s,3 

L03.24    103.28 

101.55 

102.  08 

102.71 

101.  17    104.73 

105.05    107.27 

106.75 

6... 

101.51 

103.  92 

103.17    102.30 

101.02 

102. 11 

1-02.  83 

101.22    101.68 

105.99    107.29 

106.76 

7. . . 

llil.  17 

103.82 

103.11    102.25 

101.61 

102. 02 

102.  si 

101.25   104.63 

106.17    107.31 

106.  75 

8... 

li  U.  12 

103.  76 

103.13    102.  is 

101.41 

102.22 

102.86 

104.28   104.66 

106.19    107.31 

106.77 

0      . 

1(11.30 

103.80 

L03.  11    102.18 

101.53 

102.28 

102.  00 

101.31,  104.72 

106.17    107.33 

106.70 

10... 

L04.33 

103.  77 

in::,  no   102.16 

101.37 

102. 28 

103.01 

104.37    101.64 

106.23    107.37 

106.  S| 

11... 

101.20 

103.76 

102.93   102.17 

101.40 

102.  :;i 

103.  16 

104.38   104.  7C 

106.27    107.46 

106.70 

12... 

101.29 

103.  6S 

102.92   102.13 

101.35 

102.  35 

L03.28 

104.39    10  1.76 

106.28   107.38 

106.77 

13... 

L04.35 

103.71 

102.  s:;    102.  (is 

101.28 

102.35 

103.  11 

L04.34    101.7:; 

106.32    107.  3.7 

L06.78 

1 1... 

104.38 

103.71 

102.  si     102.06 

101.34 

102.  I:; 

103.  46 

101.  10    104.74 

106.32    107.31 

106.73 

15..-. 

L04.31 

103.  57 

102.75 

102.00 

101.20 

102.  46 

103. 58 

104.47 

1(11.72 

106.31    107.28 

106.72 

111... 

101. 'JC 

L03.67 

102.7:; 

102.00 

101.21 

102.  1,. 

103.  67 

101.  13 

101.78 

106.  3.5 

107.23 

106.71 

17... 

104.26 

103.50 

102. 70 

101.05 

101.23 

102. 48 

103.  60 

104.38 

ioi.sc 

106. 51 

107.23 

106.70 

18... 

104.26 

103. 59 

102.76 

101.05 

101.25 

102.  10 

103.54 

mi.  io 

104.88 

106.  IS 

107.13 

lot',.  71 

10... 

nil.  2: 

103.72 

102.75 

101.  SO 

L01.31 

102. 46 

103.88 

101.32 

105.01 

L06.50   107.06 

L06.73 

20... 

L04.2J 

103.62 

102.71 

101.87 

101.35 

102.50 

103.00 

104.38 

101.05 

100.55    107.03 

106.77 

21... 

104.  a 

103.  12 

102.  79 

mi. si 

mi.:;:; 

102.  46 

103.97 

104.31 

104.  92 

106.61    107.01 

100.75 

22... 

Hi).  1- 

103.  H 

102.71 

L01.82 

nil.  ii 

102. 48 

LOS.  98 

mi.  u 

101.06 

106.90    107.03 

106.66 

23... 

101.  11 

103.  12 

102. 72 

101.77 

L01.8S 

102.  49 

103.81 

101.  16 

101.07 

107.171  106.99 

106.66 

21 . . . 

101.11 

103. 32 

102.57 

101.75 

101.38 

102.57 

103. 77 

104.  55 

105.11 

107.35    106.91 

106.61 

25... 

101.  1( 

103.  31 

102.55 

101.62 

101.46 

102.53 

in;;,  os 

101.56 

105.0'. 

107.  12    106.02 

L06.68 

■jo... 

101.  11 

103.  3-1 

102. 50 

101.01 

101.58 

102.52 

L03.95 

101.6,0 

105.  11 

107.  38    106.  OS 

100.67 

27... 

101. 0 

Hi::.  12 

102.  is 

L01.68 

101.01 

102.  10 

loi.oi 

101.56 

105.  11 

107.36    107.01 

106.57 

28... 

104.  CM 

103. 2! 

102.  17 

loi.oi 

101.72 

102.60 

103.93 

104.55 

105.  It 

107.35    L06.97 

106.5s 

29... 

L03.9 

102.  11 

101.61 

101. 7$ 

102.50 

103.97 

104.56 

105. 26 

107.38    106.02 

L06.55 

30... 

103.87 

102.  K 

101. 60 

loi. os 

102.  50 

103.9'. 

104.  56 

105.  51 

107.36:  106.93 

lot;.  58 

::i . . . 

103.  '.K 

102.51 



102.  i: 

108.91 

101.57 

107.  361 

106.  17 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    OOAfMISHlON. 


131 


Daily  elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua  at  initialled  by  the  gauge  rod  at  Granada  for  the 

year  1899. 


I  Elevation  of  zero  of  rod,  100.37  feet] 


Daw     Jan. 


in. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15.. 
16/ 
17.. 
18.. 
19.. 
20.. 
21.. 
22.. 
23.. 
24 . . 
25.. 
26/. 
27.. 
28.. 
29.. 
30.. 
31.. 


105. 67 
105. 6' 
105. 67 
105. 67 
105 
105. 67 
105. 77 
105.  77 


105.77 
105.  77 
105.77 
105.87 

105.87 
105.77 
105.  77 
105. 67 
105. 57 
105. 57 
105. 57 
105. 57 
105. 57 
105. 47 
105.47 
105.  17 
105. 47 
105.37 
105. 37 
105. 47 
105. 17 
105. 17 
105. 17 
105. 17 
105. 12 
105. 12 
105. 07 
104. 97 


Mar. 


Apr. 


105.02 

104.87 
104.87 

104.871 
104.871 
104.  87 
104. 9 
104. 87 
104 
104. 67 
104.57 
104. 57 
104. 57 
104. 57 
104.57 
104. 5' 
104. 5' 
104.  57 
104. 47 
104.47 
104.42 
104. 37 
104. 3' 
101.  32 
104.27 
104. 27 
104.17 
104.17 
104. 1 
104. 17 
104.17 


104.17 
101.07 
104. 07 
104.07 
101.07 
104.07 
104.07 
104. 07 
103. 97 
103. 97 
103. 87 
103.77 
103.  67 
103. 67 
103. 67 
103. 57 
103. 57 
103.  57 
103. 57 
103. 52 
103. 47 
103. 57 
103. 57 
103. 57 
103. 47 
103. 37 
103. 37 
103. 37 
103. 37 
103. 32 


May. 


103. 27 
103.27 

103. 27 
103. 17i 
103. 17l 
103.17 
103.07, 
103.07 
103. 07 
102. 97 
102.  87 
102.87 
102.87 
102.82 
102.  77 
102.  77 
102.  72 
102.67 
102.  67 
102.67 
102.  67 
102. 67 
102.62 
102.  57 
102. 57 
102.57, 
102.57' 
102. 47 
102.  47| 
102.47 
102.47. 


J  tine. 


102. 47 
102. 47 
102.  4 
102.3 
102.  3' 
102.  47 
102. 47 
102.  47 
102. 37 
102. 47 
102. 57 
102. 57 
102.  67 
102.  47 
102.47 
102.  47 
102.  47 
102.  57 
102. 47 
102.  67 
102.  52 
102. 47 
102. 47 
102.47 
102. 57 
102.  47 
102.  57 
102. 47 
102. 37 
102. 37 


.lulv. 


102. 37 
102.37 
102.37 
102. 47 
102.47 
102.37 
102.  37 
102. 37 
102. 27 
102. 27 
102. 17, 
102.07 
102. 07| 
102.17 
102.27 
102. 27 
102.27 
102. 27 
102.  47 
102.  37' 
102.  77 
102.67 
102. 57 
102.37 
102.47 
102. 57 
102. 57 
102. 67 
102.  67 
102. 67 
102. 67 


Aug. 


102.  67 
102.  77 
102.67 
102.67 

102.  67 
102.  67 
102. 67 
102. 57' 
102. 57: 
102. 57; 
102.  67 
102.  67 
102.  67 
102. 57 
102.  57 
102. 57! 
102. 62! 
102. 57. 
102. 67 
102. 57 
102. 57 
102. 57 
102.67 
102.  67 
102.  77 
103. 07 
103. 07 
103. 07 
103. 37 
103. 37 
103. 32 


Sept. 


103.  27 
103.  27 

103.27 
103.  27 
1113.27 
103.32 
103. 37 1 
103.22! 
103.  27! 
103.17 
103. 27! 
103. 22 
103. 17 
103. 17 
103. 07 
103. 07 
102. 97 
103. 07 
103. 17 
103. 62i 
103. 37 
103. 37 
103. 37 
103. 32 
103.  42 
103. 47 
103. 47 
103.  52 
103. 42! 
103. 37 


Oct. 


103. 37 
103. 32 
103.  37 
103.32 
103.37 
103. 37 
103.47 
103.  52 
103. 37 
103. 42 
103. 37 
103.42, 
103.42! 
103.(17' 
103.67 
103.67 
103.67! 
103. 67  J 
103.77 
103.671 
103. 67| 
103.87 
103.87! 
103. 97| 
103. 97! 
104. 07 
104.17 
104. 27 
104. 27 
104. 27 
104. 37 


104.27 

104. 27 
101.22 
104. 17 
:04.27 
104.27 
104.17 
104.27 
104.57 
101.57 
104.67 
104.62 
104.57 
104.62 
104. 57 
104. 47 
104. 47 
104.47 
104. 57, 
104.47, 
104. 57 
104. 57; 
104  57 
104.  57 
104. 57 1 
104. 57! 
104. 67 j 
104.67 
104. 67 
104.  87 


104. 87 
105. 07 
105. 07 
104.97 

105.07 
105.02 
104.87 
104.82 
104. 97 
104.97 
104.87 
104.77 
104. 87 
104.87 
104.87 
105. 07 
104.97 
104. 97 
104.87 
104.87 
104.87 
104. 77 
104. 77 
104.77 
104. 37 
104. 57 
104.57 
104. 57 
104. 47 
104. 47 
104. 47 


Daily  elevation  for  Lake  Nicaragua  as  indicated  by  the  gauge  rod  at  Granada  for  tht 

year  1900. 

[Elevation  of  zero  of  rod:  January  1  to  April  6,  100.37  feet;  April  7,  98.44  feet.] 


Day.      Jan. 


10.. 
11.. 
12.. 
13.. 
14.. 
15.. 
16.. 
17.. 
18.. 
19.. 
20.. 
21.. 
22.. 
23. . 
24.. 
25.. 
26.. 
27.. 
28.. 
29.. 
30.. 
31.. 


104. 47 
104.47 
104.  37 
104.  37 
104. 37 
104. 47 
104.  37 
104. 37 
104. 37 
104. 37 
104. 37 
104.37 
104. 37 
104. 37 
104. 27 
104. 27 
104.17 
104. 17 
104. 17 
104. 17 
101.17 
104.17 
104. 12! 
104.17 
104.17 
104.17 
104.171 
104.07 
103. 97' 
103. 97 
103. 97 


Feb. 


Mar. 


103. 97 
103. 97 
103. 97 
103. 97 
103. 97 
103. 97 
103. 97 
103. 97 
103. 77 
103. 77 
103.  77 
103. 77 
103. 77 
103. 77 
103. 57 
103. 47 
103.37 
103. 37 
103.  37 
103.  37 
103. 37 
103. 47 
103. 47 
103. 47 
103.37 
103. 37 
103. 47 
103. 37 


Apr. 


May. 


103.  47 
103. 47 
103. 37 
103. 27 
103. 27 
103. 37 1 
103. 37i 
103. 371 
103. 37 
103. 37 
103. 37, 
103. 371 
103. 37 
103. 37: 
103. 27 
103. 17 
103.171 
103.17 
102.97 
102.  77 
102. 97 
102. 871 
102. 87 
102.  77! 
102.77! 
102.87 
102.  77 
102.  57 
102.  57 
102. 57i 
102.47'. 


102. 47 
102. 47 
102. 47 
102. 37 
102. 47 
102.47i 
102. 44; 
102. 44 
102. 44 
102. 34 
102. 24 
102. 24 
102.  24 
102. 24 
102. 34 
102.34 
102.  24 
102. 14 
102. 14 
102. 04 
102. 04 
102. 04 
101.94 
101. 94 
101.94 
101.94 
101.94 
101.84 
101.74 
101. 74 


101.74 
101.74 
101.84 
101.84 
101.84 
101.94 
101.84 
101.84 
101.74 
101.74 
101. 64 
101.64 
101.64 
101.44! 
101.441 
101.411 
101.34- 
101.34 
101. 34 
101.39 
101.44 
101.  .54 
101.54 
101.  59 
101.  59 
101.94 
102. 19 
102. 14 
102. 14 
102. 19 
102. 24 


June, 


102. 34 
102. 34 
102.  39 
102. 24 
102. 24 
102. 19 
102.  24 
102. 14 
102.  24 
102.  54 
102. 59 
102.  54 
102. 49 
102. 54 
102.  54 
102.  54, 
102. 59j 
102.  59 
102. 59 
102.64! 
102.74 
102. 74! 
102.  74 1 
102.  79! 
102.74 
102. 74 
102.  69 
102.  74 
102.  74 
102.  74 


July.     Aug. 


102.  74 
102. 74 
102.  79 
102.84 
102. 94 
102.  94 
102.94 

102.  94 
102. 99 
103. 24! 
103. 44j 

103.  49' 
103.  64 
103.  64 
103. 84 
103. 84 
103. 84 
103. 94 
103.  94 
103. 94 
104. 04 
104. 04 
104. 14 
104.14 
104. 14 
104. 14 
104. 14 
104. 14 
104. 14 
104. 24 
104. 24 


104. 34 
104. 34 
104. 34 
104. 34 
104. 44 
104. 44 
104.44 
104. 44 
104.  54 
104.  64 
104.  74 
104. 74 
104. 84 
104. 84 
104. 84 
104. 84 
104. 84 
104. 94 
104.  94 
104.  94 
104. 94 
105. 04 
105. 04 
105. 04 
105. 14 
105. 14 
105. 14 
105. 04 
105. 04 
105.04 
105. 04 


Sept. 


104. 84 
104. 94 
104. 94 
104.84 
104. 84 
104. 84 
104. 84 
104. 84 
104. 94 
104. 94 

104.  94  j 
104. 94! 
104.94: 
104.94. 
105. 04 
105. 04 
105. 04 

105.  04 
105. 04 
105. 14 
105. 24 
105.  24 
105.  24 
105. 24 
105. 24 
105. 24 
105. 24 
105. 24 
105. 24 
105.  34 


105.  34 
105. 49 

105.  59 
105. 69 
105. 74 
105. 94 
106. 04 
106. 04 
106.04 
106. 14 
106. 24 
106. 44 
106. 541 

106.  54 

106.  64 
106. 74 
106. 94 
107. 04 
107. 14 
107. 24 

107.  34 
107. 34 
107. 34! 
107.  34 1 
107.  34 
107. 34 
107. 44 
107.44 
107.44 
107. 44 
107.44 


107.54 
107.54 
107.  44 
107. 44! 
107. 34 ' 
107. 34 
107. 34 
107. 44 
107. 44 
107. 44! 
107.44! 
107. 54: 
107. 54 
107.  74 
107.  74 
107. 64  [ 
107.64 
107.  74 
107. 64 
107.  64 
107. 64! 
107.54 
107. 44! 
107. 44 1 
107.44! 
107. 44 ! 
107. 34 ' 
107. 34: 
107. 34[ 
107. 14 


107.14 
107. 14 
107. 14 
107. 14 
107. 04 
107. 04 
107. 04 
106. 94 
106. 94 
106. 94 
106. 94 
106. 94 
106. 94 
106. 91 
106. 84 
106.  74 
106.  74 
106.  74 
106. 94 
106.  94 
106.  84 
106.  84 
106. 84 
106. 84 
106. 84 
106. 84 
106. 79 
106. 79 
106. 84 
106. 84 
106. 84 


132 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Daily  elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua  as  indicated  by  the  gauge  rod  at  San  TJbaldo  for  the  year 

1899. 

[Elevation  of  zero  of  rod,  96.90  feet.] 


Day. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

102. 35 
102.46 
102. 40 
102.47 
102. 37 
102.38 
102.33 
102. 32 
102.27 
102. 30 
102. 40 
102.28 
102. 32 
102. 35 

102. 37 
102. 43 

102. 38 
102. 40 
102. 47 
102. 40 
102.47 
102. 53 
102. 70 
102. 65 
102. 67 
102. 63 
102. 70 
102. 63 
102. 73 
102. 70 
102.  72 

102. 78 
102.73 
102. 68 
102. 67 
102. 72 

102. 71 

102. 72 
102. 72 
102. 67 

102. 65 
102.  70 
102. 70 
102. 67 

102. 67 

102. 66 
102. 66 
102. 65 
102. 70 
102.  67 

102. 68 
102. 77 
102. 70 
102.  73 
102.84 
102. 83 
103. 09 
103. 21 
103. 23 
103. 23 
103. 31 
103. 35 

103. 37 

103. 34 

103. 35 

103. 34 

103. 35 
103. 31 
103. 33 

103. 41 
103.  36 
103. 37 

103. 33 

103. 29 

103. 30 

103. 34 
103. 27 
103. 25 

103. 25 
103.  24 
103. 20 

103. 26 

103. 34 

103. 35 
103.  36 
103.  10 

103. 42 

103. 44 
103. 49 
103. 42 
103.45 

103. 45 

103. 49 
103.  15 

103.  46 
J  03. 52 
103. 51 
103. 55 
103.  54 
103. 54 
103.  54 
103.49 
103.61 
103. 62 
103. 69 
in:;.  74 
103. 91 
103. 95 

103. 86 

103. 87 
103.89 
103. 84 
103. 94 
103. 99 
104. 10 
104. 20 
101.35 
104. 28 
104. 35 
104.40 
104.40 
104.39 
104. 41 

104. 37 
104.42 

104. 38 
104. 37 
104.40 
104. 42 
104. 44 
104.45 
104. 60 
104. 60 
104.  57 
104.50 
104.51 
104. 33 
104.49 

101.49 

104.54 
104.61 

104.63 
104.61 
104. 62 
104. 68 
104. 68 
104. 68 
104. 76 
104.  73 
104.  78 
104.82 
104. 88 
105.14 

105. 1 1 
105. 10 
105.15 
105.02 
104.  94 
104. 93 
104.92 
104. 95 
104. 95 
104.93 
104. SS 
104.95 
104. 90 
104. 93 

101.  SS 

104.83 
104. 78 
104. 74 

104. 67 

104. 70 

104. 71 
104.72 
104.71 

104. 68 

104. 72 
104.70 
104.61 
104.  55 
104. 58 
104. 53 
104. 55 

3              

4                      

5                

6 

8 

;t        ! 

10...            i 

11.                   

12 

13.             ; 

14                       

15 

16.. 

n      

18 

102. 50 
102. 35 
102. 65 
102. 50 
102. 55 
102. 40 
102. 58 
102. 45 
102. 48 
102. 38 
102. 27 
102. 45 
102. 55 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Daily  elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua  as  indicated  by  the  gauge  rod  at  San  Ubaldo  for  the 

year  1900. 

[Elevation  of  zero  of  rod:  January  1  to  June  12,  96.90  feet;  June  13,  94.94  feet.] 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 
STATION    AT    FORT   SAN    CARLOS. 


133 


A  gauge  was  established  at  this  point  by  Lieutenant  Hanus,  U.  S. 
Navy,  January  4,  L898.  It  was  simply  a  graduated  stick  driven  in  the 
sand  in  shallow  water  and  supported  by  two  stakes  in  the  form  of 
braces.  On  March  13  a  more  substantial  gauge  was  placed  in  deeper 
water  and  firmly  fastened  to  the  iron  remains  of  an  old  wreck  o'f  a 
Vanderbilt  steamer  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  north  of  the  town  of 
San  Carlos.  It  was  driven  as  far  as  possible  into  the  mud  and  fastened 
with  bolts  and  cable  to  the  iron  wreck. 

Bench  mark  No.  1  is  on  the  highest  point  of  the  shore  end  of  the 
stranded  boiler  and  is  12.933  feet  above  the  zero  of  the  gauge  last 
described  and  9.78  feet  above  the  zero  of  gauge  established  by  Lieu- 
tenant Hanus.  From  the  8th  of  March,  when  a  special  observer  was  sta- 
tioned at  San  Carlos,  rainfall,  evaporation,  temperature,  and  humidity 
observations  were  taken. 


Daily  elevation  <f  Lake  Nicaragua  as  indicated  by  the  gauge  rod  at  Fort  San  Carlos  for 

the  year  1899. 

[Elevation  of  zero  of  rod  =  96.436  feet.] 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb.     Mar. 

Apr.      May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

1 

Dec. 

1... 

106. 23 

105.70   105.00 

104.04    103.24 

102. 36 

102.33 

102. 68 

103.51    103.67 

104.50 

105. 15 

2... 

106.  OS 

105.64    104.88 

103.99   103.32 

102.  42 

102. 22 

102. 65 

103.51    103.54 

104.37 

105. 06 

3... 

106.19 

105.61    104.83 

103.93    103.36 

102. 40 

102. 38 

102. 79 

103.50   103.67 

101.40 

105. 16 

4... 

105. 97 

105.48    104.94 

103.79   103.21 

102.  34 

102. 37 

102.  67 

103.41    103.59 

104.41 

104.90 

5... 

106.10 

105.41    104.84 

103.84    103.32 

102.38 

102. 41 

102.  68 

103.41    103.55 

104.55 

104. 97 

6... 

106. 15 

105.59   104.70 

103.96   102.87 

102. 49 

102.37 

102.  75 

103.37   103.57 

104. 51 

105. 03 

7 ... 

106. 00 

105.60   104.86 

103.91    103.12 

102.43 

102. 35 

102. 71 

103.28   103.56 

104.56 

104. 93 

8... 

106. 05 

105.65   104.59 

103.82   103.05 

102.  60 

102.40   102.55 

103.40   103.47 

104. 59 

104. 98 

9... 

106. 09 

105.55!  104.54 

103.59,  102.87   102.54 

102. 26 

102. 67 

103.36   103.59 

104.65 

105. 02 

10... 

106. 06 

105.59:  104.65 

103.76;  102.82 

102. 50 

102. 36 

102.  76 

103.35,  103.66 

164.57 

105. 00 

11... 

106. 08 

105.541  104.60 

103.77   102.91 

102. 79 

102. 27 

102.  90 

103.31    103.71 

104. 57 

105. 11 

VI... 

106. 04 

105.64    104.51 

103.62   102.89 

102.38 

102. 29 

102. 69 

103.32   103.79 

104. 63 

105. 00 

13... 

106. 02 

105.21    104.53 

103.57    102.65 

102. 61 

102. 34 

102.  69 

103.30   103.70 

104. 61 

104.89 

14... 

106.00 

105.03   104.56 

103.72   102.66 

102. 57 

102. 55 

102.  70 

103.26   103.87 

104. 60 

104.91 

15... 

106.01 

105.13!  104.60 

103.58,  10"2.  67   102.59 

102. 51 

102. 64 

103.28,  104.32 

104. 54 

104.88 

16... 

105. 92 

105.34    104.41 

103.61    102.67    102.65 

102.  44 

102. 72 

103.13   104.19 

104. 48 

104. SO 

17... 

105.98 

105.33]  104.43 

103.69   102. 74    102.45 

102.  32 

102. 50 

103.171  104.19 

104. 58 

104. 90 

18... 

106. 09 

105.24    104.50 

103.69   102.781  102  62 

102.42 

102. 58 

103.16]  103.92 

104.61 

104.82 

19... 

105.99 

105.15;  104.47 

103.64    102.73    102.6s 

102. 44 

102. 68 

103.15,  103.76 

104. 60 

104. 73 

20... 

106. 04 

105.17'  104.52 

103.63    102.55;  102.84 

102.46 

102. 77 

103. 351  104.05 

104. 72 

104.82 

21 . . . 

105. 92 

105.24;  104.46 

103.58 

102.61    102.69 

102.50 

102. 61 

103.28   104.03 

104.  61 

104. 69 

22... 

105. 93 

105.16;  104.32, 

103. 35 

102.54    102.49 

102.50 

102.  75 

103.32:  104.10 

104. 61 

104. 62 

23... 

105. 89 

105. 12:  104.40 

103.  36 

102. 59!  102.38 

102. 59 

102.  79 

103.41J  104.14 

104.  77 

104. 78 

24... 

105. 88 

105.20;  104.32 

103.  24 

102.55!  102.41 

102. 62 

102. 87 

103.42;  104.22 

104.80 

104. 73 

25... 

105.85 

105.10;  104.31 

103.  28 

102.471  102.44 

102.58 

102.  99 

103.39;  104.16 

104. 93 

104. 70 

26... 

105. 81 

105.261  104.22 

103.29   102.541  102.42 

102.52 

103. 16 

103.51!  104.29 

104. 82 

104. 61 

27... 

105. 82 

105.00   104.14 

103. 31 

102.49    102.41 

102. 80 

103.  25 

103.39    104.48 

104. 82 

104. 64 

28... 

105. 82 

104. 82 

104.22 

103.28 

102. 68 

102.  34 

102.  79 

103.  23 

103.34    104.69 

105. 02 

104.61 

29... 

105. 78 

104. 21 

103. 27 

102.  38 

102. 47 

102.64 

103. 33 

103.44    104.47 

104. 95 

104.59 

30... 

105. 65 

104. 18; 

103. 16 

102. 40 

102.39 

102. 80 

103.311 

103.54    104.56 

104. 97 

104. 46 

31... 

105. 74 

104.  22! 

102. 24 

102. 81 

103.24 

104.43, 

104. 60 

134 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSI*  >N, 


Daily  elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua  as  indicated  by  the  gauge  rod  at  Fori  San  Carlos  for 

the  year  1900. 


Dav.      Jan. 


Feb. 


10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 

II. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
•J'.). 
30. 
31. 


104.68 
104.  49 
104.55 

104.  51 
104.45 

104.41 
104.  34 
104.  34 
104.  47 

104. 37 
1C4.  51 
104.39 
104.  49 
104. 13 
104.40 
104.35 
104.30 

104. 38 
104.29 
104. 15 
104.15 
104.17 
104.20 
104.14 
104.24 
104.18 
101.  14 
104. 18 
104.01 
104. 07 
104.08 


Mar.      Apr. 


103.. SI 
103. 831 
103.  76 
103. 93 
103.87; 
103. 73 

103. 77 
103. 89 
103.84 
103. 79 
103. 64 

103. 78 
103. 62 
103. 61 
103.  61 
103.64 
103. 55 
103. 54 
103. 23 
103.41 
103.55 
103. 35 
103.  39 
103.78 
103. 50 
103. 42 
103.25 
103. 17 


103.22 
103.07| 
103. 13 
102. 99 | 
102.  si 
102.91 
1(12.  ss 
102. 99 
102.  96 
102. 96 

102. 85 
102. 89. 
102. 87: 

102. 86 
102. 94 
102. 89! 
102.85; 
102.  56 1 
102. 58, 
102.  75i 
102. 36 1 
102. 49 1 
102. 46 
102. 52i 
102.53 
102.  53 
102. 57 
102.5;, 

102. 52 

102. 53 
102. 42 


102. 38 
102. 15 
102. 22 
102. 08 
102. 15 
102. 19 
102. 08 
102. 26 
102. 10 
102. 10 
102. 10 
102. 17 
101. 99 
102. 04 
101.94 
101.95 
101.55 
101.83 
101. 89 
101. 87 
101.  94 
101. 86 
101.93 
101.90 
101.97 
101.91 
101.94 
101.94 
101.85 
101.74 


May. 


101.88 
101.82 
101.66 
101.46 
101. 34 
101.51 
101.19 
101.25 
101.40 
101.61 
101.50 
101. 10 
101. 52 
101. 50 
101.67 
101.  38 
101.58 
101.33 
101.34 
101.90 
101. 43 
101.  52 
101.  51 
101.43 
101.67 
101.66 
101.93 
101.82 
102. 12 
102. 12 
102.04 


June.    July 


Aug.     Sept 


Oct. 


102.02 
102.  06 
102. 17 
102. 28 
102. 23 
102. 36 
102. 25 
102, 
102. 66 
102.61 
102.55 

102. 55 
102. 45 
102. 43 
102.  36 
102. 38 
102. 4 

102. 56 
102. 63 
102. 49 
102.  62 
102.  OS 
102.  6' 
102.70 
102. 54 
102. 63 
102.  56 
102. 63 
102. 63 
102.  66 


102.  54 
102. 72 

102.  95 
102.90 
102. 44 
102. 96 
103. 11 
102. 92 
103. 08 
103.38 
103. 47 
103. 51 
103. 47 
103. 65 
103. 72 
103. 55 
103. 87 
103. 72 

103. 84 

103.  S3 
103. 95 

103. 85 
104. 13 
104. 05 
103. 98 
104. 08 
104. 02 
104.14 
104.02 
104.05 
104. 08 


104.07 

103.  97 
104.06 
103. 91 
104. 18 
104.36 
104. 32 

104. 23 
104. 26 
104. 20 
104.29 
104.41 
104. 25 
104.45 
104.20 
104. 28 i 
104. 44 

104. 28 

104. 24 
104. 50 

104.  52 
104.54 
104. 58 
104. 54' 

104. 29 
104.  58: 
104.53 
104.58 
104. 62 
104. 68 
104.  72 


104.70 
104.65 

104.  79' 
104.9! 
104.  96 

104. 91 
104. 88 
104.92 

104. 92 
104. 96 
104. 82 
104.1 88 
104. 85 
104. 72 
104.  99 
104.  90 
104.  86 
104. 90 
104. 76 
105. 10 
105. 13 
105. 04 

105. 09 

105. 10 
105. 18 
105. 23 
105. 10 
105. 21 
105. 43 
105. 50 


Nov. 


105.  51 

105.  78 
105. 89 
100.  09 

106.  00 
106. 02 
100.  41 
100.  25 
106.  24 
106. 17 
106. 43 
106.  43 
106.49 
106.  53 
100.  49 
106.  48 
106. 58, 
100.  52' 
100. 65 
106. 69 
107. 05 
107. 08 
107. 25 
107. 30 
107. 40 

107. 40 
107. 46 
107. 50 
107. 39 
107. 37 

107. 41 


107.  35 
107.  42 
107. 37 
107.33 
107 
107.  36 


in; 

1(17 

107 

1H7 

107 

107.20 

107.1 

107.09 

107.  IS 

107. 19 

107.2 

107.2 

107. 13 

107.13 

107. 02 

107. 10 

107. 06 

107.10 

107. 04 

100. 90 

100. 99 

107.01 

106.98 


Dec. 


100.  95 

ioo.  si; 
KH'i.  78 
106.  85 
106.82 
106.  70 
106.  81 
106. 78 
106. 59 
106. 67 
100.  78 
106.  70 
106.78 
100.  70 
106. 74 
106. 77 
106. 66 
106. 55 
106. 69 
106. 73 

106. 64 
106. 73 
106. 07 
100. 05 

106. 65 
106. 59 
106. 53 
100. 59 
100. 50 
106. 49 
106.54 


Daily  elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  1898. 

[Computed  from  gauge-rod  readings  at  Fort  San  Carlos,  Jan.  4,  1898,  to  Dec.  31, 1898;  LasLajas,  Feb.  s, 
1898,  to  Dec.  31,  1898;  Morrito,  Apr.  9,  1898,  to  Sept.  21,  1898.] 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1... 

104.49 
KM.  42 
104. 52 
104.48 

103. 80 
103.89 
103. 82 
103. 86 

103. 02 
103.02 
102. 98 
102.  96 

102. 29 
102.21 
102. 23 
102.  21 

102.  48 
102.49 
102.  44 
102.  39 

103. 50 
103. 47 
103. 55 
103.  70 

104. 50 
104.  51 

104. 51 
104.58 

104.90 
104.97 
104.95 
104.94 

105.  66 
105.  74 

105.  70 
105. 74 

100. 41 
L06.87 

100.31 
100.2(1 

100.04 
lOO.C,:; 
100.59 
106.65 

2... 

3... 

4... 

11)1.92 

5... 

104.90 

104.51 

103.  78 

102. 92 

102. 20 

102. 42 

103.  62 

104.61 

104. 97 

105. 75 

100.22 

100.07 

6... 

1115.02 

1(14.43 

103. 75 

102. 90 

102. 20 

102.  45 

103. 78 

104.57 

105.  05 

105.  73 

100.2i; 

100.02 

7.. . 

104.93 

101.43 

103. 76 

102. 92 

102. 14 

102. 52 

103. 79 

104.  60 

105.02 

105. 75 

100.22 

106.64 

s... 

101.94 

104.43 

103.  73 

102.86 

102. 12 

102. 49 

103.  N2 

104.70 

105.  05 

105.79 

100. 19 

106. 50 

9... 

L04.88 

10-1. 42 

103.  72 

102. 83 

102.11 

102. 48 

103. 90 

104.07 

105. 05 

105.73 

106.22 

100.55 

10... 

104. 79 

104. 32 

103.  02 

102.77 

102.  09 

102.  48 

103. 89 

104.  05 

105.11 

105.  73 

100.21 

100.5S 

11... 

104.85 

104.30 

103.  6-1 

102. SI 

102.  08 

102. 48 

103.  % 

104.  65 

105. 19 

105.71 

10c.  20 

100.57 

12... 

L04.87 

104.31 

103. 62 

102. 81 

102.  04 

102.  54 

103. 99 

104.  59 

106.29 

105.75 

100.34 

100.55 

13... 

104.80 

1(11.41 

103. 61 

102. 76 

101.96 

102.  51 

108. 98 

104.74 

105. 44 

105.  75 

100.  10 

100.  19 

14... 

104.76 

1(14.32 

103. 52 

102. 74 

102.  03 

102.47 

103. 98 

104.73 

105.45 

105.84 

106.42 

100.49 

15... 

Oil.;:. 

1(11.29 

103. 57 

102. 09 

101.97 

102.48 

104. 03 

104. 78 

105. 48 

105. 88 

100.47 

100.  17 

10... 

104.79 

104.23 

102. 68 

102.05 

102. 44 

104. 07 

104. SO 

105. 53 

105.  si; 

LO6.50 

100.50 

17... 

104.78 

1(11.21 

102.0s 

102. 01 

102.47 

104.04 

104.  83 

105.58 

105.  92 

100.50 

100.  II 

is... 

104.83 

101.21 

102.05 

102.13 

•102.47 

104.07 

104.78 

105.57 

100.  08 

106.  57 

106.  II 

19... 

1111. si 

KM.  10 

108.26 

102.01 

102.10 

102.59 

101.10 

104.78 

105.57 

106. 14 

100.51 

L06.89 

20... 

mi. '.17 

101.11 

103.  30 

102.55 

102.  11 

102.05 

104.25 

104. 78 

105. 58 

106.15 

100.  41 

106.41 

21... 

101.90 

101.  OS 

103. 33 

102.59 

102.15 

102.70 

101.17 

104.82 

105.65 

100. 13 

100.  02 

106.37 

22... 

L04.82 

101.01 

103. 14 

102.56 

102.43 

102.91 

104.25 

104.88 

105. 71 

100.21 

100.50 

106.82 

23... 

104.73 

101.00 

103.27 

102.5;', 

102.-10 

102.97 

104.23 

104.77 

105.60 

106.28 

100. 37 

•J  1 . . . 

KlI.C! 

101.0s 

103.  29 

102.45 

102.51 

103.01 

104.32 

101.  so 

105.74 

100.30, 

L06.89 

25. . . 
26... 

101.71 
104.70 

101.01 

104.06 

103.  30 

102.99 

102.43 

lo'j.  U 

102.57    103.09 
102.55    10:!.  01 

101.33 
104.35 

101.  SI 
101.7s 

105.72 
1O5.0S 

106  :;•", 

106.85 

100. 38 

106.86 

100.  51 

27... 

L04.69 

Hi:;.  91 

103.  19 

102.42 

L02.59    103.  10 

L04.89 

104.88 

105.0,:: 

100.3s 

100.59 

100.29 

28... 

1(11.07 

108.98 

103.  12 

102.37 

L02  56    103.SC 

loi.  16 

104.82 

105.71 

106.84 

10i;.  02 

106.27 

29... 

104.52 

103.  09 

102.33 

in-.  :..    103.42 

104.38 

101.91 

105.70 

100.41 

100.03 

106.88 

30... 

101.64 

103.10 

102. 32 

102.....    103.47 

L04.54 

104.95 

105. 75 

106.41 

100.70 

106.87 

31... 

104.57 

102.97 

102.50 

104.51 

104.90 

106.  38 

106. 44 

JANUARY 
■O    SO 

FEBRUARY 
'O     20 

MARCH 
10    SO 

APRIL 
IO     20 

MAV 

JUNE 
IO     20 

JULY     1  august 

IO    20            10    20 

SEPTEMBER 

OCTOBER 
IO     20 

NOVEMBER 

DECEMBER 
10    20 

IS 

op 

\     1 

r 

\y 

in 

9D 

1 

19 

DO 

1 

FIG.  3— ELEVATION  OF  LAKE  NICARAGUA. 


REPORT    OK    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


135 


Daily  elevations  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  obtained  l>//  averaging  the  daily  elevation  as  indicated 
by  gauges  at  San  Carlos,  Granada,  San  Ubaldo,  ana  Sapoafor  the  year  1899. a 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar.     Apr. 

May.     June.     July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1... 

106.23    105.73 

105.01    104.10 

L03.25    102.41    102.35 

102. 69 

103.35 

103.  16 

L04.37   105.02 

■>... 

106.08   10.V  70 

104. ss   104.03 

103.29.  102.45    102.35 

102.  69 

103.33 

103.41 

101.35    105.  05 

L06.  L9   105.69 

104.85   104.02 

103.31    102.43    102.38 

102. 70 

103.33 

103.46 

104.33    105.09 

1... 

105.97    105.68 

101.90    103.93 

103.19    102.35    102.44    102.66 

103.31 

103. 44 

104.33    105.01 

106.10    105.61 

104.85   103.95 

103.24   102.38   102.  11    102.68 

103. 32 

103. 44 

104.38    105.03 

6... 

106.15    105.68 

104.79   104.01 

103.02,   102.48    102.37    102.69 

103.32 

103.46 

104.37    101.99 

106.00   105.68 

101.92    103.99 

103.09    102.45    102.35    102.71 

103.31 

103. 48 

104.36    104.92 

8... 

106.05    105.66 

104.73   103.94 

103.06   102.53   102.36;  102.  OS 

103.  32 

103. 47 

104.41     104.91 

9... 

106.09    105.56 

104.65'  103.78 

102.97    102.46    102.27    102.61 

103.32 

103. 47 

104.58    104.96 

10... 

loo.  or,   105.58 

104.661  103.86 

102.89!  102.48   102.31    102.64 

103.29 

103. 48 

104.57    101.96 

11... 

106.  OS    105.55 

104.58!  103.82 

102.89   102.68   102.28    102.71 

103. 29 

103.  52 

104.59    104.94 

12... 

106.04    105.61 

104.541  103.69 

102.88    102.47    102.21    102.67 

103. 26 

103. 55 

104.58   104.90 

13... 

106,.  02    105.39 

104. 55 

103. 62 

102.761  102.64    102.24    102.65 

103.24 

103. 57 

104.58    104.89 

14... 

1116.00    105.25 

101.57 

103.  70 

102.74    102.52    102.36    102.6: 

103. 25 

103. 73 

104.  .54    104.91 

15... 

106.01     105.30 

104. 58 

103. 62 

102.72   102.53   102.3s    102.62 

103. 21 

103.89 

101.. 54    104.90 

16... 

105.92    105.40 

104.49    103.59 

102.72    102.56    102.381  102.6c 

103.15 

103. 88 

104.49!  104.91 

17... 

105.98    105.40 

104.45    103.63 

102. 73   102.46   102.33,  102.  58 

103. 14 

103. 86 

104.53   104.89 

18... 

106.09    105.30 

104. 53 

103. 63 

102.72;  102.56   102.36 

102. 63 

103. 17 

103. 80 

104.  54 

104. 86 

19... 

105.99i  105.26 

104.47 

103. 60 

102. 70|  102.50    102.44 

102. 67 

103. 18 

103.81 

104. 58 

104. 78 

20... 

106.04!  105.32 

104. 50 

103.57 

102.61    102.75   102.41 

102.  Si 

103. 36 

103. 84 

104. 58 

104. 82 

21... 

105.92   105.20 

104.44 

103. 48 

102.64,  102.57!  102.54 

102.67 

103. 31 

103. 86 

104. 57 

104. 75 

22... 

105. 93 

105. 17 

104.34 

103. 46 

102.61 

102.501  102.53 

102. 69 

103. 33 

103. 95 

104. 60 

104. 72 

23... 

105. 89 

105. 14 

104.38 

103. 47 

102.  60 

102.42;  102.58 

102. 73 

103. 37 

104. 01 

104. 64 

104. 73 

24... 

105. 78 

105. 18 

191.32 

103. 40 

102. 56 

102.49!  102.56 

102. 80 

103.38 

104.07 

104. 65 

104.71 

25... 

105. 76 

105. 11 

104. 29 

103.37 

102. 52 

102.49!  102.58   102.86 

103.39 

104. 10 

104.70 

104. 63 

26... 

105.  74 

105.19 

104. 23 

103. 33 

102. 56 

102. 46 

102.60   103.07 

103. 45 

104.14 

104. 67 

104.  65 

27... 

105. 74 

105. 02 

104. 15 

103. 3<J 

102. 53 

102. 45 

102.67    103.22 

103. 42 

104. 24 

104. 72 

104. 62 

28... 

105.  75 

104. 89 

104. 20 

103.  32 

102. 57 

102.  36 

102. 68 

103. 22 

103.41 

104. 37 

104. 79 

104. 59 

29... 

105. 72 

104. 19 

103.  32 

102. 42 

102. 43 

102. 08 

103. 27 

103.41 

104.  36 

104. 80 

104. 57 

30... 

105.  71 

104. 17 

103. 24 

102. 43 

102. 44 

102. 71 

103. 31 

103.42 

104. 38 

104. 98 

104. 52 

31... 

105. 75 

104. 19 

102. 35 

102. 73 

103, 29 

104.  39 

104. 53 

a  Jan.  1-23;  San  Carlos  gauge.  Jan.  24-June  17,  average  of  San  Carlos  and  Granada  gauges.  June  18- 
July  15,  average  of  gauges  at  San  Carlos,  Granada,  and  San  Ubaldo.  July  16-Dec.  31,  averages  of 
gauges  at  San  Carlos,  Granada,  San  Ubaldo,  and  Sapoa. 


Daily  elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  obtained  by  averaging  the  daily  elevations  as  indicated 
by  gauges  at  San  Carlos,  Granada,  San  Ubaldo,  and  Sapoafor  the  year  1900. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1... 

104.55 

103. 96 

103. 28 

102. 42 

101. 75 

102. 14 

102. 66 

104.12 

104. 73 

105. 49 

107. 42 

106. 94 

2... 

104. 50 

103.  95 

103. 23 

102. 37 

101.72 

102. 16 

102.  71 

104.10 

104.71 

105. 70 

107.  42 

106. 90 

3... 

104.46 

103.  91 

103.  23 

102.33 

101.69 

102.17 

102. 79 

104. 11 

104. 75 

105. 78 

107. 38 

106. 87 

4... 

104. 43 

103. 92 

103. 17 

102. 28 

101.63 

102. 17 

102. 80 

104.11    104.79 

105. 89 

107. 36 

106. 89 

5... 

104. 44 

103. 92 

103. 09 

102. 27 

101.59 

102. 17 

102. 73 

104.22    104.83 

105. 91 

107.36 

106. 89 

6... 

104. 44 

103. 87 

103. 14 

102. 30 

101.66 

102. 22 

102.  87 

104.31    104.82 

105. 98 

107. 33 

106. 81 

7... 

104.40 

103.85 

103. 12 

102. 27 

101.56 

102. 21 

102. 95 

104.33    104.79 

106. 20 

107.32 

106. 83 

8... 

104. 3s 

103.87 

103. 13 

102. 29 

101.52 

102. 32 

102.  93 

104.32    101.  si 

106. 18 

107. 34 

106. 79 

9... 

104. 42 

103. 80 

103. 09 

102. 25 

101.56 

102. 40 

103. 03 

104.36   104.85 

106. 18 

107. 32 

106. 74 

10... 

104.37 

103. 78 

103.06 

102. 21 

101.53 

102. 48 

103. 21 

104.38   104.84 

106. 20 

107. 30 

106.  78 

11... 

104. 39 

103.  74 

103. 03 

102. 17 

101.50 

102. 48 

103. 33 

104.43   104.83 

106. 31 

107. 35 

106. 79 

12... 

104. 37 

103.  74 

103. 00 

102.16 

101.42 

102. 48 

103. 43 

104.45   104.85 

106. 37 

107.35 

106. 78 

13... 

104.40 

103. 70 

103. 01 

102. 09 

101.47 

102.45 

103. 42 

104.46   104.84 

106. 43 

107. 33 

106. 80 

14... 

104.30 

103. 69 

102.  99 

102,11 

101.48 

102. 48 

103. 58 

104.51    104.81 

106.44 

107. 34 

106. 78 

15... 

104.32 

103. 01 

102. 97 

102. 10 

•101.43 

102.45 

103. 69 

104.48   104.81 

106. 47 

107. 32 

106. 76 

16... 

104.30 

103. 59 

102.92 

102. 09 

101.37 

102. 47 

103.  66 

104.47    104.89 

106.50 

107. 30 

106.  76 

17... 

104.27 

103. 53 

102. 89 

101.94 

101.38 

102. 50 

103. 78 

104.52   104.91 

106. 63 

107. 29 

106. 71 

18... 

104.  28 

103. 52 

102. 82 

101.98 

101.33 

102. 54 

103. 78 

104.51    104.94 

106.  66 

107. 30 

106. 68 

19... 

104. 25 

103. 43 

102.77 

101.97 

101. 35 

102. 56 

103. 89 

104. 48   104.94 

106. 69 

107. 27 

106. 76 

20... 

104.21 

103.  45 

102. 77 

101.94 

101.51 

102. 55 

103.  89 

104.57    105.03 

100.75 

107. 22 

106. 77 

21 . . . 

104.2C 

103. 45 

102. 69 

101.94 

101.41 

102. 60 

103. 97 

104.56,  105.06 

106. 95 

107. 22 

106. 73 

22... 

104.18 

103.42 

102. 07 

101.91 

101.49 

102. 63 

103.  95 

104.62    105.05 

107.07 

107.17 

106.  73 

23... 

104.17 

103.43 

102.67 

101.90 

101.46 

102. 63 

104. 02 

104.65   105.09 

107.24 

107. 16 

106. 71 

24... 

104. 10 

103.51 

102.  02 

101.87 

101. 48 

102. 67 

103.  99 

104.66    105.14    107.32 

107. 12 

106.69 

25. . . 

104.18 

103. 41 

102.62 

101.85 

101.58 

102. 61 

104.03 

104.62    105.17 

107. 37 

107. 12 

106.  69 

26... 

104.16 

103.29 

L02.66 

101.86 

101.72 

102. 63 

104.05 

104.71    105.19 

107. 37 

107. 11 

106.67 

27... 

104. 12 

103. 35 

102.  61 

101.85 

101.87 

102. 60 

104.04 

104.70    105.18 

107. 42 

107.05 

106.61 

28... 

104.10 

103. 28 

102.  73 

101.80 

101.87 

102. 65 

104. 05 

104.70   105.20 

107.  41 

107. 05 

106. 63 

29... 

104. 00 

102.  51 

101.75 

101.99 

102. 64 

104.04 

104.72   105.32 

107.41 

107. 03 

106. 64 

30... 

103, 90 

102.  52 

101.75 

102. 09 

102. 53 

104. 09 

104.73:  105.43 

107. 39 

106. 99 

106. 63 

31... 

103. 99 

102.45 

102. 12 

104. 09 

104.75 

107. 39 

106. 59 

130 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


List  of  discharge  measurements  made  on  Frio  River. 


Date. 


Hydrographer. 


1899. 

Mar.  12 
Mar.  18 

.Mar.  27 
Apr.  4 
Apr.  15 
Apr.  27 
Mav  6 
Mav  17 
May  IS 
June  16 
July  10 
Sept.  ll 
Sept.  17 
Oct.  2 
Nov.  1 
Nov.  21 
Dec.  12 
Dec.  15 
Dec.  23 
Dec.  31 

1900. 

Jan.  2 

Jan.  18 

Jan.  31 

Feb.  12 

Mar.  4 

Mar.  10 

Mar.  24 

Apr.  2 

Apr.  10 

Apr.  17 

Apr.  30 

Mav  12 

May  28 

June  21 

July  13 

July  29 

Aug.  12 

Aug.  26 

Sept.  5 


H.C.Hurd 

....do 

H.  H.  Morrin  . . . 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

C.  Hayman 

A.  Ahrling 

....do 

W.W.Schlecht. 

....do 

II.  W.  Durham  . 

....do 

....do 

H.G.  Heisler... 

....do 

....do 

....do 


Meter  number. 


Gauge 
height. 


B.  B.,No.l 

do 

do 

....do 

Ellis,  No.  1 

....do 

do 

B.and  B.,No.l 
Price, No. 63  ... 
Price, No. 93  ... 

....do 

Price,  No.  34  ... 

....do 

....do 

....do 

do 

Price,  No. 93  ... 

do 

do 

do 


H.  G.  Heisler Price,  No.  93 

H.  S.  Reed Price,  No.  63 

C.  Hayman do  . 

do do 

H.  C.  Hurd Price,  No.  34  . . . 

C.  Hayman do 

do Price,  No.  63  . . . 

H.O.  Hurd Price,  No. 35  ... 

C.  Hayman Price,  No.  63  . . . 

do do 

do do 

do do 

do do 

H.G.  Heisler B.  and  B.,  No.  1 

do do 

do do 

do do 

do do 

do do 


Fn  t. 
5.17 
5.  75 
4.75 
4.32 
4.07 
3.71 
3.40 
3.40 
6.45 
2.16 
2. 02 
3.15 
5.80 
10.00 
9.85 
12.83 
11.00 
10.81 
10.85 
10.89 


10.93 
9.85 
9.45 
8.70 
8.20 
7.82 
7.78 
7.45 
7.31 
6.54 
6.79 
6.58 
7.70 
8.45 
9.64 
11.52 
10.76 
10.42 
11.39 


Area  of       Mean  Dis- 

section,   velocity,    charge. 


Sq.  feet.   Ft. 

2, 913 
2, 320 
1,690  I 
1,788 
1,920 
1,704 

1 ,  666 
1,632 
2,021 
2, 638 
2, 013 
2, 685 
2, 647 
2, 658 

2,  438 
2,911 
2,980 
2,  960 
2,980 
2,  980 


2, 950 
2,658 
2,641 
2,460 
2,174 
2,286 
2,275 
2,187 
2, 181 
2,  640 
2,092 
2, 07". 
2,210 
2,383 
2, 818 
2,918 
2, 881 
2,792 
3.009 


rsee. 

Sic.  feet. 

0.79 

2,314 

.79 

1,837 

.68 

1,154 

.74 

1,323 

1.47 

2,  si" 

.73 

1,238 

.42 

TUT 

.74 

1,202 

.67 

1,364 

1.33 

3,508 

1 .  36 

2,716 

1 .  60 

4,262 

1.61 

4,264 

2.00 

5, 312 

.90 

2,203 

2.  76 

s,  038 

1.96 

5,  S49 

1.71 

5,  468 

1.95 

o,  ,SU9 

2.20 

6, 584 

2. 13 
1.58 
.87 
.60 
.60 
.65 
.72 
.34 
-) 
.52 

') 
.30 
1.87 

1.57 
1.82 
2.  44 
1.98 
1.78 
2.  02 


6, 294 

4,213 
2, 299 
1,478 
1,363 
1,489 
1,645 
742 
(») 
1,065 

C) 
637 

4. 126 

3, 757 
5,140 
7, 145 
5, 705 
5,018 
6, 147 


aNo  current. 

List  of dischargi  measurements  to  determine  the  dry  season  inflow  to  Lake  Nicaragua,  1900. 

[Made  by  J.  Oscar  Jones  and  Charles  Hayman.] 


Date. 

Area  of 

section. 

Mean 
velocity. 

Dis- 
eh'arge. 

Feb.  12 

Feb.  25 
Mar.  14 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  30 
Apr.     3 
Apr.   14 
Apr.    18 
May     4 
May    12 
Mav    17 
Mav    31 
Feb.   11 
Feb.  24 
Mar.  13 
Mar.  29 
Apr.     4 
Apr.    14 
Apr.    18 
Mav     3 
Mav    11 
Mav    17 
Mav    30 
Feb.    n 
Feb.   23 

Sq.  ft. 

11 
12 

8 
8 
6 
6 
5 
5 
4 
5 
1 

58 

16 
11 
9 

I 
7 
6 
6 
6 
7 
6 
27 
5 
4 

Ft.  per  sec. 

0.91 

.S3 
1.16 
1.14 
1.06 
1.16 
1.17 
1.  17 
1.06 
1.13 

1.  11 

2.  07 
1.  11 
1.  IS 

l.os 
l.ls 
1.30 
1.34 
1.32 
LOT 
1.  is 
1.16 
2.36 
.27 
.29 

Sec.  ft. 

10 

Do 

9 

Do 

10 

Do 

9 

Do 

6 

Do 

7 

Do 

6 

Do 

6 

Do 

4 

Do 

6 

Do 

4 

Do 

121 

IS 

Do 

18 

Do 

10 

Do 

s 

Do 

9 

Do 

S 

Dm                   

8 

Do  . .                      

6 

Do  . . .                    

s 

Do  . . .             

7 

Do  . . .                             

62 

2 

1 

REPORT    OK    TIIK    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


137 


list  of  discharge  measurements  to  determine  the  dry  season  inflow  to  Lake  Nicaragua, 

1900 — Continued. 


Date. 

Area  of 
section. 

Mean 
velocity. 

Dis- 
charge. 

Guajinequil  River— Continued. 

Do 

Mar.    12 
Mar.    18 
Mar.  28 
May    29 
Feb.     -1 
Feb.    12 
Feb.   18 
Mar.  12 
Mar.   14 
Mar.  30 
Mar.  30 
Mar.  30 
Apr.     3 
Apr.    15 
Apr.   17 
Apr.   22 
Apr.   24 
May     4 
May   15 
May  16 
May  16 
May  25 
May  31 
Feb.     9 
Feb.  22 
Feb.  28 
Feb.     9 
Feb.  11 
Feb.  21 
Feb.  26 
Mar.  13 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  29 
Apr.     4 
Apr.   14 
Apr.   18 
May     3 
May  11 
May   17 
May  30 
Feb.     1 
Feb.     4 
Feb.  20 
Feb.  21 
Mar.    4 
Mar.    7 
Mar.  24 
Apr.     9 
Apr.  23 
Apr.   27 
May  23 
Feb.   11 
Feb.  25 
Mar.  13 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  29 
Apr.     3 
Apr.   14 
Apr.   18 
May     4 
May   11 
May  17 
May  31 
Feb.     4 
Feb.   18 
Mar.  12 
Mar.  15 
Mar.  30 
....do... 

Sq.ft. 

4 

4 

2 

4 

212 

2  Hi 

166 

129 

116 

73 

67 

73 

83 

52 

52 

57 

62 

45 

94 

87 

81 

70 

193 

4 

3 

Ft.persec. 

.44 

.42 

.  52 

1.00 

1.32 

.85 
1.16 
1.-07 
1.16 
1.26 
1. 16 
1.10 
1.56 
1.27 
1.24 
1.35 
1.37 
1.13 
1.66 
1.30 
1.22 
1.32 
2.16 
.44 
.40 
0 
0 

2.34 

.46 

2.40 

2.35 

2.30 

2.02 

1.46 

1.39 

1.42 

1.40 

1.39 

1.27 

2.34 

.95 

.81 

.82 

.52 

.77 

.75 

.75 

.74 

.72 

.71 

1.70 

1.87 

1.69 

1.85 

2.00 

1.86 

1.81 

1.66 

1.65 

1.61 

1.72 

1.74 

2.84 

1.26 

1.06 

1.01 

.65 

.78 

.71 

.72 

.53 

.50 

.69 

.98 

.72 

1.03 

.53 

.46 

.57 

.44 

.38 

.49 

1.11 

Sec.  ft. 

z 

Do 

Do                                 

1 

Do                                    

4 

282 

Do 

209 

Do                                 

193 

Do    

138 

Do                                              

134 

Do  . . .            

93 

Do                                   

7s 

Do 

81 

Do  . .                           

129 

Do                               

67 

Do                   

65 

Do                               

76 

Do                                              

85 

Do  . .                   

51 

Do  . .                             

156 

Do                                               

114 

Do  . . .                      

99 

Do                                   

92 

Do  . .       

417 

2 

Do 

1 

Do                                                       

0 

0 

53 
108 

49 

30 

27 

17 

38 

35 

34 

29 

33 

35 

81 

42 

40 

47 

40 

44 

42 

40 

38 

40 

40 

56 

37 

32 

24 

21 

23 

23 

21 

21 

15 

19 

16. 

92 

880 

440 

385 

144. 6 

337 

1,119 

1,237 

1,047 

1,069 

977 

989 

24 

11 
9 

3 
3 
2 
1 
19 

124 

Do  .                                                            

50 

Do 

117 

Do  . .                                           

71 

Do                                                       

61 

Do  . .                                       

35 

Do  .  :                                                        

55 

Do  . . .                

49 

Do  . .                                                                 

49 

Do 

40 

Do  . .                               

46 

Do                                                          

44 

Do 

190 

Ochomogo  River 

Do 

40 
33 

Do  . .                                     

39 

Do 

21 

Do 

34 

Do  . . .                                                   

32 

Do 

30 

Do  . . .            

28 

Do 

29 

Do  .   .             

28 

Do 

95 

69 

Do 

55 

Do 

15 

Do 

42 

Do  . . .                          

42 

Do 

41 

Do 

34 

Do 

34 

Do  . . .                      

24 

Do 

34 

Do 

27 

Do 

262 

1,113 

Do 

476 

Do 

389 

Do 

941 

Do 

262 

Do 

790 

Do 

Mar.  31 
Apr.   22 
Apr.   24 
Mav   17 
May  26 
Feb.   11 
Feb.  23 
Mar.  12 
Mar.  18 
Mar.  28 
Apr.     4 
Apr.   13 
Mav     2 
Mav  29 

893 

Do 

552 

Do 

539 

Do 

674 

Do 

966 

Puehlo  River 

17 

Do 

12 

Do 

5 

Do 

3 

Do 

2 

Do 

1 

Do 

.60 

Do 

2 

Do 

21 

138 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


List  of  discliarge  measurements  to  determine  the  dry  season  inflow  to  Lake  Nicaragua, 

V.tOO— Continued. 


Date. 

Area  of 
section. 

Mean 
velocity. 

Dis- 
charge. 

Feb.   11 
Feb.   21 
Mar.   13 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  29 
Apr.     4 
Apr.    11 
Apr.   18 
Mav     3 
Mav    11 
May   17 
Mav   30 
Feb.    14 
Feb.   27 
Mar.  12 
Mar.  19 
Mar.  28 
Apr.     5 
Apr.    13 
Apr.    19 
Mav     2 
Mav    10 
Mav   18 
Mav   29 
Feb.    12 
Feb.   25 
Mar.   13 
Mar.   17 
Mar.  30 
Apr.     3 
Apr.    14 
Apr.   18 

Sq.ft. 

41 
34 
31 
28 
28 
25 
22 
21. 
21 
29 
24 
86 
146 
99 
81 
75 
45 
42 
40 
39 
41 
40 

Ft.  per  sec. 

1.07 

1.20 

1.35 

1.30 

1.36 

1.42 

1.50 

1.40 

1.50 

1.67 

1.22 

2.58 

.54 

.53 

.66 

.71 

1.21 

1.19 

.  22 

1.24 

1.20 

1.20 

Sec.  ft. 

u 

41 

42 

Do                          

37 

Do                               

38 

Do     .               

35 

Do  . . .            

33 

Do     .               

30 

Do        *                     

31 

Do                                        

48 

Do                       

30 

Do                               

220 

79 

Do                               

52 

Do                                    

53 

Do                                        

53 

Do                            

55 

Do                                    

50 

Do      .                  

48 

Do                            

49 

Do                                            

49 

Do                                 

48 

Do                                         

102             1.30 

134 

Do                        

276 
9 
6 
5 
4 
4 
5 
4 
4 
4 
5 
3 
21 

88 

55 

53 

3 

159 

10 

9 

5 

12 

2.34 
.90 
.65 
.87 
.83 
.80 
.87 
.79 
.  77 
.71 
.  92 
.87 

2. 05 
.  32 
.  16 
.30 

2.  til 
.  82 
.71 
.63 
.39 
.18 

660 

8 

Di  i                                             

4 

Do                        

6 

Do 

4 

Do    

3 

Do                      

4 

Do                               

3 

Do                                 

8 

3 

Do                           

Mav    12 
Mav    17 
Mav   31 
Mar.    3 
Mar.  21 
Apr.    13 
Mav      1 
Mav    22 
Feb.   n 
Feb.  24 
Mar.   13 
Mar.  is 
Apr.     4 
Apr.    14 
Apr.    18 
Mav    11 
Mav    is 
Maj    30 

Feb.      8 
Feb.      2 
Feb.    16 
Mar.    7 
Apr.   19 
Apr.  25 
Apr.   26 
Apr.   26 
Max     18 
Mav    11 
Mav   16 

4 

3 

Do                                 

44 

28 

25 

16 

Do                     

9 

131 

/ 

6 

2 

2 

1               .44 
4               .49 
4               .49 

2 

2 

2 

5 

7 

28 

91 
221 

192 

284 

.64 

.79 
1.97 

.  52 
'J.  B8 
2.  67 
1.  16 

4 

5 

55 

47 
636 

513 

Do                            

412 

413 

1.3] 

515 

115            2.  (6 
258            1.08 

283 

278 

379 
162 
37] 
268 

1 .  32 
3.07 
1 .  22 
1.33 

501 

Do                                        

196 

154 

;;.>7 

Estimated  monthly  flow  into  Lake  Nicaragua  in  excess  of  evaporation. 


Month-; 


Stored  in 
lake. 


outflow. 


Net  inflow. 


is'.is.  Acre-feet. 

January  4-31,  inclusive 666,  ioo 

February  1,218,600 

March  .'. 1,827,800 

April 1,237,600 

Mav I      342.700 

June 1-1,840,900 

July H.980,200 

A  UgUSt +      s";-  sl"' 

3eptember "  ■■•"'   


Act 

I    i. 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

I, 
•    I. 

i 


i  -I'nt. 

082,  100 

928,800 

863,600 

724,  nut 

723,  300 

841,600 

190,900 

202,200 

313,600 


+  l.( 
'    2, 
I    8, 

'  I 
+ 


■1  -flit. 

Sec.  feet. 

366,1 

294,800 

5,310 

964,200 

15,680 

513,500 

8,680 

066,000 

I  17,310 

688,500 

I  15,200 

171, 100 

1  51,570 

059,000 

!  33,  190 

817,800 

f  17,850 

JA 

MUA 

pry 

3 

•Z 

3RUARY 

O     20 

M 

ARCH 

o    20 

1 

kPRIL 

O     20 

MAY 

10   ao 

JUNE 

10     20 

JULY 

10     20 

AUGUST 

IO     20 

SEPTEMBER 

IO     2® 

OCTOBER 

10    2o 

MOVEMBER 

XCEMBCR 





•1 8 

98 

■ 

15 



" 



«' 

P*, 

9> 

P 

^ 

11 



^ 

r/ 

j£ 

£S 

< 



■r 

£ 
^ 

t^ 

^ 

10 

K 

l( 

' 

l( 

l( 

18 

99 

' 

1 

OS 

1 

r^1 

^ 

1 

ri 

605 

•,?>/ 

< 

£ 

f>r^ 

3^ 

55 

J^l 

19 

00 

<C" 

*, 

•i 

p> 

$? 

3^ 

#; 

■^0 

kW" 

g>>» 

^1 

-  /~ 

FIG.  4.— ELEVATION  OF  LAKE   NICARAGUA  IF  ALL  WATER   HAD  BEEN   HELD  BY  A  DAM. 


KKl'ORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


139 


Estimated  monthly  flow  into  Lake  Nicaragua  in  excess  of  evaporation — Continued. 


Month. 


October... 
November 
December. 


1898. 


Total  for  1898 


January 

February  . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September . 

October 

November  . 
December.. 


The  year . 


January... 
February.. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 
October . . . 
November 
December. 


The  year +3, 922, 240  i   +13, 404,  271 


Stored  in 
lake. 


Acre-feet. 

+  1,199,500 
+  009, 300 
-      495, 000 


-2,894,200 


313,760 
637, 440 
332, 800 
808, 800 
094, 560 
171,360 
552, 160 
000, 240 
247,  520 
S40, 880 
123, 360 
856, 800 


-3,636,640 


-1, 
-1, 

-1, 
-1, 

+ 

+ 

+2, 

+1, 

+1, 

+3, 


028, 160 
351,840 
580, 320 
332,800 
704, 480 
780, 640 
970, 240 
256, 640 
294, 720 
731,840 
761,600 
761,000 


Outflow. 


Net  inflow, 


Acre-feet. 

+  1,440,000 
+  1,512,000 
f   1,540,000 


Acre-fret. 
+  2,040,100 
+  2,121,300 
+  1,045,000 


Sec.  feet. 

+  42,900 
+  35,050. 
+  16,990 


+  13,308,100  i   +16,202,300 


+  1,443,254 
+  1,154,774 
+  1,103,500 


890, 008 
788, 584 
+  765, 329 
+  881,716 
+  944, 403 
+  1,021,693 
+  1,115,681 
+  1,211,088 
+  1,250,254 


+  129, 494 
482, 666 

-  229, 300 

-  912, 792 

-  905, 976 
+  930, 089 
+  1,433,870 
+  2,010,703 
+  1,209,213 
+  2,902,501 
+  2,334,448 
+  393, 454 


+ 12, 570, 344 


+  1,083,292 


830, 958 
755,  .503 
062, 205 
071,212 
+  741,117 
+  1,073,149 
+  1,288,735 
+  1,206,473 
+  1,752,367 
+  1,679,231 
+  1,653,969 


8, 939,  704 


+    55, 132 

-  514, 882 

-  824, 817 

-  670, 535 
+  1,375,092 
+  1,521,757 
+  4,043,389 
+  2,545,375 
+  2,501,193 
f  5,484,207 
+  917, 631 
+   892, 369 


+  17,386,511 


+  2,100 

-  8,091 

-  3,729 
-15,341 
-14,735 
+  15,743 
+  23,319 
+  32,537 
+  21,331 
+  48, 179 
4  39,234 
+  6,399 


+      897 

-  9,270 
-13,413 

-  1,295 
+  22,372 
+25,575 
+65,756 
+41,395 
+  43,045 
+  89,189 
+  15,422 
+  14,512 


Elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua  if  all  water  had  been  held  by  a  dam  at  Sabalos,  1899. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1... 

106. 26 

106. 51 

106. 39 

106. 05 

105. 67 

105. 25 

105.  59 

106. 36 

107. 55 

108. 19 

109.  69 

110.98 

2. 

106. 13 

106. 50 

106. 28 

100. 00 

105. 73 

105. 30 

105. 61 

106. 38 

107.  55 

108. 16 

109. 69 

111.03 

3... 

100. 26 

106. 51 

106. 27 

106.01 

105.  76 

105. 29 

105. 65 

106.41 

107.  57 

108. 23 

109. 69 

111.09 

4... 

100.07 

106.  52 

106. 34 

105. 93 

105. 65 

105. 22 

105. 72 

106.39 

107. 57 

108. 23 

109.71 

111.03 

5... 

100.22 

106.51 

106. 31 

105. 97 

105. 72 

105. 27 

105. 71 

106. 43 

107. 00 

108. 25 

109.  78 

111.08 

6... 

100.29 

106. 57 

106. 27 

106. 05 

105. 51 

105. 38 

105. 68 

106. 40 

107.01 

108.28 

109. 79 

111.06 

i . . . 

100. 18 

106. 59 

106.  42 

100. 05 

105. 60 

105. 36 

105. 67 

106. 48 

107. 61 

108. 32 

109. 80 

111.01 

8... 

100. 25 

106.60 

106. 25 

106. 01 

105. 59 

105.45 

105. 69 

106.43 

107. 63 

108. 33 

109. 87 

111.02 

9... 

106.  31 

106. 52 

106.19 

105. 87 

105. 51 

105. 40 

105. 61 

106. 40 

107. 64 

108. 34 

110.06 

111.09 

10... 

106.31 

106.56 

106. 22 

105. 96 

105.44 

105. 43 

105.67 

100. 47 

107. 63 

108. 37 

110.08 

111.11 

11... 

106.  35 

100. 55 

106. 16 

105. 94 

105. 46 

105.64 

105. 66 

106. 56 

107. 65 

108. 43 

110.12 

111.11 

12... 

106. 34 

106.63 

106. 14 

105. 83 

105. 46 

105. 45 

105. 61 

106. 53 

107. 64 

108.48 

110.13 

111.10 

13... 

100.34 

106. 44 

106. 17 

105. 77 

105.35 

105. 64 

105. 65 

106. 52 

107.64 

108.  51 

110. 15 

111.11 

14... 

100.35 

106. 32 

106. 21 

105. 87 

105. 34 

105. 53 

105. 78 

106. 52 

107. 67 

108. 69 

110.13 

111.15 

15... 

100.  3.S 

106. 39 

106. 24 

105. 80 

105.34 

105.65 

105. 81 

100. 52 

107. 65 

108. 87 

110.15 

111.16 

16... 

100.32 

106.51 

106. 17 

105. 79 

105. 35 

105.  60 

105.  83 

106.54 

107. 60 

108. 88 

110.13 

111.19 

17... 

100.41 

106. 53 

106. 14 

105. 84 

105. 37 

105. 51 

105. 79 

106.  51 

107. 60 

108.88 

110.19 

111.19 

18... 

100.55 

106. 45 

106. 24 

105. 86 

105. 38 

105. 62 

105. 83 

106. 57 

107. 65 

108. 84 

110  22 

111.18 

19... 

100.47 

106. 43 

106. 20 

105. 85 

105. 37 

105. 58 

105. 93 

106. 63 

107. 68 

108. 87 

110.28 

111.12 

20. . . 

100.  54 

106.  61 

106. 25 

105.84 

105. 29 

105. 85 

105. 92 

100. 06 

107.  88 

108. 92 

110.30 

111.19 

21. . . 

100.44 

106. 42 

106. 21 

105.  77 

105. 33 

105. 68 

106. 06 

105. 66 

107. 85 

108. 96 

110.31 

111.14 

22... 

100.48 

106.41 

106. 12 

105. 76 

105.  31 

105. 62 

106. 07 

106.  70 

107. 89 

109. 07 

110.30 

111.13 

23... 

100. 47 

106. 40 

106. 18 

105. 78 

105. 32 

105. 55 

106.14 

106. 76 

107. 96 

109. 15 

110.42 

111.16 

24... 

106. 38 

106. 46 

106. 14 

105.  72 

105. 29 

105. 63 

106. 13 

106.85 

107.99 

109. 23 

110.40 

111.16 

25... 

106. 38 

106. 41 

106.13 

105.70 

105. 27 

105. 65 

106. 16 

106.93 

108. 02 

109. 29 

110.53 

111.10 

26... 

106. 38 

106. 51 

106.08    105.68 

105. 32 

105. 63 

106.20 

107. 16 

108. 10 

109.  34 

110.52 

111.14 

27... 

100. 40 

106. 37 

106. 02 

105. 71 

105. 31 

105. 63 

106. 29 

107. 33 

108. 09 

109. 40 

110. 59 

111.13 

28... 

106. 44 

106. 25 

106. 09 

105. 70 

105. 36 

105.56 

106. 33 

107.35 

108. 09 

109. 61 

110. 68 

111.12 

29... 

106.43 

106.09 

105. 71 

105.22 

105. 65 

106. 33 

107. 42 

108. 11 

109. 62 

110.71 

111.12 

30... 

106. 44 

106. 09 

105. 65 

105. 24 

105. 67 

106. 38 

107.48 

108.13 

109. 60 

110.91 

111.09 

31... 

106.51 

100. 13 

105. 18 

106.41 

107. 47 

109.  09 

111.12 

140  REPOKT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Elevation  of  Lake  Nicaragua  if  all  water  had  been  held  by  a  dam  at  Sabalox,  1900. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July.     Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec 

1... 

101.57 

101.5fi    104.33 

103. 83 

103. 52 

104. 25 

105.16   107.19 

108.48 

109.  90 

112.70 

113.16 

2... 

104.  64 

104.50    101.28 

103.79 

103. 51 

104. 28 

105.22    107.19 

108.48 

109. 89 

112.79 

113.15 

3... 

104.52 

104.51    104.30 

103. 76 

103.49 

104. 30 

105.31    107.22 

108.54 

110.14 

112.7s 

113.15 

4... 

104.51 

104.57    104.25 

103. 73 

103. 44 

104.31 

105.34    107.25 

1OS.00 

110.  39 

112.79 

113.20 

r>.. . 

104.  54 

104.59    104.18 

103.  73 

103. 41 

104. 32 

105.29    107.39 

108.66 

110.44 

112.  82 

113.23 

6... 

104.56 

101.50    104.24 

103.77 

103. 49 

104. 38 

105.44    107.51 

108.67 

110.54 

112.82 

113,.  17 

7. . . 

101.51 

104.55    104.23 

103. 75 

103.  10 

104. 38 

105.  .54    107  55 

108.06 

110.79 

112.84 

113.22 

s... 

104. 54 

104.58   lol.  25 

103.  79 

103.37 

104.  51 

105.5*'  107.57 

108.70 

110.  80 

112.89 

113.21 

9... 

104. CO 

104.52    101.22 

103. 76 

103.42 

104.  61 

105.65   107.63 

108. 76 

110.  83 

112.90 

113.19 

10... 

104.57 

104.52   104.21 

103. 73 

103. 40 

104. 70 

105.85   107.67 

108.  77 

110.  88 

112. 91 

113.26 

11... 

104. Gl 

104.50    101.20 

103.  70 

103. 38 

104.71 

105.99    107.74 

108.  78 

111.02 

112.99 

113.30 

VI... 

101.01 

104.52    101.19 

103. 70 

103. 31 

104. 72 

106.11    107.78 

I  OS.  82 

111.11 

113.  02 

113.32 

13... 

104.65 

101.50    1(11.21 

103. 64 

103.  37 

104.  70 

106.12    107.  si 

108. 83 

111.20 

113. 03 

113.37 

14... 

L04.57 

104.50   104.20 

103. 67 

103. 39 

104. 74 

100.  .19    107.88 

108. 82 

111.23 

113.07 

113.37 

1.-,... 

104.01 

104.43   104.19 

103. 68 

103. 35 

104.72 

100.43    107.87 

108.  84 

111.28 

113.08 

113.39 

16... 

104.01 

104.42    104.15 

103. 68 

103. 30 

104.  70 

106.42    107.88 

108.94 

111.34 

113.09 

113.  12 

17... 

101.00 

101.  37    104.13 

103.54 

103.  32 

104.  81 

106.56    107.95 

108.  98 

111.50 

113.11 

113.40 

IS... 

104.63 

L04.38    101.07 

103. 59 

103.28 

104.87 

106. 58 

107. 96 

109. 04 

111.56 

113.15 

113.40 

19... 

104.61 

104.31    104.03 

103. 59 

103. 31 

104. 91 

106. 71 

107. 95 

109. 07 

111.62 

113.15 

113.50 

20... 

104. 58 

104.35i  104.05 

103.  57 

103. 48 

104. 92 

106.  73 

108.06 

109. 19 

111.71 

113.13 

113.54 

21... 

104. 59 

104.37    103.98 

103. 58 

103.  39 

104. 98 

106.  83 

108. 07 

109. 24 

111.95 

113.16 

113.53 

■22... 

104.59 

104. 36 

103. 97 

103.56 

103. 48 

105. 02 

106. 83 

108. 15 

109.25 

112. 11 

113.14 

113.55 

23... 

104.60 

104. 38 

103. 98 

103. 56 

103. 46 

105. 03 

106.  92 

108. 20 

109.31 

112.31 

113.16 

113.56 

24.  . . 

104.61 

104. 48 

103. 94 

103.  54 

103. 49 

105. 09 

106. 91 

108.  23 

109. 38 

112.12 

113.14 

113.57 

■J.".... 

104. 65 

104.39   103.95 

103. 53 

103. 60 

105. 04 

107. 03 

108. 21 

109. 44 

112.50 

113.17 

113.59 

26... 

101.04 

104.28  104.00 

103.  56 

103.  76 

105.07 

107. 01 

1  OS.  3,2 

109.48 

112. 53 

113.19 

113.60 

27... 

104.63 

104.35   103.97 

103.  57 

103. 92 

105. 05 

107. 01 

L08.34 

109. 49 

112.61 

113.16 

113.57 

28... 

104. 63 

104.29   104.10 

103.  53 

103. 93 

105. 11 

107.  04 

108.36 

109.  53 

112. 63 

113.19 

113.62 

29... 

104.55 

103.89 

103.  19 

104. 06 

105. 11 

107. 05 

108. 40 

109.  68 

112. 66 

113.19 

113.65 

30... 

104. 46 

103.91 

103.  50 

104. 17 

105. 02 

107.  12 

108.  11 

109.82 

112.67 

113. 18 

113.69 

31... 

104.56 

103.85 

104.22 

107. 14 

108.48 

112. 70 

113.65 

SAN   JUAN    RIVER. 

The  San  Juan  River  is  the  sole  outlet  of  Lake  Nicaragua  and  its 
tributary  drainage  basin.  Its  total  length  from  the  lake  to  the  sea  is 
122  miles  and  it  is  usually  navigable  for  light-draft  river  steamers. 
It  leaves  the  lake  at  Fort  San  Carlos  at  an  altitude  varying  from  about 
1*7  feet  to  about  110.  Its  course  for  a  distance  of  27  miles  is  through 
a  low  swampy  country,  relieved  by  occasional  hills.  Through  this 
course  the  river  is  sluggish  and  receives  several  tributaries  of  small 
discharge,  which,  in  the  dry  season,  are  practically  still  water.  The 
principal  of  these  are  the  Melchora,  Medio  Queso,  Palo  de  Arco,  and 
Negro.  The  first  tributary  of  importance  to  the  San  Juan  River  is 
tin-  Sabalos,  which  enters  from  the  north  and  empties  27  miles  east  of 
Fort  San  Carlos.  About  half  a  mile  below  the  mouth  of  the  Sabalos 
are  the  first  rapids,  called  "Toro  Rapids/1  These  rapids  are  caused 
by  bowlders  and  gravel,  probably  brought  into  the  river  by  the  Sabalos 
in  former  times,  but  do  not  seriously  obstruct  navigation  except  in 
times  of  extremely  low  water.  Below  this  point  the  San  Juan  receives 
the  waters  of  a  few  streams,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  Poco  Sol 
and  the  Santa  Cruz.  Ten  miles  below  Toro  Rapids  occur  the  largest 
rapids  on  the  river,  at  Castillo  Viejo.  At  this  point  the  river  falls 
about  .)  feet  in  a  few  hundred  feet,  and  steamers  are  seldom  taken  over 
the  rapids  except  in  high  water.  A  railroad  about  2,000  feet  long  is 
provided  for  the  portage  of  freight  and  passengers  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river. 

Below  Castillo  are  the  Diamond,  Balas,  and  Machuca  rapids,  the 
latter  being  12  miles  from  Castillo.  All  of  these  rapids  admit  the  pas- 
sage of  river  steamers  except  at  extreme  low  water.  Below  Machuca 
there  are  no  more  rapids.  The  river  is  deep  and  sluggish  for  a  dis- 
tance of  about  15  miles  to  the  point  where  it  receives  the  waters  and 


KKl'ORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


141 


sediment  of  the  San  Carlos.  This  river  is  the  largest  tributary  of  the 
San  Juan,  rising  far  to  the  southward  in  the  mountains  of  Costa  Mica, 
and  bearing  such  a  volume  of  sediment  that  a  delta  has  been  built  up 
at  its  mouth  and  from  this  point  to  the  sea  the  San  Juan  is  a  shallow 
stream  with  sandy  shifting  bed.  Twent}r-tive  miles  farther  down  the 
Sarapiqui  empties  into  the  San  Juan  from  Costa  Rica,  being  the  tribu- 
tary next  in  size  to  the  San  Carlos,  and,  like  the  latter,  bearing  large 
quantities  of  sediment  in  times  of  Hood.  Eight  miles  below  the  mouth 
of  the  Sarapiqui  the  San  Juan  assumes  decidedly  the  character  of  a 
deltaic  stream  and  sends  out  a  small  tributary  known  as  the  San 
Juanillo,  which  meanders  through  the  swamps  to  the  northward,  and, 
after  receiving  the  drainage  of  the  Deseado,  reenters  the  San  Juan  1 
miles  above  its  mouth.  Five  miles  below  the  exit  of  the  San  Juanillo, 
or  103  miles  from  Lake  Nicaragua,  the  main  stream  of  the  San  Juan 
separates  into  two  large  distributaries,  the  larger,  called  the  Colorado, 
flowing  eastward  directly  to  the  Caribbean,  and  the  smaller,  or  lower 
San  Juan,  meandering  to  the  northeast  and  finding  its  exit  into  the 
ocean  at  Grey  town.  Between  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  and  the 
lower  San  Juan  another  distributary,  called  the  Taura,  finds  its  way 
from  the  lower  San  Juan  to  the  sea. 

The  principal  obstructions  to  free  navigation  of  light-draft  river 
craft  from  Greytown  to  Fort  San  Carlos  consist  of  the  shoal  character 
of  the  lower  San  Juan,  especially  in  times  of  low  water,  and  of  the 
rapids  lying  between  Machuca  and  the  mouth  of  the  Sabalos.  For 
purposes  of  a  ship  canal  the  river  also  requires  deepening  below  the 
mouth  of  the  San  Carlos  and  between  the  Sabalos  and  Fort  San  Carlos. 

The  only  portion  of  the  river  which  is  suitable  in  its  present  state 
for  a  ship  canal  is  the  part  from  Machuca  to  a  point  a  short  distance 
above  Boca  San  Carlos,  or  about  15  miles  out  of  122,  and  even  here 
some  dredging  must  be  done  and  two  sharp  bends  eliminated  to  permit 
the  safe  passage  of  the  largest  ships. 


Rating  table  for  San  Juan  River  at  Fori  San  Curios. 


Lake     !      Dis- 
height.      charge. 


Fnl. 
9ti.il 
9li.l 
96. 2 
96.  :i 
96.4 
96.  5 
9(1.  6 
96.  7 
96.8 

96.  9 
97.0 
97. 1 

97.  2 
97.:: 
97.  1 
97.5 
97.6 
97.7 
97.8 
97.9 
98.0 
98.1 
98.2 
98.3 
98.4 
98.5 
98.6 
98.7 


Sec.  feet. 
3,000 
3,115 
3,230 
3, 345 
3, 400 
3, 575 
3, 690 
3,810 
3,930 
4,050 
4,170 
1,290 
I.  Ill) 
4,535 
4.660 
1,785 
4,910 
5,035 
5,160 
5,290 
5,  120 
5,  550 

5,680 
5, 810 
5,945 
6,080 
6,215 
6, 350 
6,490 


Lake  Dis- 

height.      charge. 


Feet. 
98.9 
99.0 
99.1 
99.2 
99.3 
99.4 
99.5 
99.6 
99.7 
99.8 
99.9 
100.0 
100.1 
100.2 
100.3 
100.4 
100. 5 
100.6 
100.7 
100.8 
100.9 
101.0 
101.1 
101.2 
101.3 
101.4 
101.5 
101. (1 
101.7 


Sec.  feet. 
6,630 
6,770 
6,910 
7,050 
7,190 
7,330 
7, 475 
7,620 
7,770 
7, 920 
8,070 
8,220 
8, 375 
8,530 
8.6S5 
8,840 
8, 995 
9, 155 
9,315 
9, 475 
9,635 
9,  795 
9, 958 
10,115 
10,280 
10, 450 
10.  625 
10,800 
10,975 


Lake 

Dis- 

'•    Lake 

Dis. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feel. 

101.8 

11,150 

104.7 

18,  350 

101.9 

11,325 

101. s 

18, 675 

102.0 

11,500 

104.9 

19, 000 

102. 1 

11, 675 

105. 0 

19, 325 

102. 2 

11,850 

105. 1 

19,650 

102.  3 

12,  025 

105.2 

19,  980 

102.  1 

12, 215 

105.3 

20, 310 

102.  5 

12, 400 

105.  4 

20, 680 

102.  6 

12,590 

105.  5 

21,055 

102.  7 

12, 780 

105. 6 

21.435 

102.S 

13, 000 

105. 7 

21,815 

102. 9 

13, 220 

105. 8 

22, 195 

103.0 

13, 450 

105. 9 

22, 595 

103.1 

13, 680 

106.0 

22, 995 

103.2 

13, 910 

106.1 

23, 395 

103.3 

14, 140 

106.2 

23, 795 

103.4 

14,410 

106.3 

24, 195 

103.5 

14, 680 

106.4 

24, 790 

103.6 

14, 950 

106.5 

25,  490 

103.7 

15,  220 

106.6 

26, 290 

103.8 

15,490 

10C.  7 

27, 600 

103.9 

15, 760 

106.8 

27, 920 

104.0 

16,080 

106.  9 

28,240 

104.1 

16, 400 

107.0 

28, 560 

104. 2 

16, 725 

106.1 

28,880 

104.3 

17,050 

107.2 

29, 200 

104.4 

17, 375 

io7.:; 

29,550 

104.5 

17,700 

107.4 

29, 900 

104.6 

18, 025 

107.  5 

30,250 

142 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


SAN    JUAN    RIVER   ABOVE    LOS    SABALOS. 

A  record  has  been  kept  of  the  discharge  of  the  river  at  this  point 
ever  since  January,  1898.  The  station  used  during  1898  and  a  portion 
of  1899  was  found  objectionable  in  some  respects,  especially  showing 
evidence  at  times  of  being  affected  by  high  water  in  the  Sabalos  River, 
which  enters  the  San  Juan  half  a  mile  below.  In  October,  18!)! t,  a 
gauge  was  placed  farther  up  the  river  at  the  mouth  of  an  insignificant 
tributary  called  Farina.  The  discharge  at  this  point  is  the  same  as  at 
that  previously  occupied,  there  being  no  tributaries  between.  This 
gauge  was  connected  with  the  bench  mark  of  the  precise  levels  show- 
ing the  zero  of  the  rod  to  be  at  elevation  90.794  feet  above  sea  level.. 

In  October,  1899,  a  gauge  rod  was  placed  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
San  Juan  one-half  mile  below  the  east  end  of  Isla  Grande,  near  station 
121  of  the  river  survey.  The  zero  of  this  is  95.29  feet  above  sea  level. 
Occasional  readings  were  taken  of  this  gauge  when  convenient  to 
compare  with  those  observed  at  Los  Sabalos  for  determining  the  slope 
of  the  river  between  the  gauges.  Eight  cross  sections  were  measured 
between  these  points  at  known  gauge  heights,  by  Mr.  H.  C.  Hurd, 
showing  the  average  cross  section  of  8,714  square  feet  with  the  Isla 
Grande  gauge  rod  at  4.9.  Cross  section  No.  3,  which  occurs  just  above 
Isla  Chica,  a  mile  below  the  upper  slope  rod,  gives  an  area  of  8,799 
square  feet. 

Daily  gauge  height  of  San  Juan  River,  Isla  Grande,  1900. 


Month. 

Day. 

Feet. 

Month. 

Day. 

Feet. 

Month. 

Day. 

Feet. 

11 

20 

4 

13 
3 
4 
7 
10 
14 
16 
17 
18 
2 
10 
11 
12 
II 
15 

it; 

18 
19 

6.37 
6.20 
5.99 
5.06 
4.60 
4.65 
4.55 
4.50 
4.50 
4.41 
4. 26 
4.20 
4.28 
4.15 
4.05 
4.07 
4.15 
1.07 
4.12 
4.10 
4.05 

21 
22 
23 
25 
26 
28 
29 
31 
1 
•j 

i 

.> 
6 

7 
8 
9 
12 
13 
11 
15 

4.12 
4.05 
4.02 
4. 22 
4.28 
4.72 
4.90 
1.72 
4.60 
4.71 
4.74 
4.90 
4.87 
4.90 
5. 12 
5.09 
4.95 
4.98 
4.93 
4.92 

21 

22 

3 

8 

13 

14 

19 

20 

21 

27 

31 

3 

8 

13 
Hi 

24 

31 

1 
1 
3 

5.07 

Do.   . 

Do 

Do 

5.15 

Do 

July 

5.30 

March 

Do 

Do 

6.02 

Do 

Do 

6.61 

Do... 

Do 

Do 

6.32 

Do... 

Do 

Do 

6.65 

Do.. 

Do... 

Do 

6.44 

Do... 

Do 

6.41 

Do. 

Do 

Do 

6.21 

Do... 

Do 

Do 

6. 52 

Do... 

Do 

6.95 

Do... 

Do 

7.06 

Do 

Do 

Do 

6.65 

Do 

Do... 

Do 

6.61 

Do... 

Do... 

Do 

6.  76 

Do 

Do... 

Do 

September 

October 

December 

(i.  ST 

Do 

Do... 

C.  85 

Do... 

Do... 

8.  •_'■'< 

Do 

Do 

s.  |f> 

Ho 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  143 

Daily  gauge  height  of  San  ■hunt  River  at  Los  Sabaloe  Station,  1899. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

i  Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1.... 

10.82 

10. 32 

9.  90 

3.36 

8.88 

8.43 

8.81 

8.80 

9.41 

9.  12 

9.76 

10. 31 

i  — 

10.79 

10. 31 

9.90 

9.  30 

s.  ss 

8.45 

8.  98 

9.00 

9.37 

9.58 

9.77 

10.27 

10.70 

10.29 

9. 85 

9.  25 

8.  87 

8.  43 

8. 89 

S.89 

9.37 

9.47 

9.79 

10.14   J 

l 

10.71 

10. 26 

9.  85 

9.17 

8.90 

8.43 

8.90 

8.85 

9.33 

9.51 

9. 84 

10. 20 

10.76 

10. 22 

9. 85 

9.19 

8.86 

8.41 

8.63 

S.90 

9.  25 

9.  11 

9.95 

10.16 

6 

10.75 

10. 27 

9.80 

9. 22 

8.78 

8.46 

8. 53 

8.90 

9.22 

9.  37 

10.16 

10.  15 

/ 

10.71 

10.27 

9.75 

9.20 

8.  72 

8  53 

8.  55 

S.  S  I 

9.19 

9.  10 

10.11 

10.16 

10.71 

10. 25 

9.70 

9.17 

8. 72 

8.56 

8.  51 

s.  93 

9.19 

9.  32 

10.  OS 

10.14 

10.73 

10.21 

9.70 

9.14 

8. 62 

8.65 

8.53 

9. 05 

9.  21 

9.33 

10.19 

10.17 

in 

10.  79 

10.21 

9. 65 

9.12 

8.62 

8.78 

8.61 

8.91 

9.24 

9.35 

10. 13 

10.19 

n 

10.77 

10.  22 

9. 65 

9.13 

8.62 

8.79 

8.78 

8.S7 

9. 28 

9.42 

10.11 

10.19 

12 

10.83 

10. 26 

9. 65 

9.11 

8.60 

8.78 

8.83 

8.  83 

9.30 

9.56 

10.16 

10. 15 

13 

10.84 

10. 20 

9.65 

9.10 

8.54 

8.78 

8.78 

8.  S3 

9.19 

9. 53 

10. 15 

10.14 

11 

10.76 

10.07 

9. 66 

9.11 

8.  57 

8.69 

9.10 

8.85 

9.15 

9.75 

10.07 

10. 12 

15 

10. 96 

10. 09 

9.60 

9.10 

8.54 

8.71 

9.00 

8.82 

9.14 

10.00 

10.35 

10.  OS 

16 

10.78 

10.09 

9.60 

9.07 

8.54 

8.68 

8.77 

8.  91 

9.08 

9.75 

10.13 

10. 01 

17 

10.75 

10. 12 

9.  55 

9.08 

8.53 

8.64 

8.70 

9.00 

9.  22 

9.95 

10.08 

10.04 

18 

10.71 

10.19 

9.55 

9.09 

8.55 

8.65 

8.70 

9.40 

9.39 

9.72 

10.06 

10.04 

19 

10.64 

10.11 

9.60 

9.09 

8.52 

8.70 

8.73 

9.34 

9.50 

9.  52 

10.  03 

10.04 

20 

10. 59 

10.11 

9.60 

9.04 

8. 52 

8.81 

8.76 

9.  (Hi 

9.  70 

9.49 

10.08 

10.05 

21 

10.  57 

10.08 

9.  55 

9.04 

8.52 

8.72 

9.53 

9.00 

10.  26 

9.56 

9.98 

10.03 

22 

10.58 

10.04 

9. 55 

8.98 

8.45 

8.63 

9.42 

9.10 

10.  85 

9.65 

10.08 

9.99 

10. 56 

10.01 

9. 50 

8.91 

8.49 

8.55 

8.97 

9.22 

11.00 

10. 10 

10.  01 

9.98 

24 

10. 54 

10.00 

9.  15 

8. 85 

8.51 

8.55 

9.05 

9.49 

9.69 

10.11 

10. 05 

9.98 

10.50 

9.97 

9.  45 

8.83 

8.50 

8.56 

9.24 

9.86 

9.50 

9.86 

10.  05 

9.93 

26 

10. 45 

9.98 

9.45 

8.88 

8.48 

8.55 

9.46 

9.98 

9.49 

9.79 

10.07 

9.87 

■-'7 

10.47 

9.95 

9.40 

8.88 

8.46 

8.54 

9. 24 

9.54 

9.37 

9.79 

10.15 

9.87 

28 .... 

10. 43 

9.90 

9.40 

8.87 

8.  45 

8.68 

9.03 

9.49 

9.34 

9.84 

10.11 

9.88 

29 

10.41 

9.40 

8.85 

8.47 

8.69 

8.87 

9.40 

9.37 

9.86 

10.17 

9.88 

30 

10.39 

9.35 

8.82 

8.44 

8.58 

8.89 

9.35 

9.35 

9.84 

10. 24 

9.85 

«.... 

10.34 

9.40 

8.53 

8.82 

9.35 

9.79 

9.85 

Daily  gauge  height  of  San  Juan  River  at  Los  Sabalos  Station,  1900. 


Day. 

Jan. 

1 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1.... 

9.88 

9.45 

8.97 

8.47 

8.16 

8.41 

S.72 

9.88 

10.  21 

11.11 

11. 72 

11.51 

2 

9. 85 

9.43 

8.90 

8.40 

8.18 

8.46 

8.81 

9.85  !  10.20 

11.68 

11.71 

11.45 

3 

9.  S3 

9.39 

8.93 

8.40 

8.11 

8.46 

9.17 

10. 45  !  10. 18 

11.40 

11.74 

11.45 

4 

9.84 

9.43 

8.84 

8.37 

7.99 

8.51 

9.07 

10.78 

10.16 

11.39 

11.71 

11.48 

5 

9.84 

9.41 

8.77 

8.34 

7.87 

8.60 

9.29 

11. 53 

10.18 

11. 28 

11.67 

11.41 

6 

9.80 

9.35 

8.76 

8.31 

7.86 

8.61 

8.99 

10.87 

10.20  i  11.20 

11.68     11.37 

7 

9.  7S 

9.32 

8.74 

8.35 

7.81 

8.61 

9.16 

10.70 

10.18  i  11.40 

11.70 

11.41 

8 

9.78 

9.32 

s.  77 

8.37 

7.86 

8.81 

9.71 

10.46 

10.15  1  11.76 

11.72 

11.40 

9 

9.74 

9.35 

8.77 

8.34 

7.85 

8.77 

9.40 

10. 20 

10.12     11.50 

11.68 

11.45 

10 

9.72 

9.25 

8.80 

8.27 

7.95 

8.76 

9.65 

10. 20 

10.14  i  11.44 

11.69 

11.39 

11 

9.78 

9.25 

8.79 

8.32 

7.92 

8.75 

9.57 

10. 15 

10.20  :  11.31 

11.75 

11.41 

12 

9.  78 

9.26 

8.77 

8.33 

7.93 

8.72 

9.60 

10.10 

10.19     11.27 

11.67 

11.65 

13 

9.74 

9.29 

8.71 

8.26 

7.95 

8.80 

10.21 

10.03 

10. 14     11. 23 

11.60 

11.62 

14 

9.70 

9.24 

8.75 

8.24 

8.02 

8.66 

9.81 

10.26 

10.11     11.21 

11.56 

11.51 

15 

9.70 

9.21 

s.71 

8.18 

8.08 

8.63 

9.66 

10.20 

10.14     11.26 

11.52 

11.42 

16 

9.6S 

9.24 

8.73 

8.19 

8.00 

8.66 

10.61 

10.03 

10.35     11.28 

11.52 

11.  38 

17 

9.71 

9.23 

8.68 

8.10 

8.02 

9.13 

10.18 

9.9. 

10.26  1  11.29 

11.53 

11.36 

IS 

9.07 

9.19 

8.63 

8.09 

7.96 

9.31 

10.07 

9.97 

10.22  1  11.32 

11.52 

11.35 

19 

9.  68 

9.10 

8.  59 

8.14 

7.97 

8.94 

10.07 

10.01 

10.43  1  11.42 

11.53 

11  38 

20 

9.64 

9.12 

8.68 

8.15 

7.97 

8.82 

9.88 

10.02 

10.39  '  11.58 

11.53 

11.36 

21 

9.60 

9.12 

8.52 

8.20 

8.00 

8.77 

9.78 

10.10 

10.32     12.66 

11.54 

11.32 

22 

9.61 

9.10 

S.51 

8.13 

8.00 

8.77 

9.79 

10. 24 

10  52 

12.  75 

11.58 

11.29 

9.59 

9.05 

8.52 

8.15 

7.95 

8.78 

9.S7 

10.14 

10. 52 

12.  41 

11.51 

11. 25 

24 

9.60 

9.13 

8.60 

8.11 

8.01 

8.75 

9.85 

10.14 

10.51 

12. 21 

11.48 

11. 22 

9.58 

9.06 

8.58 

S.  14 

8.06 

8.64 

9.73 

10.16 

10.60 

12.  09 

11.48 

11.20    1 

26 

9.58 

9.01 

8.  58 

8.23 

8.16 

8.63 

9.71 

10.36 

10.59 

11.96 

11.44 

11.14     ' 

2/ 

9.  55 

9.00 

8.57 

8.27 

8.30 

8.67 

9.68 

10.57 

10.  54 

11.87 

11.39 

11.12 

28 

9.57 

8.95 

8.53 

8.17 

8.44 

8.68 

9.72 

10. 45 

10.50  | 

11.81 

11.36 

11.10 

29 

9.53 

8.54 

8.18 

8.49 

8.74 

9.74 

10.30 

10.70  t 

11.79 

11.33 

11.09 

30 

9.50 



8.52 

8.08 

8.47 

8.73 

9.72 

10. 29 

11.14 

11.77 

11.36 

11. 05 

3] 

9.50 

s.40 

8.47 

9.97 

10.20 

1 

11.73 

1 

11.03 

144 


REPORT    <>K    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Rating  table  for  San  Juan  River  at  Los  Sabalos. 

[This  table  is  applicable  only  from  January  1,  1898,  to  December  31,  1899,  and  from  March  l,  1901,  to 

April  30,  1901.] 


Gauge 
height. 

/•;  -  t. 

Discharge. 

ScCOTld  fit  1. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge,  i 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gauge 
height. 

Discharge. 

Ft ■  l. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second  feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

8.0 

11,130 

9.0 

11,710 

10.0 

20, 010 

11.0 

25,  310 

8.1 

11,320 

9.1 

15,240 

10.1 

20,540 

11.1 

25, 840 

8.2 

11,530 

9.  2 

16,  770 

10.2 

21,(170 

11.2 

26, 370 

8.3" 

1 1 , 760 

9.  3 

16, 300 

10.3 

21,600 

11.3 

26, 900 

8.4 

12,040 

9.4 

16, 830 

10.4 

22,130 

11.4 

27, 430 

8.5 

12,380 

9.  5 

17, 360    | 

10.5 

22, 660 

11.5 

27, 960 

8.6 

12,760 

9.  6 

17,890 

10.6 

23, 190 

11.6 

28, 490 

8.7 

13,200 

9.7 

18,  420 

10.7 

23,  720 

11.7 

29, 020 

8.8 

13,680 

9.8 

18, 950     ' 

10.8 

24, 250 

11.8 

29,550 

8.9 

L4,180 

9.9 

19, 480 

10.9 

24, 780 

11.9 

30, 080    : 

[This  table  is  applicable  only  from  January  1,  1900,  to  February  28,  1901.] 


7.7 

10,400 

8.8 

12, 720 

9.9 

18, 840 

11.0 

25,  000 

7.8 

in.  190 

8.9 

13,250 

10.0 

19,  400 

11.1 

25, 560 

7.9 

10,  600 

9.0 

13,800 

10.1 

19,960 

11.2 

26, 120 

8.0 

10,  740 

9.1 

14, 360 

10.2 

20,  520 

11.3 

26, 680 

8.1 

10, 890 

9.2 

14, 920 

10.3 

21,080 

11.4 

27, 240 

8.2 

11,050 

9.3 

15, 480 

10.4 

21, 640 

11.5 

27, 800 

8.3 

11,220 

9.4 

16, 040 

10.5 

22.200 

11.6 

28, 360 

8.4 

11,400 

9.5 

16,600 

10.6 

22. 760 

11.7 

28, 920 

8.5 

11,600 

9.6 

17, 160 

10.7 

23,  320 

11.8 

29,480   ■ 

8.6 

11,900 

9.7 

17,720 

10.8 

23,  880 

11.9 

30, 040 

s.7 

12,280 

9.  8 

18,280 

10.9 

24,440 

12.0 

30, 600 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  San  Juan  River  at  Station  Sabalos. 


Monl  hs. 


1899. 

January  

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

■idly 

August 

September 

i  (ctober 

November 

i  December 

The  year 


Discharge. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Sec.  ft. 
25,  100 
21.720 
19.  ISO 
16,618 
I  I,  121 
13,730 
17,519 
19,904 
25,310 
20,593 
21,865 
21,653 


Mini- 
mum. 


25, 310 


Sec.  ft 
21,810 
19,480 
16,560 
13, 780 
12, 176 
11,942 
12,418 
13, 680 
15,134 
I.'),  169 
111,  135 

17,21:; 


Total. 


Sec.  ft. 
23,  472 
20, 792 
17,946 
15, 658 
12,825 
12, 862 
14, 193 
15, 360 
17, 170 
18,144 
20, 353 
20, 333 


11,942      17,37012,576,344 


Acre-feet. 
1, 443, 254 
1,154,774 

1,103,500 

896, 008 

788, 584 

765, 329 

881,716 

944,463 

1,021,693 

1,115,681 

1,211,  OSS 

1,250,254 


Months. 


1900. 

January  

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. . . 

October 

November . . . 
December  . . . 

The  year 


Discharge. 


Maxi- 


mum,     mum. 


Sec.  ft 
18,943 
16,320 
13,635 
11,540 
12,  588 
15,536 
22,816 
27, 968 
25,  784 
34,800 
29,  200 
28,640 


34,800 


Mini- 


Sec.ft. 

16,600 
13,  800 
1 1 ,  520 
10,407 
10,263 
1 1 . 420 
12,368 
17,649 
19,338 
23,466 
25,  345 

25, 168 


10,  263 


Total. 


Sec.  ft. 

17,618 
15,070 
12,287, 
11,128 
10,916 

12,455 

17,453, 
20,959 
21,283 
28,  199 
28,220 
26,915, 


Acre  feet. 

1,083,292 

836,958 

755,  503 
662,265 

671,212 
711,117 
1,073,  119 
1 . 2SS, 735 
1 , 266, 473 
1,752,367 

1,679,231 

1 . 653, 969 


18,60013,461.271 


CASTILLO    STATION    ON    SAN    JUAN    RIVER. 

Twogauges  were  placed  in  the  San  Juan  River  at  Castillo,  one  above 
the  falls  and  one  below.  The  upper  gauge  was  fastened  to  the  down- 
stream support  of  the  first  building  below  the  steamboat  wharf  above 
the  rapids.  The  lower  gauge  was  fastened  to  the  northeast  corner  of 
the  wharf  at  the  lower  Bodega  below  the  rapids.  The  zero  of  the 
upper  gauge  is  5.65  feet  above  the  zero  of  the  lower.  Mr.  John  S. 
Augustine,  the  agent  at  Castillo,  was  employed  to  read  the  gauges, 
daily  readings  being  taken  of  both.     He  also  kept  a  record  of  rainfall. 

Old  residents  testify  that  on  August  30,  1892,  the  water  reached  an 
elevation  which  would  correspond  to  a  reading  on  the  lower  gauge  of 
11.1.     This  is  marked  on  custom-house  Bodega,  with  date. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


145 


One  year  later,  November  20,  1893,  the  water  came  still  higher, 
being  about 4  inches  over  the  floor  of  custom-house.  This  would  make 
a  rod  reading  of  12.3.  These  rod  readings  correspond  to  the  lower 
gauge  at  the  custom-house. 


Daily  gauge  height  of  San  Juan  Hirer  at  Castillo  above  falls,  1899. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

3.10 
3.10 
3.10 
3.00 
3.00 
3.00 
3.00 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
3.80 
3.80 
3.80 
3.80 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.80 
2.80 
2. 80 
2.80 
2.80 
2.80 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

3.  10 
3.00 
3.00 
2.90 
2.80 
2.70 
2.70 
2.35 
2.30 
2.30 
2.  45 
2.90 
2.80 
2.80 
2.60 
2.60 
2.70 
3.20 
3.20 
3.50 
4.50 
5.70 
5.55 
3.80 
3.50 
3.40 
3.35 
3.30 
3.30 
3.30 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1 

3.80 
3.80 
3.  80 

3.90 

4.00 

4.20 
4.20 
4.90 
4.30 
4.10 
5.00 
5.00 
4.80 
4.20 
4.00 
4.10 
4.00 
3.80 
3.80 
3.70 
3.70 
3.70 
3.80 
3.80 
3.80 
3.80 
3.70 
3.70 
3.70 
3.50 

3.50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.40 
3.40 
3.40 
3.30 
3.30 
3.30 
3.30 
3.50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.40 
3.30 
3.30 
3.30 
3.20 
3.20 
3.20 
3.30 
3.30 
3.30 
3.30 
3.30 
3.00 

2.80 
2.80 
2.70 
2.70 
2.65 
2.70 
2.80 
2.80 
2.80 
2.80 
2.70 
2.80 
2.70 
2.70 
2.60 
2.55 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 

2.40 
2. 20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.00 
2.00 
2. 20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2. 20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.20 
2. 20 
2.20 

2.20 
2. 20 
2.20 
2.20 
2.10 
2.10 
2.10 
2.50 
2.50 
3.00 
2. 50 
3.00 
2.60 
2.10 
2.10 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.10 
2.10 
2.10 
2.10 
2.10 
2.10 
2.10 
2.10 
2.10 
2.50 
2.40 
2.60 

2.40 
2.80 
2.80 
2.80 
2.60 
2.50 
2.00 
2.10 
2.15 
2.70 
3.40 
3.00 
2.80 
3.70 
2.30 
2. 30 
2.30 
2.  75 
2.75 
2.75 
4.00 
3.80 
3.50 
2.50 
2.70 
4.00 
3.35 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.45 

2. 50 
2.90 
2.85 
2.85 
2.90 
2.75 
2.80 
2.70 
2.70 
2.90 
2.60 
2.  55 
2.50 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.80 
3.30 
3.60 
2.95 
2.90 
3.20 
3.10 
3.50 
4.00 
3.60 
3.60 
3.30 
3.20 
3.10 
3.50 

3.05 
3.00 
3.00 
3.30 
3. 10 
2.95 
2.  90 
2.  90 
2.  90 
2.  90 
2.  90 
3.10 
3.00 
3.55 
3.80 
3.30 
3.30 
3.20 
3.00 
2.95 
3.00 
3.00 
3.90 
3.80 
3.25 
3.10 
3.10 
3.05 
3.05 
3.05 
3.05 

3.  00 
3.  00 
3.00 
3.10 
3.  40 
3.70 
3.  (10 
3.60 
3.60 
3.80 
3. 80 
3.30 
3.80 
3.  80 
3.  Ml 
3.70 
3.70 
3.65 
3.65 
3.60 
3.60 
3.55 
3.45 
2.40 
3.40 
3.35 
3.30 
3.30 
3.40 
3.40 

3. 50 
3.50 
3. 55 
3.40 
3.40 
3.30 
3.35 
3.40 
3.  45 
3.50 
3.50 
3.45 
3.40 
3.35 
3.30 
3.20 
3.20 
3.20 
3.  00 
3.50 
3.40 
3.40 
3. 35 
3.30 
3.25 
3.20 
3.20 
3.20 
3.20 
3.00 
3.00 

3 

4 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Daily  gauge  height  of  San  Juan  River  at  Castillo,  above  falls,  1900. 


Dav. 


2.70 
2.70 
2.  75 
2. 75 
2.80 
2.70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2. 50 
2.50 
2. 50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2. 50 
2.40 
2.45 
2.40 


Mar. 


2.40 
2.50 
2.  50 
2.  45 
2.  45 
2.40 
2.40 
2.30 
2.30 
2.30 
2.30 
2.30 
2.20 
2. 15 
2. 15 
2.15 
2.15 
2.15 
2.30 
2.30 
2.30 
2.20 
2. 20 
2. 20 
2.  20 
2.00 
1.80 
1.75 
1.50 
1.30 
.80 


Apr. 


1.00 
1.00 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
1.90 
1.70 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
1.80 
2.00 
2.00 
1.80 
1.80 
1.70 


May. 


1.70 

1.70 

1.70 

1.50 

1.50 

1.30 

1.30 

-.40 

.40 

.40 

.60 

.50 

.50 

.50 

.55 

.55 

.55 

.50 

.50 

.45 

.45 

.45 

.45 

.45 

.50 

.70 

.70 

1.30 

1.00 

1.00 

1.00 


June. 


1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
2.10 
2.30 
1.40 
1.40 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
.95 
.95 
.95 
1.00 
1.00 


July. 


1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.50 
1.50 
1.50 
1.40 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.80 
2.30 
1.70 
2.80 
2.80 
2.30 
2.30 
2.30 
2.10 
2.10 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
1.95 
1.95 
1.95 
1.95 
1.95 
1.95 


Aug. 


2.70 
2.70 
3.85 
5.15 
5.00 
4.85 
3.00 
3.00 
3.00 
3.00 
3.00 
3.10 
3.80 
5. 50 
3.40 
2.40 
2. 25 
2.65 
2.65 
2.60 
2.80 
2.70 
2.30 
2. 35 
2.40 
2.  45 
4.25 
2.70 
3.85 
2.70 
2. 60 


Sept. 


2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
1.90 
1.90 
1.90 
1.90 
1.95 
2. 20 
2.30 
2.35 
2. 35 
2.30 
2. 35 
2.65 
3.00 
3.10 
3.00 
3.00 
3.05 
3.05 
3.15 
3. 25 
3. 35 
3.35 
3. 55 
4.55 
5.  55 


Oct. 


3.60 
3.85 
3.90 
3.85 
3.40 
3.23 
3. 20 
3.60 
3.30 
3.30 
3.20 
3.10 
3.10 
3.00 
2. 85 
3.00 
3.00 
2.90 
3.00 
4.85 
5.10 
4.10 
4.00 
3.90 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
3. 50 
3.50 
3.20 
3.30 


Nov. 

Dec. 

3.20 

2. 80 

3.20 

2.85 

3.25 

2.80 

3.20 

2.  70 

3.20 

2.70 

3.10 

2.70 

3.15 

2.80 

3.15 

2.90 

3.10 

2.90 

3.10 

2.95 

3.10 

3.15 

3.10 

3.  85 

3.10 

3.90 

3.00 

3.70 

3.10 

3.55 

3.10 

3.60  ' 

3.10 

3.  50 

3.10 

3.40 

3.10 

3.  10 

3.10 

3.10 

3.10 

3.00 

3.10 

3.00 

3.00 

3.00 

3.00 

3.00 

3.00 

3.00 

3.00 

3.00 

2.90 

3.00 

2.90 

3.00 

2.80 

3.00 

2.80 

3.00 

3.00 

»New  rod;  elevation  of  zero  = 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 10 


:.63  or  0.90  higher  than  old  rod. 


14(5  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Daily  gaugi  height  of  San  Juan  River  at  Castillo,  below  falls,  1899. 


Dnih/  i/iiiii/r  height  of  Sun  Juan  River  at  Castillo  below  falls,  1900. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Auk. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

5.00 

1.50 
4.50 
1.50 
1. 50 
1. 40 
1.  10 
1.40 
4.35 
4.  35 
4.32 
4.32 
4.42 
4.50 
4.50 
4.50 
4.40 
4.35 
4.30 
4. 25 
1.20 
1.20 
4.20 
4.20 
4.30 
4.30 
4.30 
4.25 
4.00 

3.90 
3.90 
3.90 
3.80 
3.80 
3.80 
3.80 
3.70 
3.70 
3.70 
3.70 
3.70 
3.70 
3.70 
3.70 
3.60 
3.52 
3.50 
3.50 
3. 50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.40 
3.40 
3.40 
3.45 
3.40 
3.40 
3.40 

3.30 
3.30 
3.30 
3.27 
3.25 
3.30 
3.32 
3.35 
3.40 
3.40 
3.30 
3. 35 
3.  30 
3.30 
3. 30 
3.30 
3.30 
3.30 
3.30 
3.30 
3.40 
3.40 
3.40 
3.50 
3.55 
3.50 
3.  50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.50 

3.50 
2.80 
2.80 
2.80 
2.80 
2.80 
2.80 
2.80 
2.80 
2.  80 
2.80 
2.80 
2.50 
2.  50 
2.70 
2.70 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.  60 
2.  60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.  60 
2.  60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 
2.60 

3.05 
3.00 
3.00 
2.  95 
3.00 
3.00 
3.00 
2.90 
2.90 
3.55 
3. 20 
3.60 
3.35 
3.30 
3.15 
2.80 
2.  80 
2.  90 
2.55 
2.  15 
2.  .50 
2.50 
2.50 
2. 50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.  85 
2.80 
3.00 

2. 85 
3.30 
:;.  75 
3.50 
3.40 
3.30 
2.60 
2.  52 

2.  65 
3.02 
3.78 
3.90 
;;.  80 
4.45 
2.90 
2.85 
3.00 
3.30 
3.30 
3.35 

4.25 
3.90 

3.  35 
3.62 
4.65 
4.20 
3.  60 
3.  10 
3.40 
3.30 

3. 15 
3.50 
3. 52 
3.50 
3.60 
:;.  52 
3. 55 
3.70 

3.  98 
3.40 
3.18 
3.02 
3.00 
3.50 
3.00 
3.05 
3. 50 
5.10 
5.  12 
3.50 
3.60 
4.20 
4.05 
4.60 
5.25 
5. 05 
4.72 

4.  25 
4.00 
3.85 
3.82 

3.90 
3.  60 

3.00 
3.50 
3.50 
3.  40 
3.40 
3.  42 
3.40 

3.  40 
3.50 
3.50 
3.40 
3.40 
3.20 
3.20 
3.50 
4.15 

4.  00 
4.50 
6.15 
7.30 
6.  55 
I.  70 
4.48 
4.40 
1.20 
4.20 
4.  20 
4. 20 

4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.20 
3.90 
3.50 
3.55 
3.45 
:;.  id 
:;.  in 
3.50 
3.90 
3.70 
1.75 
4.98 
1.00 
1.00 
3.90 
3.  75 

3.70 
3.  60 
3.  72 
...  in 
4.95 

1.35 
4.00 

1.00 
4.00 
3.90 
3.90 
3.90 

3.80 
3.95 

3.  75 
3.90 
1.3S 
4. 95 
4.90 
4.80 
4.80 
5.00 
5.30 
5.  92 
5.02 
5.00 
5.00 
4.95 

4.  95 
4.90 

I.SO 

4.70 
1.  65 
4.60 
1.  45 
4.30 
4.30 
4.30 
1.20 
4.20 
4.10 
4.10 

1.50 
4.50 

4.50 
1.38 

4.40 
1.30 
1.38 
1.  40 
4.40 
4.50 
4.50 
4.42 
4.40 
4.  3s 
4.20 
4.25 
4.  22 
4.20 
4.  50 
4.62 
4.40 
1.  42 
4.30 
1.30 
4.30 
1.20 
4.20 
4. 20 
1.20 
4.05 
1.05 

2 

3 

5.00 
5.00 
5.15 

5 

6 

5.  25 

5.45 

5.30 

9 

10 

5.60 
5.50 

12 

13 

5.  85 
6.30 
6.20 
5.  85 
6.00 

14 

15 

16 

21... 

4.20 
4.20 

4.80 
t.80 

1.80 

4.80 
4.  75 
4.75 
4.70 
4.50 

22 

24... 

25 

26 

27... 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Day. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

A  (IK. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dee. 

1 

•  > 

3 

4 

5 

3.30 

3.30 

3.30 

3.30 

3  30 

3.  25 

2.  Ml 
2.  60 
2. 60 
2  60 

2. 20 
2.  10 
2.  05 
2.05 
''   III! 

1 .  85 
1.80 
1.80 
1.60 

1 .  10 
1.3(1 

1.30 

1.30 
•1.65 
1.95 

1.75 
1.70 
1.70 
1.80 
1 .  85 
1 .  85 
1.80 
1.80 
1.75 
1.75 
1.75 
1.75 

1 .  75 
1.80 
2.00 

2.20 

2.  9(1 
2.70 
2.70 
2.  70 
2.70 

2.  70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.  70 
2.  70 
2.70 
2. 70 
2.  70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.  70 
2.  70 
3.00 
1.70 
3.00 
3.00 
2.  70 
2.70 
2.70 
2.  70 
2.  70 

■1. 65 

2.  65 
2.  70 
2.70 

2.  70 

2.  70 

2.  70 
2.70 
3.20 
3.20 

3.  20 
1.20 
4.20 
1.20 
1.20 
1.20 
5.  .50 
4.60 
4.00 
5.50 
5.  50 
4.60 
1.60 
4.60 
4.40 
4.40 
4.60 
1.20 
1.20 
1.20 

3.95 

3.  05 
3.  05 

8.95 
3.96 

3.05 

3.85 
3.85 
5.60 

6.  (HI 
5.  75 

5.  35 

1.85 

4.70 
4.70 
1.70 
l.so 
1.80 

5.10 

6.  75 
4.36 
1.  45 
1.50 

4.90 
4.60 
4.40 

1.  ."HI 

4.65 

4.65 
4.65 
4.60 
1.80 

."».  15 
:..  36 
I.oo 
4.80 

1.70 

1.70 
1.55 
1.20 
4.20 
4.15 
4.15 
4.10 
4.10 
1.  10 
4.00 
4.30 
1.  30 
1.35 
1.35 
I.  in 
1.  15 

1.60 
1.00 
1.05 
5.  05 

l.so 
1.80 

5.00 
5.  02 
5.35 
5.45 

5.  15 
5.70 
7.  00 
7.00 

6.00 
6.  45 
6.  45 
6.30 
6.00 
5.90 
6.  15 
6.  70 
6.  30 
6.30 
6.15 
..so 
5.80 
;>.  .v. 

5.  70 
5.00 

5.60 
5. 50 

5.  60 

o.  35 
7.00 

0.70 

6.  40 
6.30 

0.50 

6.60 

6.  50 

6.  lo 

o.  lo 

0.2O 

6.20 

6.10 
6.  10 
6.  20 
6.20 
(i.  20 
6.10 
6.10 
6.  10 
6.10 
6.10 
6.10 
6.10 
6.  10 
6.00 
6.10 
6.10 

(',.  10 
6.10 
5.  00 
5.  SO 
5.80 
6.00 
6.80 
5.80 

...Ml 

5.60 

5.  60 

5.  .50 

5.60 

5.  .50 

5.  60 
5.  .50 
5.50 
5.  45 
5.  40 
5.  40 
5.50 
5.50 
5.  70 

5.  70 

5. 83 
6.30 

6.  70 
6.60 
6.40 
6.40 
6.40 
6.30 
6.20 
6.20 

<;.  oo 

6.00 
6.00 
6.00 
6.00 
6.00 
6.00 
5.90 
5.90 
5.90 
6.90 

6 

7 

8 

9 

3.30 

3.30 

3.30 

3.30 

2.  60     2.  00 
2.00     2.10 
2.  60     2. 10 
2.  50     2.  20 
2.  50     2.  20 
2.50     2.10 
2.  50     2.  00 
2.  15     1. 90 
2. 40     1.  90 
2.40     1.90 
2.40     1.90 
2.40     1.80 
2.30     1.80 
2.40     1.70 
2.  10     1.70 

2.10       1.70 

2.30     1.90 
2.30     1.90 
2.30     1.90 
2.30     1.90 

2.30      2.  (HI 
2.  30      2. (HI 
2.20       1.80 
2.20       1.80 
2.10     1.70 
2.10    

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17.. 

3.30 

3.30 

3.30 

3.30 

3.30 

3.30 

3.30 

3  30 

is 

Ill 

20 

3.30 

3.20 

;;  20 

21 

22 

23 

3. 20 

3.30 

:;  30 

21 

25 

3.30 

26 

3.25 

28 

29 

3.25 

30 

31 

"New  rod;  elevation  of  zero  =  81.59. 


REPORT    OK    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


147 


List  of  discharge  measurements  made  on  tributaries  of  San  Juan  Rwer  above  Bora  San 

Carlos. 

MELCHORA  KIVER. 


Date. 

Hydrographer. 

Meter  No. 

Gauge 
height. 

Area  of 
section. 

Mean 
velocity. 

Dis- 
charge. 

1899. 

Oct.      3 

H.  W.  Durham 

Feet. 

Sq.  feet. 
126 

166 
270 
172 
374 
380 
236 
265 

Fl.persec. 

0.55 

.00 
.16 
.17 
.76 
.26 
.35 
.64 

.Sec.  feet. 
68 

1900. 
Jan.    19 

H.S.Reed 

Price  No.  63 

0 

H.  G.  Heisler 

B.  &  B.  No.  1 . . . 

43 

June  22 

...do 

do 

28 

July  U 

...do 

do 

287 

July  30 

do 

do... 

96 

Auk.  13 

do 

do 

83 

do 

do 

172 

Sept.    8 
Sept.  21 

do 

do 

do 

do 

MEDIO  QUESO  RIVER. 


1899. 
Oct.      3 

H.W.Durham 

Price  No.  34 

1,114 

765 
1,066 

1,292 

0.77 
.27 
.42 

.18 

(») 

C) 
.80 
.67 
1.01 
.68 
.41 
.46 

856 

Nov.    2 

do 

do 

206 

Nov.  14 

do 

do 

455 

1900. 
Jan.    19 

H.  S.  Reed 

Price  No.  63 

231 

June    1 

H.G.  Heisler 

B.  &B.  No.  1 

June  22 

do 

July   14 

do 

do 

1,017 
1,087 
1,147 
1,160 
1,173 
1,192 

816 

July  30 

do 

do  ... 

733 

Aug.  13 

do 

do 

do 

1  160 

Aug.  27 

do 

800 

Sept.    8 

do 

do.... 

487 

Sept.  21 

do 

do 

554 

PALO  DE  ARCO  RIVER. 


1899. 
Oct.      3 

1900. 
June  1 
June  22 
Julv  14 
July  30 
Aug.  13 
Aug.  27 
Sept.  8 
Sept.  21 


H.  W.  Durham Price  No.  34 


H.G.  Heisler 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 


B.&B.No.l 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 


220 


107 
103 
395 
405 
362 
534 


.26 
.31 
.54 
.56 
.23 
.40 


(a) 


.  29 


32 
214 

227 
86 
214 


CANO  CHICO. 


1899. 
Oct.      4 

H.  W.  Durham 

Price  No.  34 

500 
460 

0.38 

.22 

(») 
.65 
.71 
.65 

(') 

.33 

Nov.  23 

do 

do. 

1900. 
Jan.   19 

H.S.  Reed 

Price  No.  63" 

July  14 

H.G.  Heisler 

B.&  B.  No  1 

735 

587 
829 

478 

Julv  30 

do 

do 

422 

Aug.  13 

do 

do... 

540 

Sept.    8 

do 

Sept,  21 

do 

619 

206 

"No  current. 


148  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

List  of  discharge  measurements  made  on  tributaries  of  San  Juan  River,  etc. — Continued. 

NEGRO  RIVER  (ABOVE  LOS  SABALOS). 


Date. 


Hydrographer. 


Meter  No. 


Gauge 
height. 


Area  of 
section. 


Mean 
velocity. 


Dis- 
charge. 


1899. 
Sept,  13 
Oct.  5 
Oct.  12 
Oct.  27 
Nov.  8 
Nov.  16 
Nov.  27 

1900. 
Jan.  16 
Feb.  4 
Mar.  5 
Mar.  12 
Mar.  19 
Mar.  26 
Apr.  2 
Apr.  8 
Apr.  17 
Apr.  23 
Apr.  30 
Mav  14 
May  28 
June  17 
June  26 
July  2 
July  9 
July  16 
July  23 
July  29 
Aug.  6 
Aug.  12 
Aug.  21 
Aug.  27 
Sept.  3 
Sept.  11 
Sept.  26 
Oct.  1 
Oct.  8 
Oct.  15 
Oct.  23 
Oct.  29 
Dec.  1 
Dec.  9 
Dec.  16 
Dec.  23 

1901. 
Jan.     6 


R.  H.  Morrin Stackpole  No.  1 . 

H.  W.  Durham Price  No.  31 

do do 

do do 

do do 

do do 

do do 


H.W.Durham 
T.F.  Boltz 

do. 

do 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


B.  &  B.  No.  1  . . 

....do 

Haskell  No.  2. 
.do 


.do. 
.do. 
.do, 
.do. 
.do, 
.do, 
.do. 
.do. 
.do, 
.do, 
.do. 
.do, 
.do. 
.do, 
.do, 
.do, 
.do. 
.do, 
.do. 
.do. 
.do, 
.do. 
.do. 
.do, 
.do. 
.do. 
.do, 
.do. 


.do Price  No.  68. 

.do do 


.do. 
.do. 


.do. 


.do, 
.do, 


.do 


Feet. 
3.61 


3.54 
3.72 
3.03 
1.97 
3.15 


4.05 
3.98 
3.10 
3.05 
3.00 
2.  ss 
2.78 
2.71 
2. 50 
2.55 
2.46 
2.60 
5.92 
4.40 
3.15 
5.09 
4.95 


6.24 
4.55 


6.70 
6.00 
8.33 
4.90 
4.67 
5.27 
6.32 
7.70 
5.85 


6.42 
6.61 
6.88 
6.09 
5.98 


Sq.feet. 
90 
437 
139 
130 
163 
189 
146 


64 
186 
38 
35 
22 
31 
25 


Ft.per  see. 

1.05 
.41 
.80 
.39 
.91 

1.20 
.65 


.30 
.21 
.19 
.15 
•.18 
.15 


27 
179 
131 
145 
150 
144 
605 
IKS 
134 
592 
219 

IKK 

270 
186 
87 
155 
188 
231 
211 
733 
123 
195 
214 
175 
172 


15K 


.54 

1.38 

.98 

.25 

1.21 

.98 

2.11 

1.34 

.66 

1.26 

1.45 

1.21 

1.88 

.49 

.37 

.49 

.94 

1.28 

.  25 

.95 

.48 

.90 

1.11 

.14 

.52 


Sec.  feet. 
95 

178 
110 

50 
157 
227 

96 


SABALOS  RIVER. 


1899 
Jan.  3 
Jan.  19 
Feb.  l 
Feb.  1 1 
Feb.  2] 
Feb.  25 
Mar.  6 
Mar.  21 
Mar.  31 
Apr.   L5 

Do... 
Apr.  21 
Apr.   29 

Do... 

Do... 

Do... 
May  12 
May  17 
May  23 
June  7 
June  16 
June  23 

Do... 


R.  H.  Morrin 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

S.Wilson 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

do 

do 

do 

do 


Stackpole  No.  1. 
do 


do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Stackpole  No.  7. 
Stackpole  No.  1 . 
Stackpole  No. 7. 
Stackpole  No. l. 
do 


do 

do 

do 

do 

Stackpole  No.  7. 


5. 69 

510 

1.05 

5. 51 

167 

.85 

4.98 

336 

.  28 

4.81 

354 

.36 

4.85 

340 

.53 

4.68 

320 

.21 

1.55 

811 

.24 

1.30 

110 

.90 

■1.13 

17:1 

.  12 

:;.  87 

140 

.63 

3.87 

101 

.80 

3,81 

134 

.49 

3.65 

94 

.40 

3. 65 

94 

.84 

3. 66 

112 

.37 

3. 66 

112 

.31 

8. 65 

105 

.65 

3.41 

95 

.46 

3.30 

86 

.  17 

8.81 

83 

.83 

3.70 

316 

.60 

8.  17 

299 

.25 

:>.  17 

299 

.30 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  149 

List  of  discharge  measurements  made  on  tributaries  of  San  Juan  River,  etc. — Continued. 

SABALOS  RIVER— Continued. 


Date. 


Hydrographer. 


1  v.i 
July 
Aug. 
Aug. 
Sept. 

Sept. 

Sept. 

Oct. 
Oct. 
Oet. 
Oct. 

(let. 

Oct. 
Oct. 
Nov. 
Nov. 
Nov. 
Nov. 
Nov. 
Nov. 
Dec. 
Dec. 
Dec. 
Dec. 
Dec. 


1900. 


Jan 
Jan.  3 
Jan.  14 
Jan.  21 
Feb.  6 
Feb.  9 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  10 
Mar.  17 
Mar.  24 
Mar.  31 
Apr.  7 
Apr.  14 
Apr.  21 
Apr.  28 
May  5 
May  12 
May  27 
June  2 
June  11 
June  16 
June  19 
June  23 
July  16 
Julv  18 
July  21 
July  25 
July  28 
Aug.  7 
Aug.  7 
Aug.  11 
Aug.  15 
Aug.  19 
Aug.  22 
Aug.  25 
Aug.  29 
Sept.  1 
Sept.  5 
Sept.  8 
Sept.  12 
Sept.  15 
Sept,  19 
Sept.  26 
Sept.  29 
Oct.  2 
Oct.  6 
Oct.  9 
Oct.  13 
Oct.  17 
Oct.  20 
Oct.  23 
Oct.    27 


S.Wilson 

do 

do 

it.  II.  Morrin  .. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

H.  W.  Durham 

....do 

....do 

....do 


H.  W.  Durham 

do 

H.G.Heisler .. 
H.S.Reed..... 

T.F.  Boltz 

....do 


..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
.do. 
..do. 
..do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


Meter  No. 


Stackpole  No.  7. 
Stackpole  N'n.  ) . 
do 


do 

do 

...  do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

B.and  B.No.  1 .. 

....do 

....do 

....do 


B.and  B.  No.  1. 
do 


do 

do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

Haskell  No.  2 . 
do 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


Gauge 
height. 


Feet. 
4.74 
6.02 
3.68 
4.25 
3.97 


4.95 
4.72 
4.16 
4.24 
4.52 
8.41 
4.69 
3.40 
5.55 
4.82 
5.23 
5.13 
5.29 
4.89 
4.78 
4.75 
4.70 
4.50 


4.50 
4.45 
4.35 


Area  of 
section, 


3.90 
3.95 
3.61 
3.60 
6.57 
6.48 
6.38 
6.29 
6.20 
6.14 
6.11 
5.94 
5.99 
6.30 
6.50 
6.63 
6.84 
7.89 
6.99 


8.85 
8.29 
8.12 
8.50 
8.96 

11.72 
8.64 
9.85 
8.54 
9.08 
8.99 
8.88 
8.30 
8.10 
8.05 
8.08 
8.17 
9.11 
9.49 
8.82 

10.27 
9.26 
9.46 
9.10 
9.34 

14.20 

11.20 
9.80 


Sq.  feet. 
422 
581 
376 
423 
412 
2,618 
498 
459 
387 
404 
451 
874 
427 
402 
569 
457 
482 
494 
514 
475 
517 
510 
490 
451 


453 
441 
129 
437 
126 
126 
114 
111 
110 
106 
103 
100 
99 
98 
97 
85 
101 
112 
116 
104 
147 
584 
488 
1,913 
687 
618 
609 
652 
720 
2,034 
721 
864 
699 
760 
752 
722 
641 
139 
136 
141 
625 
761 
795 
706 
867 
742 
752 
711 
747 
2,145 
2,082 
790 


Mean 
velocity. 


Ft. 


persec 

1.31 
2. 32 

.65 

.93 

.02 

4.63 

1.23 

1.05 

.64 

.71 

.78 

2.80 

.73 

.38 

1.49 

.70 

1.24 

1.04 

1.28 

.  72 

^54 

.57 

.63 

.36 


.33 

.29 

1.19 

.26 

.90 

.92 

.81 

.60 

.54 

.47 

.37 

.37 

.33 

.30 

.23 

.27 

.40 

.97 

.79 

.56 

1.48 

.99 

.46 

1.54 

1.22 

.85 

.74 

.99 

1.36 

1.36 

.90 

1.54 

.88 

1.12 

1.10 

1.02 

.54 

1.54 

1.39 

1.39 

.45 

1.10 

1.27 

.63 

1.29 

.67 

.61 

.38 

.64 

1.89 

.78 

.57 


*  Heavy  flood.    Gauging  made  one-half  mile  above  mouth.    River  too  swift  to  reach  gauge  rod. 


150  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

List  of  discharge  measurements  made  on  tributaries  of  San  Juan  River,  etc. — Continued. 

SABALOS  RIVER— Continued. 


Date. 


1900. 
Oct.  31 
Nov.  3 
Nov.  11 
Nov.  14 
Nov.  17 
Nov.  22 
Nov.  24 
Nov.  28 
Dec.  1 
Dec.  5 
Dec.  8 
Dec.  12 
Dec.  15 
Dec.  19 
Dec.  22 
Dec.   26 


Hydrographer. 


T.  F.  Boltz Haskell  No.  2. 

do do 

do do 

do do 

do i do 

.do '  Price  No.  68.. . 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


.do. 

.do. 

.do 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do, 

.do, 


Gauge 
height. 


Feet. 
9.49 
9.58 

10.54 
9.39 
9.46 
9.92 
9.34 
9.12 

11.41 
9.63 
9.63 

10. 22 
9.32 
9.74 
9.18 
9.00 


Area  of 
section. 


Sq.feet. 

477 
543 
890 
747 
752 
812 
739 
165 
1,020 
770 
773 
847 
730 
789 
717 
697 


Mean 
velocity. 


Ft.pt  rsec 

.49 
.07 

1.37 
.39 
.51 

1.15 
.53 

1.17 

2. 00 

.97 

.1.03 

1.30 
.66 

1.12 
.53 
.35 


Dis- 
charge. 


»<•.  feet. 
333 
366 

1 ,  222 
290 
387 
936 
395 
194 

2, 102 
747 
796 

1,091 
480 
886 
381 
244 


POCO  SOL  RIVER. 


1899. 

Oct. 

5 

Nov. 

2 

Nov. 

25 

1900. 

Jan. 

22 

Feb. 

13 

Mar. 

14 

Apr. 

6 

Apr. 

20 

May 

6 

June 

2 

June  25 

July 

15 

July 

26 

Aug. 

14 

Aug. 

28 

Sept. 

8 

Sept. 

22 

H.W.Durham 

....do 

....do 


Price  No.  34. 

do 

do 


H.S.  Reed Price  No.  63 

H.  C.  Hurd Price  No.  34 

do I do 

do '  Price  No.  35 — 

do ! do 

C.  Havinan I  Price  No.  63 

H.  G.  Heisler B.  and  B.  No.  1 . 


.do. 

.do.. 

.do.. 

.do., 

.do.. 

.do.. 

.do.. 


.do. 

.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


1.08 

.85 

1.42 


.40 

-  .10 

-  .07 
-1.20 

1.35 
-1.61 

-  .03 

-  .50 
2.15 
1.97 
3.90 
3.00 
1.25 


981 
919 


1,007 

1,030 

945 

570 

336 

281 

1,358 

751 

1,000 

1,110 

1,212 

1,181 

846 

1,082 


1.54 

.00 
1.29 


.55 

.20 

.15 

.29 

.10 

.35 

.92 

.52 

2.  65 

2.11 

1.89 

2. 03 

1.04 

1.96 


1,513 

(ill 
1 ,  204 


556 
204 
142 
167 
34 
99 

1 ,  258 
391 

»2,651 

>>  2, 442 

2,303 

2,  399 

886 

2, 123 


SANTA  CRUZ  RIVER. 


1899. 
Oct.      5 

Price  No.  34 

do 

u.  85 

.80 

1.23 

.10 

.50 

-  .92 

1 ,  035 

1,359 

781 

65 
163 
97 
98 
165 
131 
382 

329 
488 
533 
2,415 
1,132 
886 
989 

0. 62 
.  26 
.30 

1.31 
1.  11 
.37 
.17 
.  56 
.31 
.33 
.36 
.  12 
.04 
1.20 
1 .  26 
.  12 
.48 

638 

...do...               

347 

Nov.  25 

...do...                   

do 

237 

1900. 
Feb    13 

H.C.  Hurd 

Price  No.  34 

do 

86 

do 

68 

Apr.     6 

Apr.   20 
May     7 
May    20 

...do 

Price  No.  35 

do 

36 

do.  . 

47 

Price  No.  03 

B.and  B.  No.l.... 
do 

1.34 
-1.20 

-  .04 

-  .35 

1.02 

1.12 

12.00 
2.45 
1.20 
2.10 

93 

H.G.  Heisler 

41 

...do 

130 

do 

do 

121 

July   15 
July   26 
Aug.  14 
Aug.  28 
Sept.    8 
Sept.  22 

...do 

do 

207 

.do 

do 

342 

...do 

do 

■  10,30] 

.do 

do 

1 ,  137 

do  

do 

379 

...do 

do 

182 

» Gauging  made  below  gauge. 
>> Gauging  made  above  gauge. 

'Flood.     Impossible   to  go  to  ^hiilm-. 
branches  of  trees. 


Elevation  determined  approximately  August  28  by  drift  in 


KKl'OKT    OF    T1IK     ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  151 

List  of  discharge  measurement*  made  on  tributaries  of  Son  .hum  River,  etc. —  Continued. 

SANTA  CRUZITA  RIVER. 


Hydrographer. 


Meter  No. 


Gauge 

height. 


1900. 

Aug.  II 
Aug.  28 


1899. 
Oct      6 

Nov.  6 
Nov.  25 
Jan.  23 
Feb.  14 
Men.  14 
Apr.  24 
May  21 
June  3 
June  20 
Julv  17 
July  31 
Aug.  15 
Aug.  29 
Sept.  10 
Sept.  23 


H.G.Heisler. 

do 


Rand  B.,No.  1. 
do 


Area  of 

section. 


Mean 

velocity. 


Sq.  feet.    Fl.persec. 
'  345  1.80 

331   !  .71 


BARTOLA  RIVER. 


H.  W.  Durham Price,  Ni ».  34. . . 

do do 

do do 

H.s.  Reed Price,  No.  63... 

H.C.Hurd Price,  No.  34... 

do do 

do Price,  No.'  35. . . 

H.  G.  Heisler B.  and  B.,  No.  1 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


.do. 

.do  . 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do 

.do 

.do 


0.95 

2.1  2 

1.48 

.83 

-  .30 

-  .30 
-1.00 

-  .00 

-  .03 
.20 

-3.20 
1.63 
2.99 
4.50 
1.45 
2. 35 


412 
499 
457 
471 

99 
101 

88 
145 
lis 
217 
507 
483 
640 
860 

162 
316 


Dis 
charge. 


Sec.  feet. 
623 


0. 59 

.  57 
.  39 
.45 
.25 
.91 
.45 
.50 
.  43 
.31 

1.39 
.01 
.81 

2.  83 
.37 
.04 


245 

280 
179 
214 
00 
00 
40 

03 
09 
792 
293 
521 
,437 
170 
204 


INFIERNITO  RIVER. 


1899.     , 
Oct.      0     H.W.Durham 

Nov.    6    do 

Nov.  20  : do 


1900. 
Jan.  23 
Feb.  14 
Mch.  15 
Apr.  24 
May  31 
June  3 
June  20 

July   17    do. 

July  31    do. 

Aug.  15    do. 


H.S. Reed.... 
H.C.Hurd... 

do 

do 

H.G.Heisler. 

.do 

do 


Aug.  29 
Sept.  10 
Sept.  23 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


Price,  No.  34. 

....do 

....do 


Price,  No.  03... 
Price,  No.  34... 

....do 

....do 

B.and  B.,No.  1 
....do 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


0.84 
3.68 
1.25 


.55 

-  .10 

-  .00 
-1.20 
-1.03 

-  .03 

-  .40 
3.50 
1.35 
3.73 
3.80 
1.60 
2.70 


1.547 
1,283 

940 


1,137 

550 

074 

392 

929 

788 

781 

1,025 

958 

1,229 

1,440 

1,088 

900 


.00 

.63 

.  25 
.20 
.36 
.07 
.29 

1.19 
.00 

1.47 

1.17 
.80 

1.50 


1 .  0S4 

2,449 

753 


683 
347 
170 
80 
293 
528 
227 

1 ,  226 
037 

1,815 

1 ,  089 
.X73 

1,513 


MACHUCA  RIVER. 


1899. 
Oct.      0 
Nov.    6 

Nov.   20 

1900. 
Jan.  23 
Feb.  14 
Mar.  15 
A  ]ir.  24 
May  21 
June  3 
June  20 
Julv  17 
July  31 
Aug.  15 
Aug.  29 

Sept.    10 

Sept.  23 
Dec.    14 


H.W.Durham 

....do 

....do 


H.S.  Reed.... 
H.C.Hurd  ... 

....do 

....do 

H.G.Heisler. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

E.  W.  F.  Reed 


Price,  No.  34. 

....do 

....do 


Price,  No.  63 

Price,  No.  34 

....do 

Price,  No.  35 

B.  and  B.,  No.  1 

....do 

....do 

po 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Price,  No.  65 


220 

0.  58 

128 

316 

.44 

140 

253 

.38 

97 

107 

1.17 

197 

94 

.54 

54 

79 

.03 

50 

40 

.06 

27 

54 

.52 

28 

109 

.31 

34 

103 

.47 

48 

:;i  I 

.71 

225 

ISC, 

.  52 

97 

51  1 

.06 

339 

551 

1.03 

573 

255 

.49 

126 

170 

.73 

128 

511 

.80 

M41 

■  Flood — falling  rapidly  from  5  feet  to  4  feet  while  gauging  one-half  hour. 
*>  Mad.   2  miles  above  mouth. 


152 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


List  of  discharge  measurements  made  on  tributaries  of  San  .Juan  River,  etc. — Continued. 

CRUCITA  DEL  NORTE  RIVER. 


Date. 

Hydrographer. 

Meter  No. 

Gauge 
height. 

Area  of 
section. 

Mean 
velocity. 

Dis- 
charge. 

1899. 
Oct.      7 

Price,  No.  34.. 

Feet. 

Sq.  feet. 
200 

Ft.  per  sec. 

0.13 

(») 
.21 

.29 

C) 

n  e.  /<  a. 

1900. 
June    3 

H.G.Heisler 

do 

B.  and  B.,  No.  1... 

do 

276 
367 

54 

Aug.  29 

do 

do 

108 

Sept.  10 

do 

do 

Dec.   n 

E.  W.  F.  Reed  

Price,  No.  65 

LA  CRUCITA  DEL  SUR  RIVER. 


1900. 
Aug.  15 

H.G.Heisler 

B.  and  B.,  No.  1... 

209 
307 
310 

0.40 
.47 
.52 

85 

Aug.  29 

do 

do 

144 

Dec.   14 

E.  W.  F.  Reed  

152 

LA  CRUZ  DEL  NORTE  RIVER. 


1899. 
Oct.      7 

H.  W.  Durham 

■Ml 

202 

124 
73 
188 
115 
335 
311 
548 
721 
224 
324 

0.  42 

.16 
.53 
.39 
.24 
.24 
.28 
.35 
.50 
.38 
.37 
.29 
(b) 

84 

1900. 
Jan.    23 

H.S.Reed 

Price,  No  63    . 

32 

Feb.   14 

H.C.Hurd 

Price,  No.  34... 

66 

Mar.  15 

do 

...do.. 

28 

June    3 

H.  G.  Heisler 

B.  and  B.,  No.  1... 

47 

June  26 

do 

29 

Julv   17 

do 

....do... 

96 

July  31 

do 

do  ... 

111 

Aug.  15 

do 

do  ... 

293 

Aug.  29 

do 

...do... 

280 

Sept.  10 

do 

do... 

86 

Sept.  23 

do 

do 

97 

Dec.   14 

E.W.F.Reed 

Price,  No.  65 | 

LA  CRUZ  DEL  SUR  RIVER. 


1899. 

Nov.    6 

H.  W.  Durham 

Price,  No.  34 

276 

0. 28 

77 

1900. 
Aug.  15 

H.G.  Heisler 

B.and  B.,No.  1  .. 

EL  JARDIN  RIVER  (NEAR  CONCHUCA). 


1900. 
May     2 

H.S.Reed 

Price,  No.  65  . . . 

41 
100 

49 

59 
105 
100 

86 
123 
167 
294 
222 
309 
297 
278 
178 
241 
399 
346 
287 
297 
248 
469 
192 

0.61 
1.16 
.85 
1.39 
.97 
.52 
.  66 
.  62 
.55 
.  39 
.59 
1.50 
2.50 
.86 
.77 
.78 
.70 
.39 
.11 
.30 
.36 
.77 
.  52 

25 

May     9 

do 

do 

116 

May   16 

do 

...do ... 

42 

May  22 

do 

...do  ... 

83 

May   30 

do 

...do. 

103 

June  12 

do 

..do. 

53 

Juno  28 

do 

...do... 

57 

June  30 

do 

...do 

76 

Julv   11 

do 

...do... 

86 

July  19 

do 

...do  ... 

115 

July  25 

do 

...do.   . 

131 

Aug.    9 

do 

...do 

463 

Aug.  25 

do 

do 

742 

Aug.  31 

do 

do  . 

237 

Sept.    7 

do 

do... 

137 

Sept.  20 

do 

do... 

188 

Oct.      1 

do 

do  ... 

277 

Oct.      9 

do 

do... 

131 

Oct.     13 

do 

do  ... 

117 

Oct.    30 

do 

...do 

88 

Nov.  27 

E.  W.  F.  Reed  

do 

90 

Dec.   13 

do 

do  ... 

359 

Dec.  31 

do 

do... 

100 

''Buck  water;  no  current. 


REFORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


153 


List  of  discharge  measurements  made  on  tributaries  of  San  Juan  River,  etc, — Continued 

LA  TIGRE  RIVER  (NEAR  OONCHUCA). 


Gauge 
height. 


Area  of 

Mean 

section. 

velocity. 

Sq.  feet. 

Ft.persec. 

89 

0.44 

34 

1.22 

50 

.74 

60 

.37 

115 

.53 

101 

.32 

143 

.29 

191 

.22 

239 

.30 

166 

.42 

357 

.70 

319 

1.76 

226 

.50 

177 

.31 

259 

.33 

269 

.30 

232 

.22 

182 

.21 

183 

.22 

142 

.31 

334 

.44 

131 

.34 

Dis- 
charge. 


Sec.  fnl.  ■ 
17 
41 
37 
22 
61 
33 
42 
43 
73 
70 
249 
560 
113 
55 
85 
81 
53 
38 
40 
44 
146 
44 


OCHOA    STATION    ON    SAN   JUAN    RIVER. 


A  camp  was  continued  at  this  point  under  charge  of  Mr.  H.  S.  Reed, 
keeping  rainfall  and  temperature  records  and  rod  readings  on  the  river. 
Measurements  of  discharge  were  made  from  a  boat,  its  position  at  each 
observation  being  determined  by  stadia  from  shore. 

Records  were  also  kept  of  gauge  height,  discharge,  and  rainfall  at 
the  station  on  San  Carlos  River. 

From  the  time  when  the  camp  on  the  San  Carlos  was  removed  — 
August  31,  1898  — to  the  present  writing,  daily  trips  were  made  to  the 
San  Carlos  station,  never  omitting  a  day.  Therefore,  we  have  over 
three  years'1  complete  record  of  discharge  for  both  the  San  Carlos  near 
its  mouth  and  the  San  Juan  at  Ochoa.  By  taking  the  difference 
between  them  we  obtain  the  discharge  of  the  San  Juan  above  Boca 
San  Carlos,  and  by  deducting  from  this  the  discharge  measured  at 
Sabalos  we  obtain  the  discharge  of  the  tributaries  between  Sabalos 
and  Boca  San  Carlos.  The  comparative  flow  of  the  San  Carlos  and 
the  San  Juan  at  Ochoa  and  at  Sabalos  is  shown  in  figure  8. 

The  bench  mark  at  Ochoa  is  a  standard  United  States  Geological 
Survey  copper  tablet  bench  mark  planted  horizontally  on  top  of  a 
scarf  cut  into  the  inside  larger  root  of  a  tree  situated  at  the  mouth  of 
the  first  creek  just  above  the  camp,  about  250  feet  above  the  gauge. 
It  is  28.10  above  zero  of  rod  and  71.33  feet  above  sea  level. 

The  bench  mark  on  San  Carlos  River  is  a  large  wrought-iron  nail 
driven  into  the  top  of  a  scarf  cut  into  the  root  on  the  river  face  of  tree 
that  acts  as  cable  support.  It  is  31.67  above  zero  of  rod  and  81.13  feet 
above  sea  level. 

At  the  Ochoa  station  two  extra  rods  were  placed  in  the  river,  one 
above  and  the  other  below  the  regular  station,  and  were  carefully 
connected  by  level  lines,  so  that  from  synchroneous  readings  the  slope 
of  the  surface  of  the  river  could  be  obtained.  The  indicated  slope  at 
each  gauging  taken  is  given  in  the  table  of  discharge  measurements  on 
page  156. 


154  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  bench  mark  established  for  the  upper-slope  rod  is  one  spike 
driven  in  center  of  a  triangle  of  40-penny  nails  midway  of  bottom  of 
scarf  made  in  root  of  large  tree  situated  80.4  feet  south  from  gauge 
rod  and  is  22.42  above  zero  of  that  rod. 

The  bench  mark  established  for  the  lower  slope  rod  is  one  rod  nail 
driven  in  advance  of  four  10-penny  galvanized  nails  at  point  of  scarf 
cut  in  root  of  large  tree  first  on  point  of  knoll  bearing  southwest  71 
feet  from  rod  and  is  22. -12  above  zero  of  rod. 

Upper  rod  is  2,273.4  feet  above  the  regular  rod  at  Ochoa  and  lower 
rod  is  505.0  feet  below,  so  that  2,839  feet  is  the  total  distance  between 
rods. 

For  purposes  of  current  meter  measurements  it  was  not  permissible 
to  extend  a  cable  over  the  river  at  Ochoa  on  account  of  navigation. 
It  was  first  intended  to  make  measurements  by  means  of  a  boat  anchored 
to  a  small  cable  stretched  across  the  river  which  should  carry  tags  indi- 
cating distances  from  the  initial  point  and  which,  when  not  in  use,  was  to 
be  held  against  the  bottom  of  the  river  by  means  of  sinkers.  Experi- 
ence on  this  line,  however,  soon  demonstrated  that  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult, if  not  impracticable,  to  maintain  a  small  cable  in  the  position 
proposed  on  account  of  the  large  quantities  of  driftwood,  leaves,  and 
brush  passing  down  the  river,  especially  in  times  of  flood,  when  the 
gauging  apparatus  would  be  most  in  demand.  Another  project  was 
therefore  inaugurated,  which  was  the  anchorage  of  a  number  of  buoys 
at  known  distances  from  the  initial  point,  said  buoys  to  be  constructed 
of  "balsa,'1  a  very  light,  bulky,  endogenous  wood  much  used  in  the 
construction  of  rafts,  etc.  This  method  of  marking  distances  from 
the  initial  point  was  successfully  employed  for  several  months  during 
the  season  of  low  water,  but  as  the  rains  increased  and  freshets  began 
to.  come  down  the  river  the  great  quantity  of  leaves  and  brush  carried 
by  the  water  attached  themselves  to  the  buoys  and  their  anchorages 
until  they  were  either  carried  beneath  the  surface  of  the  river  or 
washed  away  entirely.  The  method  permanently  adopted  required 
the  employment  of  an  additional  instrument  man  to  manipulate  a 
telescope  on  shore  and  measure  the  distance  of  the  boat  during  the 
process  of  gauging  by  means  of  a  stadia  rod. 

The  highest  measurement  of  discharge  yet  made  at  this  point  was  on 
November  17,  1S98,  at  a  gauge  height  of  17.43  feet,  when  the  river 
was  discharging  1()4,!>28  cubic  feet  per  second.  At  this  stage  the  river 
was  about  8.5  feet  below  the  flood  plain  at  Ochoa,  the  formation  of 
which  indicates  that  it  is  sometimes  overflowed. 

Dr.  C.  W.  Hayes,  geologist,  expresses  the  opinion  that  this  Hood  plain 
is  at  intervals  of  ten  to  thirty  years  covered  by  the  floods  of  San  Juan 
River  to  a  depth  of  more  than  0  inches,  but  less  than  3  feet.  In  other 
words,  maximum  gauge  readings  of  20.5  to  29  may  be  expected  with 
moderate  frequency  at  Ochoa  station. 

Plotting  all  observations  of  discharge,  so  far  taken  as  abscissas,  with 
corresponding  gauge  heights  as  ordinates,  we  obtain  a  curve  indicating 
the  relation  of  gauge  height  to  discharge,  showing  that  the  ratio  of 
discharge  to  increase  of  gauge  height  is  not  constant.  The  curve  is 
concave  downward,  tending  toward  a  horizontal  position,  showing  that 
the  increase  of  discharge  for  increase  of  gauge  height  is  greater  at 
high  stages  than  at  low  stages,  but  above  a  medium  stage  of  the  river 
the.  line  curves  but  slightly,  and  though  the  concavity  is  still  down- 
ward the  curve  approaches  a  straight  line,  or,  in  other  words,  the  ratio 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  155 

between  gauge  height  and  discharge  approaches  constancy.  If  we 
assume  as  constant  the  direction  given  to  the  line  by  the  higher  meas- 
urements, and  continue  it  as  a  straight  line,  we  obtain  as  the  discharge 
corresponding  to  a  gauge  height  of  28  feet  about  200,000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  If  any  curvature  be  given  the  extrapolated  portion  of  the 
curve  it  will  increase  this  amount. 

If  the  same  course  of  reasoning  be  applied  to  the  flood-plain  on  the 
San  Carlos  River,  we  find  that  its  maximum  discharge  must  be  about 
100,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Similarly  it  may  be  shown  by  extrapolating  the  curve  discharge  of 
the  San  Juan  River  at  Fort  San  Carlos  that  at  the  stage  of  111  feet 
above  sea  level  the  lake  must  have  discharged  nearly  45,000  cubic  feet 
per  second. 

When  the  measurement  of  November  IT,  1898,  that  gave  a  discharge 
at  Ochoa  of  104,928  second-feet  was  made,  the  San  Carlos  River  was 
discharging  onl}r  32,265,  leaving  72,663  as  the  amount  coming  down  the 
San  Juan  proper,  of  which  probably  not  more  than  28,663  were  flow- 
ing from  the  lake,  leaving  44,000  to  be  supplied  b}r  the  small  tribu- 
taries between  the  lake  and  Boca  San  Carlos.  With  such  an  indicated 
discharge  it  would  not  be  excessive  to  assume  a  maximum  for  these 
tributaries  of  55,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  we  have  the  maximum 
flood  at  Ochoa  made  up  as  follows : 

Second-feet. 

Maximum,  San  Carlos  River 100, 000 

Maximum  discharge  from  lake 45,  000 

Maximum,  small  tributaries 55, 000 

Maximum  at  Ochoa 200,  000 

The  highest  observed  discharge  of  the  Sarapiqui  is  62,000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  It  is  probable  that  the  extreme  maximum  is  not  less  than 
80,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  Machado,  San  Francisco,  Tambor- 
cito,  and  San  Juanillo,  and  a  large  number  of  lesser  creeks  contribute 
a  large  aggregate  in  time  of  flood,  so  that  it  is  probable  that  at  rare 
intervals  the  increment  to  the  waters  of  the  San  Juan  below  Ochoa 
may  amount  to  over  100,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Such  an  occur- 
rence coincident  with  extreme  flood  conditions  above  Ochoa  would 
make  a  total  of  over  300,000  cubic  feet  per  second  discharging  into 
the  Caribbean  through  the  various  mouths  of  the  San  Juan. 


156  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Fio.  7. — Gauging  San  Juan  River  at  Ochoa. 

List  of  discharge  measurements  made  on  San  Juan   River  at  Ochoa  by  II  S.  Heed  with 

Price  meter  No.  65. 


Date. 


Gauge 
height. 


Area  of       Mean     ,      Dis- 
section. |  velocity,    charge. 


1899. 

( ictober  5 

October 6  ... 
October  10  .. 
October 28  .., 
-November  5. 
November  <i. 
November  8. 
November  15 
November  25 
December  l  . 
December  0 . 
December  12  . 
December  hi . 

1900. 

January  1 

January  6 

January  24. . . 
January  27. . 
January  30. . 
February  15.. 
February  26. 

March  9 

March  16 

March  30 

April  5 

April  12 

April  25 

April  28 

May  1 

May  5 

May  21 

.May  28 

June  2 

June  11   

June  18 

June  21   

June  28 

July2 

Jul',  12 

July  n 

July  16 

August  -4 

August  7 

August  1-' . . . 
August  80  . .. 
September  4. 
September  18 
September  21 
September  29 
September  80 
October 3  . .. 
October  hi  .. 
October  22  .. 
October23  .. 
November  6. 
N  <  >  \  ember  24 
November  30 
December  9  - 
I  December  in 
December  12 
December  21 


Feet. 
7.90 
7.31 
C.84 
7.21 
11.21 
13.38 
10.49 
14.31 
8.51 
10.97 
l'J.14 
9.24 
8.  31 


8.63 
11.28 
7.01 
7.17 

C..S9 


Sq.feet. 

Ft.persec 

9,204 

3.55 

8,713 

3.41 

8,079 

3.40 

8,554 

3.46 

12, 617 

4.16 

15, 301 

4.63 

12, 147 

3.94 

16,678 

4.50 

10, 373 

3. 52 

12,96-1 

3.86 

13,864 

4.33 

1 1 , 006 

3.64 

10,099 

3.54 

10,289 

12,742 
8,621 
8,  721 
8, 366 
7,219 
7, 223 
6,  926 
6,467 
6,317 
6,116 
5, 930 
5,980 
5,622 
5, 453 
5,048 
6,280 
10,000 
8, 305 
7,872 
10,503 
7, 991 
7.316 
8,629 
9,497 
10,473 
11,804 
13,923 
13,223 
12, 142 
12,698 
10,169 

11,582 
10,  175 
13,287 
16,501 

15,395 
1 1,333 
17,952 
14,884 
12,592 
1 1 , 926 

13,610 

20,111 
17,110 

16,723 

11,211 


3.73 
4.10 
3.29 
3.  42 
3.37 
3.15 
3.03 
2.98 
2.90 
2.  86 
2. 84 

•I  79 
2.  77 

2.  77 
2.69 
3.04 

3.  59 
3. 21 
3.16 
3.66 
3.16 
3.10 
3.41 
3.66 
3.90 
4.28 
4.38 
4.09 
4.11 
4  22 
3!  55 
3. 7.s 
3.00 
4.29 
4.69 
4.72 
4.35 
I.S9 
4.31 
3.99 
3.69 
1.17 
6, 02 
1.  19 
1.48 
.;.  7:; 


Sec.  feet. 
32, 693 
29, 731 
27,453 
29, 633 
52, 476 
70,  S70 
47,868 
74, 882 
36, 500 
50, 057 
60, 105 
40, 020 
35,  735 


38,346 
52, 194 

28, 396 
29, 824 
28, 164 
22, 746 
21,913 
20, 647 
18,711 
18, 085 
17,358 
16, 551 
16, 694 
15, 550 
15, 079 
13, 560 
19,101 
35, 880 
26, 685 
24, 843 
38, 405 
25, 272 
22, 702 
29, 407 
34,  758 
40, 800 
50, 513 
61, 026 
54, 128 
49, 880 
53, 523 
36, 064 
43, 791 
37, 709 
57, 035 
77, 429 
72,721 
62, 427 
87, 696 
61,212 
50,  329 
44,038 
56, 696 
101,135 
77,012 
70,  442 
41,869 


Wetted 
perim- 
eter. 


Hydraulic1 
radius.    I 


Slope, 


866 
865 
864 
S65 
878 

880 

875 
896 
868 
875 
877 
863 

867 


800 
876 
863 
863 
862 
862 
861 
857 
857 
855 
855 
853 
850 
851 
850 
847 
859 
860 
865 
863 
862 
864 
863 
867 
867 
865 
874 
879 
877 
875 
876 
860 
869 
862 
878 
897 
893 
S84 


876 
870 


10.63 
10.07 
9.35 
9.89 
14.37 
17.27 

13.88 
18.  (13 

11.96 
14.82 

15.81 
12.  74 
11.65 


11.97 
14.55 
9.99 
10.11 
9.71 
8. 37 
8.  39 

8.08 
7.55 
7.39 
7.16 
6.95 
7.03 
6.61 
6.  12 

5.06 

7.31 
11.64 
9.60 
9.12 
12.18 
9.24 
8.48 
9.96 
10.95 
12.11 
13.51 
15.84 
15.08 
13.87 
14.50 
11. 82 
13.33 
12. 15 
15.13 
18.40 
17.24 
16.21 


14.37 

13.71 
15.  47 


880 

874 


17.87 
12.83 


0.  000187 
.000190 
.000107 
.  000206 
.  000190 
.000192 
.  000185 
.000160 
.000180 
.000183 
. 000180 
.000178 
.  000176 


.  000180 
.  000173 
.  000173 
. 000180 
.000176 
.000183 
.000180 
.000182 
.000176 

. 000166 
.000173 
.000173 
.000173 
.000169 
.00016'.! 
.000176 
.00017,8 
.000173 
.000187 
.000187 
. 000176 
.000183 
.000187 
.000187 
.000182 
.000173 
. 000189 
.000190 
.000173 
.000190 

.000180 

.00018:; 

.000178 
.00018.-, 

.  000180 
.000169 

.  000107 
.00018:; 


.000107 
.000185 
.000190 


.000101 

.  000176 


0.029 
.  029 
.028 
.  029 
.030 
.031 
.031 
.031 
.031 
.033 
.030 
.031 
.030 


.  029 
.030 
.029 
.028 
.  028 
.027 
.028 
.  028 
.  027 
.026 
.026 
.027 
.027 
.  025 
.  025 

.025 

.  025 
.  020 
.  030 
.020 
.030 
.  020 
.028 
.029 
.028 
.  027 
.  028 
.031 
.  030 
.030 
.  029 
.031 
.031 
.031 
.030 

.030 

.028 
.031 


.  033 
.033 

.032 


.  030 
.031 


,1 


KKI'OKT    OF    THE     ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Rating  table  for  San  Juan  River  at  Ochoa. 
[This  table  is  applicable  from  April  i.  1899,  to  December  1,  1900.] 


157 


Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 
Sec.  feet. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

Feet. 

Secfeet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Secfeet. 

Feet. 

Sir.  fa  t. 

Feet. 

Sec. feet. 

3.0 

12,000 

6.0 

23, 550 

9.0 

38, 300 

12.0 

55,200 

15.0 

77, '100 

3.1 

12, 200 

6.1 

24,000 

9.1 

38,800 

12.1 

55, 800 

15.1 

78, 000 

3.2 

12, 400 

6.2 

24,450 

9.2 

39, 300 

12.2 

56, 400 

15.2 

78,900 

3.3 

12,700 

6.3 

24, 900 

9.3 

39, 800 

12.3 

57,000 

15.3 

79,800 

3.4 

13,000 

6.4 

25,  350 

9.4 

40, 300 

12.4 

57, 600 

15.4 

80, 700 

3.5 

13,350 

6.5 

25, 800 

9.5 

40, 800 

12.5 

58, 200 

15.5 

81,600 

3.6 

13,700 

6.6 

26, 300 

9.6 

41,300 

12.6 

58, 800 

15.6 

82,500 

3.7 

14,050 

6.7 

26, 800 

9.7 

41,800 

12.7 

59, 500 

15.7 

83, 400 

3.8 

14,400 

6.8 

27,300 

9.8 

42, 300 

12.  8 

60, 200 

15.  8 

84,300 

3.9 

14, 750 

6.9 

27, 800 

9.9 

42,800 

12.9 

60,900 

15.9 

s  :>,;;{  in 

4.0 

15, 100 

7.0 

28, 300 

10.0 

43, 350 

13.0 

61,600 

16.0 

86, 300 

4.1 

15,500 

7.1 

28, 800 

10.1 

43,900 

13.1 

62, 300 

16.1 

87,300    . 

4.2 

15,900 

7  2 

29, 300 

10.2 

44,450 

13.2 

63, 000 

16.2 

88, 300 

4.3 

16, 300 

7.3 

29, 800 

10.3 

45,000 

13.3 

63, 700 

16.3 

89,300    , 

4.4 

16,700 

7.4 

30, 300 

10.4 

45, 600 

13.4 

64, 400 

16.4 

90, 300 

4.5 

17, 100 

7.5 

30, 800 

10.5 

46,200 

13.5 

65, 100 

16.5 

91,300 

L6 

17, 500 

7.6 

31,300 

10.6 

46, 800 

13.6 

65, 800 

16.6 

92, 300 

1.7 

17,900 

7.7 

31,800 

10.7 

47, 400 

13.7 

66,  500 

16.7 

93, 300 

4.8 

18,300 

7.8 

32, 300 

10.8 

48,000 

13.8 

67, 200 

16.8 

94,300 

4.9 

18, 700 

7.9 

32, 800 

10.9 

48, 600 

13.9 

67, 900 

16.9 

95, 300 

5.0 

19,100 

8.0 

33, 300 

11.0 

49,200 

14.0 

68, 600 

17.0 

96, 300 

5.1 

19, 500 

8.1 

33, 800 

11.1 

49, 800 

14.1 

69, 400 

17.1 

97, 300 

5.2 

19, 950 

8.2 

34,300 

11.2 

50, 400 

14.2 

70, 200 

17.2 

98, 300 

5.3 

20,400 

8.3 

34,800 

11.3 

51,000 

14.3 

71,000 

17.3 

99, 300 

5.4 

20, 850 

8.4 

35,300 

11.4 

51,600 

14.4 

71,800 

17.4 

100, 400 

5.5 

21,300 

8.5 

35, 800 

11.5 

52,200 

14.5 

72, 600 

17.5 

101,500 

5.6 

21,750 

8.6 

36, 300 

11.6 

52, 800 

14.6 

73, 500 

17.6 

102, 600 

5.7 

22, 200 

8.7 

36,800 

11.7 

53,400 

14.7 

74, 400 

17.7 

103, 700 

5.8 

22,650 

8.8 

37,300 

11.8 

54,000 

14.8 

75, 300 

17.8 

104, 800 

5.9 

23,100 

8.9 

37,800 

11.9 

54,600 

14.9 

76, 200 

17.9 

105, 900 

[This  table  is  applicable  only  after  December  1,  1900.] 


7.0 

28,300 

9.8 

42,300 

12.6 

57, 650 

15.4 

73,600 

18.2 

91,900 

7.1 

28,800 

9.9 

42,800 

12.7 

58,200 

15.5 

74,250 

18.3 

92, 600 

7.2 

29,300 

10.0 

43, 350 

12.8 

58, 750 

15.6 

74,900 

18.4 

93, 300 

7.3 

29,800 

10.1 

43, 900 

12.9 

59, 300 

15.7 

75, 550 

18.5 

94, 000 

7.4 

30,300 

10.2 

44, 450 

13.0 

59, 850 

15.8 

76, 200 

18.6 

94, 700 

7.5 

30,800 

10.3 

45, 000 

13.1 

60, 400 

15.9 

76, 850 

18.7 

95, 400 

7.6 

31,300 

10.4 

45, 550 

13.2 

60, 950 

16.0 

77, 500 

18.8 

96, 100 

7.7 

31,800 

10.5 

46, 100 

13.3 

61,. 500 

16.1 

78, 150 

18.9 

96, 800 

7.8 

32,300 

10.6 

46, 6-50 

13.4 

62, 050 

16.2 

78, 800 

19.0 

97, 500 

7.9 

32,800 

10.7 

47, 200 

13.5 

62, 600 

16.3 

79, 450 

19.1 

98, 200 

8.0 

33,300 

10.8 

47, 750 

13.6 

63, 150 

16.4 

80, 100 

19.? 

98, 900 

8.1 

33,800 

10.9 

48, 300 

13.7 

63, 700 

16.5 

80, 750 

19.3 

99, 600 

8.2 

34,300 

11.0 

48, 850 

13.S 

64, 250 

16.6 

81,400 

19.4 

100, 300 

8.3 

34,800 

11.1 

49, 400 

13.9 

64,800 

16.7 

82, 050 

19.5 

101,000 

8.4 

35,300 

11.2 

49, 950 

14.0 

65, 350 

16.8 

82, 700 

19.6 

101,700 

8.5 

35,800 

11.3 

50, 500 

14.1 

65, 900 

16.9 

83,350 

19.7 

102, 400 

8.6 

36,300 

11.4 

51,050 

14.2 

66,450 

17.0 

84, 000 

19.8 

103, 100 

8.7 

36,800 

11.5 

51,600 

14.3 

67, 000 

17.1 

84, 650 

19.9 

103,800 

8.8 

37,300 

11.6 

52, 150 

14.4 

67, 550 

17.2 

85, 300 

20.0 

104,500 

8. '.) 

37,800 

11.7 

52, 700 

14.5 

68, 100 

17.3 

85, 950 

20.1 

105,250 

9.0 

38,300 

11.8 

53, 250 

14.6 

68, 650 

17.4 

86, 600 

20.2 

106,000 

9.1 

38,800 

11.9 

53, 800 

14.7 

69, 200 

17.5 

87, 250 

20.3 

IOC.  7511 

9.2 

39,300 

12.0 

54,350 

14.8 

69, 800 

17.6 

87, 900 

20.4 

107,500 

9.3 

39, 800 

12.1 

54,900 

14.9 

70, 400 

17.7 

88,550 

20.5 

ION,  250 

9.4 

40,300 

12.2 

55,450 

15.0 

71,000 

17.  s 

89,  200 

20.6 

109,000 

9.  5 

40,800 

12.3 

56, 000 

15.1 

71,650 

17.9 

S9,S5I.I 

20.7 

109, 750 

'J.  6 

41,300 

12.4 

56, 550 

15.2 

72, 300 

18.0 

90, 500 

20.8 

110,500 

9.7 

41,800 

12.5 

57, 100 

15.3 

72, 950 

18.1 

91,200    1 

20. 9 

111,250 

158  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Daily  gauge  height  of  San  Juan  River  at  Ochou  for  18l>9. 


Day. 
1.... 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dee. 

8.60 

7.60 

7.22 

5.85 

4.80 

5.45 

6.95 

9.12 

8.00 

8.30 

7.01 

11.29 

2.... 

9.32 

7.58 

7.12 

5.82 

4.80 

5.18 

7.25 

8.75 

7.82 

8.  30 

6.90 

9.80 

3.... 

9.85 

7.47 

7.02 

5.75 

4.80 

5.02 

7.80 

8.48 

7.67 

7.85 

6.92 

9.41 

4.... 

9.30 

7.38 

6.92 

5.75 

4.82 

4.85 

7.45 

10. 52 

7.  65 

7. 85 

7.22 

8.  99 

5.... 

9.55 

7.30 

6.88 

5.55 

4.88 

4.75 

7.30 

10. 02 

7. 30 

7.45 

11.26 

9.  58 

6.... 

9.28 

7.30 

6.78 

5.90 

4.82 

4.70 

7.40 

9.12 

7.17 

7.42 

11.95 

11.93 

8.92 

7.50 

6.78 

5.95 

5.15 

5.10 

7.28 

8.65 

7. 05 

7.35 

12. 05 

13.37 

8.... 

9.07 

7.45 

7.28 

6.05 

4.88 

6.85 

7.30 

9.42 

7. 25 

7.14 

10.61 

12.29 

9.... 

8.92 

7.30 

7.40 

6.48 

4.70 

6.92 

9. 15 

10. 12 

7.10 

6.89 

11.35 

11.48 

10.... 

9.07 

7.25 

6.98 

6.35 

4.58 

8.45 

12.  60 

9.05 

7.15 

6.86 

11.50 

10.  13 

11... 

8.97 

7. 25 

6.  75 

6.90 

4.50 

7.42 

15. 25 

8.22 

7. 52 

6.81 

11.76 

9,  69 

VI.... 

9.85 

7.45 

6.65 

6.70 

4.52 

7.28 

12. 45 

7.72 

8.00 

7.36 

13.87 

9.  26 

13.... 

10. 37 

8.  38 

6.60 

6.30 

4.58 

7.02 

11.65 

7.78 

7.57 

7.  58 

13.  41 

9.02 

14.... 

9.90 

8.98 

6.55 

6.10 

4.60 

6.32 

14. 85 

7. 85 

7.37 

8.54 

12. 93 

s.  49 

15.... 

9.97 

8.15 

6.52 

5.88 

4.50 

6.40 

12. 68 

7.90 

7.17 

9.14 

14.30 

8.56 

16.... 

10. 55 

7.98 

6.48 

5.70 

4.42 

6.20 

10. 85 

7.90 

7. 35 

8.23 

12.95 

8. 33 

17.... 

9.95 

7.90 

6.35 

5.58 

4.42 

6.15 

9. 85 

8. 25 

7.60 

8.12 

11.90 

8.61 

18.... 

9.42 

8.25 

6.30 

5.48 

4.45 

6.22 

9.00 

8.82 

8.10 

8.07 

11.28 

10.21 

10.... 

9.17 

8.20 

6.28 

5.48 

4.62 

6.25 

9.10 

9.58 

8.  20 

7.57 

10.  65 

10.  37 

20. . . . 

9.02 

8.00 

6.25 

5.42 

5.15 

6.92 

8.52 

8.05 

8.60 

7.30 

10.19 

9. 92 

21 ... . 

8.75 

8.22 

6.22 

5.32 

4.80 

6.75 

9.62 

8.65 

9.87 

7.  21 

9.80 

9.  93 

22.... 

8. 52 

7.80 

6.12 

5.25 

4.78 

6.25 

10.80 

9.20 

13.57 

7.76 

9.39 

-.).  60 

23.... 

s.  45 

8.10 

6.02 

5.15 

5.10 

6.00 

8.55 

8.88 

14.05 

9.04 

9.02 

9.06 

24.... 

8.35 

7.90 

6.00 

5.05 

5.28 

5.98 

8.35 

9.98 

11.00 

8.80 

8.75 

9.26 

25. . . . 

8. 35 

7.70 

5.98 

5.00 

5.55 

6.02 

9.35 

10.42 

9.47 

8.03 

8.50 

9. 22 

26.... 

8.15 

7.42 

5.90 

4.95 

6.35 

5.78 

10. 35 

10.30 

8.97 

7.50 

8.34 

9.37 

27.... 

8.02 

7.50 

5.82 

4.95 

6.60 

5.82 

11.32 

10.05 

8.82 

7.24 

8.55 

9.44 

28.... 

7.97 

7.40 

5.80 

4.95 

6.08 

6.68 

10.38 

9.00 

9.20 

7.19 

9.44 

9.  11 

29.... 

7.82 

5.80 

4.92 

6.42 

6.92 

9.52 

8.42 

8.85 

7.26 

9.08 

9.20 

30.... 

7.72 

6.78 

4.85 

6.50 

6.68 

8.55 

8.20 

8.42 

7.19 

9.07 

9.04 

31.... 

7.65 

5.70 

5.90 

9.30 

8.05 

7.17 

9.83 

Daily  gauge  height  of  San  Juan  Hirer  at  Ochoa  for  1900. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1.... 

9.48 

6.61 

5.67 

4.55 

3.83 

7.60 

7.13 

8.58 

lu.00 

12. 95 

10.91 

12.97 

2.... 

8.99 

6.56 

5.58 

4.73 

3.89 

7.51 

6.85 

8.68 

9.63 

14.43 

10.87 

11.86 

3.... 

8. 54 

6.69 

5.55 

5.15 

3.77 

6.72 

6.77 

9.61 

9.03 

13.79 

11.14 

11.06 

4.... 

8.54 

6.58 

6.52 

4.72 

3.64 

6.76 

■  7.85 

12.15 

8.63 

12.79 

11.67 

11.09 

11.68 

6.41 

5.64 

4.53 

3.47 

7.06 

7.37 

14.93 

8.39 

12. 38 

11.63 

11.23 

6.... 

11.60 

6.33 

5.66 

4.40 

3.57 

6.83 

7.18 

12.54 

8.13 

11.97 

11.30 

11.69 

7.... 

10. 27 

6.20 

5.37 

4.37 

4.04 

6.35 

7.43 

11.73 

8.38 

12. 21 

10.84 

13.82 

8.... 

9.62 

6.14 

5.25 

4.35 

3.89 

7.04 

9.51 

10.87 

8.59 

12. 62 

11.07 

20.28 

9.... 

9.13 

6.15 

5.18 

4.33 

3.83 

6.76 

8.91 

10. 52 

8.58 

11.87 

13.99 

19.15 

10.... 

8.  60 

6.17 

5.21 

4.30 

3.76 

6.27 

9.00 

11.83 

8. 28 

12.60 

14. 51 

16.52 

11.... 

s.  32 

6.02 

5.17 

4.30 

4.44 

6.09 

8.83 

11.67 

8.55 

11.84 

14.41 

14.74 

12.... 

8.08 

5.93 

5.13 

4.60 

4.09 

6.33 

8.29 

11.50 

8.31 

10.97 

13.31 

1 1.97 

13.... 

8.00 

5.90 

5.15 

4.92 

4.11 

6.45 

9.79 

10.91 

8.19 

10.  55 

12.25 

13.  79 

14.... 

7.88 

5.84 

5.05 

4.58 

4.42 

6.08 

9. 55 

10.  75 

8.  45 

10. 29 

12.94 

12.  59 

7.70 

5.81 

5. 01 

4.35 

4.36 

5.70 

8.56 

11.02 

8.35 

10.20 

12.88 

11.76 

16.... 

7.57 

5.83 

4.99 

4.18 

4.35 

6.84 

10. 53 

9.50 

8. 53 

10.02 

11.97 

11.15 

17.... 

7.38 

5. 83 

4.92 

4.17 

4.10 

8.22 

11.65 

9.36 

9.45 

9.93 

11.33 

10.83 

18.... 

7.26 

5. 83 

L92 

4.18 

3.90 

9.22 

10.64 

9.60 

9.95 

10.04 

L0.82 

10.52 

19.... 

7.12 

5.75 

1.82 

4.31 

3.80 

7.52 

11.66 

10.16 

9.97 

10.36 

10.54 

10.  69 

20.... 

7.05 

7.04 

4.79 

4.45 

3.84 

6.89 

10. 56 

9.07 

9.66 

11.05 

10. 40 

10.31 

21 ... . 

6.95 

7. 20 

l.M 

4.34 

4.61 

6.51 

9.79 

9.13 

9.05 

13.95 

10.84 

10.00 

22.... 

6.  98 

6.36 

6. 07 

4.23 

4.91 

6.05 

9.85 

9.51 

9.03 

L5.88 

10.53 

9.  69 

23.... 

7.01 

6.04 

5.19 

4.10 

4.45 

5.96 

10. 63 

9.24 

9.79 

13.76 

10.80 

9.50 

24.... 

7.02 

5.81 

6. 35 

4.02 

4.64 

5.72 

10.10 

9.43 

9.62 

12.63 

10.18 

9. 26 

6.91 

5. 76 

5.24 

3.96 

4.73 

5.66 

9.13 

10.34 

9.88 

12.76 

9.85 

9.12 

26 . . . 

6.77 

5.  60 

5.05 

4.09 

6.79 

5.57 

8.  59 

10.21 

11.  is 

12.08 

9.70 

8. 96 

27... 

7.12 

5.  85 

4  90 

4.07 

8.19 

5.40 

8.57 

10.78 

11.37 

1 1 .  86 

9.  60 

8.83 

28... 

7. 32 

5.95 

4.81 

4.03 

8.  55 

5.  .50 

8.71 

10. 82 

10.76 

11.  17 

9.  78 

8. 69 

29... 

7.68 

4.69 

4.05 

7.18 

6. 17 

8.65 

11.95 

11.95 

1 1 .  09 

10.52 

8.6] 

30... 

6.90 

4.62 

3.88 

6.55 

6.92 

8.44 

11.30 

14.60 

10.79 

1 1 .  63 

8. 50 

:;i . . . 

6.70 

J.  53 



7.29 

8.64 

10.45 

10.89 

8.  lo 

REPORT    <)K    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


159 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  San  Juan  River  at  Ochoa. 


L898. 

January  

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

OctoDer 

November 

December 

The  year 

1899. 

January  

February  

Ma  reh 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 

1900. 

January  

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  vear 


Daily  gauge  height  of  San  Carlos  R 

iver  at  station  3  miles  above  mouth,  for 

1899. 

Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1.... 

11.90 

11.85 

12.40 

11.15 

10. 80 

12.35 

113.30 

5.25 

13. 15 

13.10 

12.50 

17.40 

2.... 

12.75 

11.85 

12. 20 

11.45 

10.80 

12.10 

13.30 

14.70 

13.05 

13.35 

12. 35 

15.50 

3.... 

14. 35 

11.80 

12. 15 

11.45 

10.75 

11.90 

13. 50 

14. 35 

13.00 

13.05 

12.40 

15.25 

4.... 

12.80 

11.70 

12. 05 

11.40 

10.80 

11.65 

13. 50 

17.90 

13.00 

13.10 

12. 55 

14.75 

5.... 

12. 60 

11. 65 

12.00 

10. 20 

10.80 

11.55 

13. 80 

15.60 

12.85 

13.15 

17. 95 

15. 90 

6.... 

12.40 

11.60 

11.85 

12. 05 

10.85 

11.50 

14.70 

15.  30 

12.70 

12.80 

19.10 

19.15 

7.... 

12.15 

12. 05 

11.85 

11.75 

11.55 

11.90 

14.70 

14.85 

12.60 

12. 90 

16. 75 

19.40 

8.... 

12.55 

12.00 

12. 70 

11.60 

11.20 

12.20 

14.20 

14.65 

12.80 

12.60 

15.  50 

18.70 

9.... 

12.50 

11.70 

12.80 

12. 75 

10.90 

12.80 

15.10 

15. 70 

12.45 

12.40 

17.15 

17.30 

10.... 

12.35 

11.70 

12.20 

12. 20 

10.90 

13. 95 

19.00 

14.75 

12.65 

12.40 

16.70 

16.10 

11.... 

12.20 

11.70 

11.95 

12. 60 

10.80 

13. 50 

22.95 

14.10 

13.10 

12.40 

18. 20 

15.30 

12.... 

12.35 

11.70 

11.80 

12.  50 

10.80 

13.45 

17.50 

13.70 

14.05 

12. 55 

19. 45 

14.90 

13.... 

13.00 

12.70 

1 1 .  ?:. 

12.00 

11.05 

12.  95 

18.80 

13.50 

13.50 

13.15 

18. 25 

14.65 

14.... 

13. 25 

14.70 

11. HO 

12. 00 

11.20 

12.75 

20.60 

14.30 

13. 35 

13.60 

17. 95 

14.30 

15.... 

12.90 

13. 45 

11.70 

11.80 

10.90 

12.90 

17.50 

14.20 

13.00 

13. 65 

18. 95 

14. 05 

16.... 

15. 00 

13.25 

11.65 

11.65 

10. 85 

12. 75 

16.80 

14.30 

13.00 

13.10 

17.60 

13. 95 

17.... 

13.60 

12.  70 

11.55 

11. 50 

10.80 

12. 90 

15. 60 

14.05 

13.30 

13.45 

16.90 

13.90 

18.... 

13. 25 

12. 85 

11.50 

11.40 

10.70 

12.80 

14.90 

13.90 

13.00 

13.40 

16. 25 

16.20 

19.... 

13. 20 

12.95 

11.50 

11.30 

10.80 

12.70 

15.50 

13.70 

13.00 

13. 15 

15. 75 

15. 00 

20.... 

13.20 

12. 85 

11.40 

11.30 

11.20 

13.90 

14.40 

13.50 

12. 75 

12.85 

15.45 

14.70 

21.... 

12. 85 

13.30 

11.40 

11.20 

11.35 

13. 25 

15.60 

14.25 

12.85 

12. 70 

15. 05 

14. 50 

22.... 

12. 65 

12. 85 

11.30 

11.15 

11. 35 

12. 70 

14.90 

14.75 

14.15 

13.30 

14. 65 

14. 95 

23.... 

12. 55 

13.70 

11.25 

11.10 

12. 20 

12. 75 

14.  as 

13.  65 

14.50 

13.40 

14.30 

14.45 

24.... 

12. 50 

13.20 

11.20 

11.05 

12.60 

12. 55 

14.55 

13.80 

14.25 

13.30 

14.35 

15. 30 

25.... 

12.60 

12.90 

11.15 

11.00 

12. 00 

13. 00 

14.30 

13.70 

13.20 

13.05 

14.00 

15.20 

26.... 

12.35 

12.55 

11.10 

10. 95 

12. 65 

12. 50 

14. 35 

13.90 

13. 05 

12. 70 

13.75 

15.80 

27.... 

12.20 

12.80 

11.10 

10.90 

13. 80 

12. 35 

16.90 

14.00 

12.85 

12.50 

13.50 

15.68 

28.... 

12.50 

12.60 

11.05 

10.90 

13.00 

14.00 

16.40 

13.65 

13.75 

12.50 

16. 25 

15.45 

29. . . . 

12. 05 

11.10 

10. 95 

13. 30 

13.  70 

15. 45 

13.30 

13.85 

12.60 

15. 30 

15. 03 

30.... 

12.00 

11.10 

10.90 

13. 60 

13. 55 

14. 65 

13. 15 

13.20 

12. 65 

15.55 

15.09 

31 ... . 

11.90 

11.05 

12.95 

16.40 

13. 20 

12.70 

16.57 

160  REPORT    OB"    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Daily  gauge  height  of  San  Carlvs  River  at  station  3  miles  above  mouth,  far  1900. 


Day. 

.l.-i  n . 

Fed. 

Mar. 

Apr. 
11.18 

May. 

June. 
14. 12 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1.... 

16.09 

12.. "'7 

11.98 

10.97 

14.17 

14.56 

15.  26 

17.70 

15.70 

is.  12 

2.... 

15.16 

12.65 

11.92 

11. 92 

10.  92 

11.  12 

13.70 

14.17 

14.75 

19. 20 

15. 39 

16.44 

3.... 

14.63 

12. 47 

11.78 

12.53 

10.84      14.23 

13.62 

14.     i 

14.30 

17.35 

15.55 

15.  50 

1.... 

14.91 

12.37 

11.  82 

11.60 

10.84     14.27 

13.91 

15. 97 

13.98      16.76 

16.31 

15.11 

20.00 

12. 23 

12. 07 

11.18 

10.74     14.39 

13.90 

16.13 

13.72 

16.50 

16.35 

16.19 

6.... 

18.26 

12. 15 

12. 15 

11.34 

10.  73     14. 11 

14.19 

15.25 

13. 50 

16.83 

16.14 

14.90 

7.... 

16.80 

12.08 

11.76 

11.21 

11.15     13.64 

14.11 

15. 50 

13.73 

17.83 

15. 48 

17.77 

8.... 

16.06 

12. 00 

11. 62 

11.19 

11.36     14.80 

16.45 

14.73 

14.24 

17.75 

16.40 

27.  70 

9.... 

15.30 

il.94 

11.55 

11.16 

11.17  |  13.76 

14.40 

14.65 

13. 93 

16. 32 

21.  58 

22. 48 

10.... 

14.76 

12.00 

11.61 

11.18 

11.16  1  13.16 

14.62 

15. 63 

13.79 

18.95 

19.77 

20.53 

11.... 

14.40 

11.90 

11.48 

11.19 

10.97  ;  13.41 

14.93 

15. 20 

14. 03 

16.60 

19. 25 

17.93 

12.... 

14. 12 

11.79 

11.54 

12.23 

11.20 

13.41 

14.61 

15.67 

13.62 

15.82 

18.23 

17.69 

13.... 

14.06 

11.72 

11.65 

12.21 

11.24 

13.39 

15. 71 

15.41 

13.38 

15.66 

17.50 

16.77 

14.... 

13.84 

11.70 

11.41 

11.73 

11.85 

13.12 

15.00 

14.57 

13.65 

15.00 

18.60 

15.98 

15  ... 

13.58 

11.60 

11.36 

11.42 

11.54 

12. 87 

14. 29 

14.60 

13.97 

14.87 

18.48 

15. 68 

16.... 

13.  13 

11.62 

11.29 

11.26 

11.65 

13.63 

14. 35 

14.11 

13.75 

14. 65 

16.96 

15. 25 

17.... 

13. 22 

11.72 

11. 25 

11.40 

11.35 

15.28 

17.80 

13.91 

15.00 

14. 57 

16.19 

14.90 

18.... 

13.09 

11.70 

11.22 

11.48 

11.23 

13.97 

16. 53 

13.90 

15. 58 

15.07 

15. 57 

14.68 

19.... 

12.  94 

11.90 

11.20 

11.89 

11.22 

13.  35 

17.85 

13. 95 

15. 04 

15.38 

15.25 

14.  52 

20.... 

12.  86 

14.00 

11.15 

11.92 

11.44 

13.41 

16. 27 

13.59 

14.62 

17. 03 

15.04 

14. 38 

21 ... . 

12.  78 

13.70 

11.10 

11.69 

12.78 

13.22 

15.73 

13.69 

14.16 

16.75 

14.95 

14.20 

22.... 

12.  70 

12. 60 

11.21 

11.46 

12. 58 

12. 92 

15.  29 

13.95 

14.10 

18.23 

15. 20 

14. 02 

23.... 

12. 70 

12.21 

12.10 

11.34 

11.98 

12. 96 

16.54 

14.27 

14.79 

16.70 

15.97 

13.90 

24.... 

12.80 

12.00 

12.15 

11.25 

12.24 

12. 65 

15.44 

14.43 

14.48 

16.44 

14.75 

13.  70 

25.... 

12.72 

11. 85 

12. 03 

11.12 

12. 78 

12.65 

14.70 

14. 62 

15.59 

16.85 

14.49 

13.58 

26.... 

12.54 

11.75 

11.71 

11.24 

14.73 

12.  70 

14.23 

14.27 

17.07 

16. 23 

14.28 

13.  46 

27.... 

13.43 

12.30 

11.50 

11.05 

16. 30 

12. 45 

14.05 

14.25     17.76 

16.98 

14.30 

13.  32 

28.... 

13.63 

12. 52 

11.36 

11.  16 

14.90 

13.82 

14.57 

14.81     16.46 

15.87 

14.68 

13. 2:? 

29.... 

13.20 

11.29 

11.12 

13.78 

13.  54 

15.00 

16.77  1  17.04 

15.16 

15.82 

13.05 

30.... 

13.00 

11.20 

11.00 

13.18 

14.10 

14.20 

16.85     20.72 

14. 95 

17. 95 

L3.02 

31.... 

12.70 

11.19 

14.34 

14. 25 

15.80    

15.56 

12. 95 

Rating  table  for  San  Carlos  River  at  station  S  miles  above  mouth. 

[This  table  is  applicable  only  from  April  1, 1899,  to  September  14,  1900.] 


Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

I  lis 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

Feet. 

.Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

.See.  feet. 

Feet. 

Si,-,  flit. 

Feet. 

Sec. feet.  1 

10.7 

2.  Slid 

13.1 

8,160 

15. 5 

15, 200 

17.9 

24, 360 

20.3 

36,160* 

10.8 

2, 960 

13.2 

8,420 

15.6 

15, 520 

18.0 

24, 800 

20.  1 

36, 680 

10.9 

3,  1211 

13.3 

8,700 

15.7 

15.S40 

18.1 

25, 240 

20.  6 

37, 200 

11.0 

3,320 

13.4 

8, 980     : 

15.8 

16,  200 

18.2 

25, 680 

20.  6 

: '.7.720 

11.1 

3, 520 

13.5 

9, 260 

15.9 

16,  560 

IS.  3 

26, 160 

20.  7 

38,240 

11.2 

3, 720 

13.6 

9,540 

16.0 

16,920 

18.4 

26, 640 

20.8 

38,760 

11.3 

3, 920 

13.7 

9, 820 

16.1 

17,  280 

18.5 

27, 120 

20.9 

39,28(1 

11.  1 

4,140 

13.8 

10,100 

16.2 

17, 640 

is.  6 

27,600 

21.0 

39,  Slid 

11.5 

1,360 

13.9 

10, 380    I 

16.3 

18,000 

is. 7 

28,080 

21.1 

40, 320 

11.6 

1,580 

11.11 

10, 660 

16.4 

18,860 

18.8 

28,560 

21.2 

lo.  sin 

11.7 

1,800 

11.  1 

10, 940 

16.5 

18, 720 

18.9 

29, 040 

21.3 

41,360 

LI.  8 

5,  020 

11.2 

11,220 

16.6 

19,120 

19.0 

29, 520 

21.4 

41,880 

11.9 

5,240 

11.3 

11,500 

16.7 

19, 520 

1     19.1 

30,000 

21.5 

42, 400 

12.0 

5,  180 

11.  1 

11,800 

16.8 

19, 920 

19.2 

30,  ISO 

21.6 

42, 920 

12.1 

.'..7211 

14.5 

12, 100 

16.9 

20,  320 

:  19.3 

30. '.160 

21.7 

43, 440 

12.2 

6,960 

11.6 

12.  100 

17.0 

20, 720 

i'.i.  1 

3,1,  ISO 

21.8 

18,960 

12.3 

6,200 

14.7 

12,700 

17.1 

21,120 

19.5 

32.000 

21.9 

11,  ISO 

12.  1 

6,  mi 

1  1.8 

13,000 

17.2 

21,520 

19.6 

32,520 

22.  0 

15,000 

12.5 

6,680 

14.9 

13,300 

17.3 

21.920 

19.7 

33,,  OKI 

22. 1 

15,510 

12.6 

6,920 

16.0 

13.6(H) 

17.  1 

22.320 

19.  S 

83,560 

22.  2 

16,080 

12.7 

7.160 

15.1 

13,920 

17.5 

22,  720 

19.9 

31.  (ISO 

22.3 

16,620 

12.  S 

7.  100 

16. 2 

14,240 

17.6 

23,120 

20.0 

3,1.660 

22.  1 

17.160 

12. '.1 

7.6111 

15.  3 

1  1,560 

17.7 

23,520 

20.  1 

35, 120 

22.5 

17.7(H) 

13.0 

7,900 

L6.  1 

14,880 

17.8 

2:;.  920 

20. 2 

36, 6 10 

22.  6 

18,240 

SQOOO    ^  — ; 


to,ooo 


FIG.  8.— FLUCTUATIONS  OF  SAN  JUAN   RIVER  AT  SABALOS  AND  OCHOA  AND  OF  THE  SAN  CARLOS  NEAR   ITS  MOUTH. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


161 


Rating  table  for  San  Carlos  River  at  station  S  miles  above  month — Continued. 
[This  table  is  applicable  only  from  September  14, 1900,  to  December  31,  1900.] 


Gauge 

Dis- 

i  rauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

F,  1 1. 

.-v  r.  ft  1 1. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

S  <■■  n  1 1. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

12.7 

li.s 

11,920 

16.9 

18, 520 

19.0 

26, 960 

21.1 

36, 460 

12.8 

1 1 .  '.i 

12,200 

17.0 

18, 880 

19. 1 

27, 400 

21.2 

36, 920 

12.  9 

7, 200 

15.0 

12,  iso 

17.1 

19, 240 

19.2 

27,840 

21.3 

37, 380 

13.0 

7,  tld 

16. 1 

12, 760 

17.2 

19,  600 

19.3 

28,  280 

21.4 

37,  M0 

13.1 

7,  est) 

15.2 

13,040 

17.3 

19, 960 

19.4 

28, 720 

21.5 

38, 300 

13.2 

7,  "120 

15. 3 

13,320 

17.4 

20, 320 

19.5 

29, 160 

21.6 

38, 760 

13.3 

8,160 

15.4 

13,600 

17.5 

20, 680 

19.6 

29, 600 

21.7 

39, 220 

13.4 

8,400 

15. 5 

13, 920 

17.6 

21,040 

19.7 

30, 040 

21.8 

39, 680 

13.5 

8,640 

15.6 

14,240 

17.7 

21,  440 

19.8 

30,480 

21.9 

40, 140 

13.6 

8,880 

15.7 

14, 560 

17.8 

21,840 

19.9 

30, 940 

22.0 

40,600 

13.7 

9,120 

15.8 

14,  880 

17.9 

22, 240 

20. 0 

31,400 

22. 1 

41, 060 

13.8 

9,360 

15.9 

15,200 

18.0 

22, 640 

20.1 

31,860 

22.2 

41,520 

13.9 

9,600 

16.0 

15, 520 

18.1 

23, 040 

20.2 

32, 320 

22.3 

41,980 

14.0 

9,840 

16.1 

15, 840 

18.2 

23, 440 

20.3 

32, 780 

22.4 

42,  440 

14.1 

10, OSO 

16.2 

16, 160 

18.3 

23, 880 

20.4 

33, 240 

22.5 

42, 900 

14.2 

10, 320 

16.3 

16, 480 

18.4 

24, 320 

20.5 

33,700 

22.6 

43, 360 

14.3 

10, 560 

16.4 

16, 800 

18.5 

24, 760 

20.6 

34. 160 

22.7 

43, 820 

14.4 

10,800 

16.5 

17, 120 

18.6 

25, 200 

20.7 

34, 620 

22.8 

44, 280 

14.5 

11,080 

16.6 

17,440 

18.7 

25,640 

20.8 

35, 080 

22.9 

44, 740 

14.6 

11,360 

16.7 

17, 800 

18.8 

26,080 

20.9 

35,540 

23.0 

45, 200 

14.7 

11,640 

16.8 

18,160 

18.9 

26, 520 

21.0 

36,000 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  San  Carlos  River  3  miles  above  its  mouth. 
[Drainage  area  1,450  square  miles,  approximately.] 


Month. 


Discharge. 


Maximum.    Minimum.    Mean 


Total. 


Per 

square 
mile. 


Depth. 


Rainfall. 


1898. 

January  10-31  . 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year  .. 

1899. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 

1900. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October , 

November , 

December , 

The  year , 


Sec. feet. 
28, 000 
34,300 
11,341 
10, 080 
11, 880 
32,250 
41,600 
15, 730 
14, 200 
32, 500 
32, 260 
19, 920 


Sec. feet. 
10, 560 
7.400 
5,140 
4,220 
4,100 
5,200 
8,400 
S.800 
7,420 
8,180 
9,680 
5,850 


Sec. feet 

16, 055 

13, 530 

7,030 

6,038 

5,560 

10, 720 

14, 094 

10, 990 

10, 319 

12, 880 

15, 440 

9,290 


Acre-feet. 
700, 582 
751, 380 
432, 260 
359, 285 
341,870 
637, 880 
866, 605 
675, 750 
614,023 
791,960 
918, 750 
571, 220 


Sec. feet. 
11.10 
9.30 
4.80 
4.20 
3.80 
7.40 
9.70 
7.60 
7.10 
8.90 
10.60 
6.40 


Inches. 

9.09 

9.68 

5.53 

4.69 

4.38 

8.26 

11.18 

8.76 

7.92 

10.26 

11.88 

7.38 


Inches. 


7.52 
11.66 
20.12 
20.79 
18.26 
11.68 


41,600 


4,100 


10,  996 


7,661,565 


14, 200 
17, 340 
8,060 
7,280 
10, 100 
12, 314 
50, 130 
24,360 
12, 100 
9,757 
34, 737 
31,480 


5, 720 
4,940 
4,300 
3,120 
2,800 
4,360 
8,700 
8, 290 
6,560 
6,440 
6,320 
10,380 


7,865 

7,360 

5,400 

4,410 

4,559 

7,381 

16, 909 

11,678 

8,467 

7,808 

17, 106 

16, 057 


483, 600 
408, 750 
332, 030 
262, 457 
280, 308 
439, 206 

1,039,701 
718,067 
500, 829 
480, 701 

1,027,893 
991,347 


5.42 
5.08 
3.72 
3.04 
3.14 
5.09 
11.66 
8.05 
5.84 
5.38 
11.79 
11.07 


6.25 

5.29 

4.29 

3.39 

3.62 

5.68 

13.44 

9.28 

6.52 

6.20 

13.15 

12. 76 


"6.03 
20. 32 
16.03 


50, 130 


2,800  I  9,583 


6,967,889 


35, 457 

10, 783 
5,840 
6,752 
18, 000 
14,496 
26, 074 
20, 120 
34, 608 
27, 840 
38, 432 
66, 820 


6,776 
4, 5S0 
3,520 
3, 320 
2,848 
6,560 
9, 596 
9,512 
8,924 
11,276 
10,524 
7, 320 


66, 820 


2, 848 


11,670 

5,946 

4,525 

4,316 

5,844 

9,530 

13, 665 

13, 187 

12, 936 

17,202 

17, 380 

16,256 


717,543 
330, 249 
278, 257 
256, 835 
369, 353 
567, 079 
840,358 
817, 815 
769, 784 
1,057,745 
1,034,237 
999, 545 


8.05 
4.10 
3.05 
2.98 
4.03 
6.57 
9.42 
9.10 
8.92 
11.86 
11.98 
11.21 


9.28 

4.27 

•   3.52 

3.32 

4.65 

7.33 

10.86 

10.49 

9.95 

13.67 

13.36 

13. 02 


8.79 

4.96 

6.56 

3.00 

15.42 

11.26 

15.53 

22.72 

21.36 

6.45 

16. 56 

24.69 


11,038 


8, 038, 800 


S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 11 


From  Oct.  12  to  31. 


162 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  San  Juan  River  above  the  mouth  of  the  San  Carlos. 
[This  is  obtained  by  subtracting  the  discharge  of  the  San  Carlos  from  that  of  the  San  Juan  at  Oehoa.] 


Month. 


Discharge. 

Total. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

Sec.  feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Acre-feet. 

23, 270 

19, 500 

21, 030 

917, 650 

34,900 

18,500 

22, 080 

1, 226, 260 

22,000 

14,600 

16,850 

1, 036, 070 

25,800 

12, 900 

15, 120 

899, 700 

19, 200 

11,700 

14, 130 

868, 820 

39,200 

13,000 

22, 410 

1, 333, 500 

43,100 

26, 200 

32, 720 

2,011,870 

38,400 

23, 000 

26, 170 

1, 609, 130 

41,300 

22, 800 

29, 210 

1, 738, 120 

37,600 

24,700 

29, 320 

1, 802, 820 

70,500 

26,800 

36, 460 

2, 169, 520 

41,800 

26, 300 

31,570 

1, 941, 160 

70,500 

11,700 

24, 756 

17, 554, 620 

38,900 

26,300 

31,800 

1, 955, 300 

28, 200 

23, 100 

25, 180 

1, 398,  430 

23,100 

19, 600 

21, 540 

1,324,450 

20, 880 

15, 388 

17, 575 

1, 045, 777 

16,  740 

13, 390 

14, 981 

920, 979 

30,580 

13,540 

17, 229 

1, 025, 231 

38,030 

17, 000 

25, 777 

1,586,005 

35,900 

21, 050 

26, 253 

1, 614, 281 

56,900 

21,250 

27,  472 

1, 634, 741 

29, 320 

20, 910 

25,548 

1, 471, 747 

41, 720 

21, 460 

28, 959 

1,  723, 175 

32, 710 

23,  450 

26, 706 

1,  642, 110 

56,900 

13, 540 

24,085 

17, 342, 226 

26,854 

19,  640 

21,994 

1, 352, 370 

19, 832 

16, 597 

18, 292 

1,025,925 

16, 633 

13, 520 

15, 133 

930, 495 

13, 620 

11,122 

12, 186 

725, 127 

22, 750 

10, 188 

12, 569 

772, S60 

22,  060 

11,144 

16, 524 

983, 237 

34, 730 

17, 5.54 

24, 496 

1,406,242 

59, 082 

23, 770 

33, 946 

2, 0S7, 339 

38, 892 

24, 628 

28, 156 

1,  675,  415 

61,528 

30, 512 

37, 999 

2,  336,  492 

43, 820 

30, 098 

34, 277 

2,  039,  662 

55, 742 

27, 980 

36, 633 

2, 252, 502 

61,528 

10, 18S 

24. 3S0 

17, 587, 656 

1898 

January,  10-31 

February , 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 

1899. 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 

1900, 

January 

February  

March , 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  tributaries  to  San  Juan  River  between  Boca  San  Carlos 
and  Los  Sabalos  Station.     Drainage  area,  750  square  miles  (approximately). 

[This  is  the  difference  between  the  discharge  of  the  San  Juan  above  Boca  Sun  Carlos  and  at  Sabalos 

Station.] 


Months. 


1898. 

January  (10-31) 

February  

March 

April 

May 

Jane 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 


Discharge. 


Maximum.  Minimum.    Mean 


Sec.  feet. 

5,  101) 
17,61)0 

Cjilll) 
12,700 

7.000 

21,000 

21,600 
16,  100 
15, 900 
11,900 

16, > 

15,  600 


46,000 


Sec. 


feet. 

'..III! 

'J.  Voo 
1,300 
1,  100 

500 
1,000 

7,  soo 
;;,  loo 
•j,  600 
•j,  ooo 
•j,  son 
2, 900 


500 


S,v 


feet. 

6",ll 
I.  ,11 

820 
960 

380 
270 
350 
680 
140 
ii.  ,n 
080 
640 


6,270 


Total. 


Icre-feet. 
111,770 
802,680 
17;;,  ion 
L76,  L30 
1 16,340 
192,  loo 
820,860 
404,590 

121.  Mil) 

878,000 
669,360 

102,  150 


I,  190,210 


Run-olT. 


Per 
square 
mile. 


Sec.  feet. 
3.51 

7.  27 
s!  76 
:;.  96 
3.17 

LI.  08 
17.  so 
8.77 
9. 52 
8. 04 
14.76 

8,  72 


Depth, 


/  riches. 

2. 87 

7. 57 
4.31 
4.40 
8  in; 

12.31 

20.52 

in.  11 
10.62 

9.30 

16.  17 
10. 05 


.a 

IP 


'-    . 

:  -  «6?  J   - 

-  ' \-  * 


mm" 


m 
% 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


163 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  tributaries  to  San  Juan  River  between  Boca  San  Carlos  and 
Los  Sabalos  Station.     Drainage  area,  750  square  miles  (approximately) — Cont'd. 


Months. 


[Maximum.  Minimum 


1899. 

January  

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 

1900. 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  vear 


Discharge. 


Sec 


feet. 

14,400 

7,100 

4,400 

5,481 

5,773 

11,446 

22, 970 

15, 833 

31,590 

9,704 

19, 855 

11,853 


31,590 


8, 574 

5,008 

4,010 

2,258 

11,270 

8,884 

11,914 

31,114 

14, 574 

26,728 

14, 620 

28, 222 


31,114 


Sec.  feet. 
4,300 
3,200 
2,800 
1,600 
972 
1, 296 
4,430 
7,067 
5, 795 
3,048 
2,008 
3,604 


972 


2,977 
2,517 
2,000 
446 
90 
2,124 
2,802 
5,042 
4,170 
2,320 
3, 524 
2,712 


90 


Mean. 


Total. 


Sec. feet. 
8,330 
4,390 
3, 590 
2, 517 
2,156 
4,367 
11,585 
10, 892 
10, 362 
5,790 
8,604 
6,373 


6,580 


4,574 
3,186 
2,845 
1,124 
1,886 
4,214 
7,365 
12,983 
6,922 
9,559 
6,234 
9, 715 


5,  884 


Acre-feet. 
512, 190 
243, 810 
220, 750 
149, 772 
132, 573 
259, 862 
712, 309 
669, 818 
616, 619 
356, 056 
511,  967 
391,649 


4, 777, 375 


281,262 
176, 984 
164, 965 
66, 877 
116,025 
250,  778 
452,885 
798,  317 
411,870 
587, 739 
370, 954 
597,335 


Run-off. 


Per 
square 
mile. 


Sec.  feet. 
11.10 
5.85 
4.80 
3.36 
2.87 
5.82 
15.45 
14.52 
13.82 
7.72 
11.47 
8.50 


4, 275,  991 


6.10 
4.25 
3.79 
1.50 
2.51 
5.62 
9.82 

17.31 
9.23 

12. 75 
8.31 

12.96 


Depth. 


Inches. 

12. 80 

6.09 

5.53 

3.75 

3.31 

6.49 

17.81 

16.74 

15.42 

8.90 

12.80 

9.80 


7.03 
4.43 
4.37 
1.67 
2.89 
6.26 
11. 32 
19.96 
10.30 
14.70 
9.27 
14.83 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Machado  River. 


Months. 


1899. 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 

1900. 

January 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

The  year 


Discharge. 


Maximum.  Minimum.      Mean 


Sec. 


feet. 
339 
1.50 
300 
213 
424 
251 

1,035 
930 

1,158 
225 

1,252 

1,464 


1,464 


258 
311 
105 
83 
221 
196 
472 
989 
648 
355 
375 
2, 602 


2,602 


Sec.  feet. 


56 

60 

53 

95 

170 

198 

180 

100 

79 

110 


Sec.  feet. 
214 
97 
118 
101 
160 
159 
335 
337 
302 
154 
309 
338 


Total. 


Acre-feet. 

13, 178 

5,405 

7,252 

6,030 

9,854 

9,471 

20,570 

20, 747 

17, 994 

9,471 

18, 373 

20, 797 


219 


95 

146 

9,011 

73 

120 

6,665 

62 

/  / 

4,740 

37 

55 

3,255 

30 

94 

5,796 

79 

112 

6,653 

101 

258 

15, 862 

209 

528 

32, 490 

170 

337 

20, 025 

80 

169 

10, 378 

113 

267 

12, 327 

168 

600 

36, 538 

159, 142 


163, 740 


164 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


SAN    FRANCISCO    RIVER. 

The  most  important  stream  that  will  be  intersected  by  a  canal  line 
from  Boca  San  Carlos  to  Grey  town,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  San  Juan, 
is  the  San  Francisco.  Its  principal  branch  is  the  Chanchos.  Above 
their  junction  measurements  were  made  throughout  1898.  The  sum- 
mary of  monthly  discharges  of  the  river  near  its  mouth  is  given  in  the 
table  following.  In  1899  and  1900  fifteen  current  meter  measurements 
were  made,  which  are  also  given  below. 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  San  Francisco  River  at  Us  month. 

[Obtained  by  combining  observations  taken  on  the  Upper  San  Francisco  and  Chanchos  rivers  and 

Nicholson  Creek.] 


Months. 

Discharge. 

Total. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

1898. 

Sec.  feet. 
1,270 
1,360 

390 
1,260 

560 
1,100 
1,890 

800 
1,280 

510 
1, 520 
1,090 

Sec.  feet. 
230 
170 
120 

no 

125 

115 
270 
185 
150 
130 
100 
160 

Sec.  feet. 
583 
489 
199 
254 
232 
373 
684 
364 
382 
274 
502 
398 

Acre-feet. 
35, 850 

27, 160 

12, 240 

15, 110 

14,260 

22,200 

42, 060 

22,380 

22, 730 

16, 850 

29, 870 

24, 470 

1,890 

100 

394 

285, 180 

Discharge  measurements  made  on  Sun  Francisco  River,, 


Date. 

Hydrographer. 

Meter  No. 

Area  of 
section. 

Mean 
velocity. 

Dis- 
charge. 

1899. 

H  \V.  Durham 

Price  No.  34 

do 

Sq.feet. 

491 

1,083 

834 

662 
503 
415 
270 
848 
508 
417 
810 
842 
978 
626 
751 

Ft.perscc. 

0.52 

1.12 

.30 

.64 
.26 
.36 
.10 
.36 
.64 
.42 
.57 

1.16 

1.21 

.54 
.73 

Sec.  feet. 
256 

Nov      7 

do                               

1,212 

Nov    28 

do                                 

do 

247 

1900. 

H.G  Heisler...            

Price  No.  63 

Price  No.  34 

do 

129 

Feb    16 

H.C  Hurd 

131 

Mar    18 

do                                       

148 

Apr.  29 
May  21 

do...                               

Price  No.  35 

B.  &  B.No.l 

do 

27 

H.  G.  Heisler 

126 

do                                             

326 

.do...                     

do 

176 

Aug.     1 
Aug.  16 

Aug.  30 
Sept.  11 
Sept.  24 

do.                                    

do 

465 

do. 

do 

968 

...do...           

do 

1,187 

...do...                            

do 

340 

...do 

do 

554 

SARAPIQUI    RIVER. 

A  station  for  the  measurement  of  rainfall  and  discharge  on  the  Sara- 
piqui  was  maintained  about  6  miles  above  the  mouth  of  that  river  from 
August,  L898,  to  the  end  of  the  year  1899,  and  the  record  is  complete 
for  that  period.  A  native  observer  took  rainfall  and  gauge-height 
observations  throughout  1900,  and  approximate  results  for  that  year 
also  are  given. 


REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  165 

Daily  gauge  height  of  Sarapiqui  River  5  miles  above  its  mouth,  for  1899. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Pebi 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1.... 

7.30 

7.33       8.53 

6.90 

6.27 

9.20 

9.13 

11.28 

9.74 

9.  7  1 

8. 82 

12.60 

2.... 

12.14 

7.  41' 

8.32 

6.98 

6. 15 

8.95 

10. 24 

11.06 

9.19 

9.37 

8.60 

10.77 

3.... 

10.00 

7.  26 

8.15 

8.63 

6.11 

8.49 

9.73 

10. 75 

9.11 

10.04 

8.  42 

10.76 

4.... 

8.41 

7.  IS 

8.26 

7.10 

5.98 

8.05 

9.77 

13. 85 

8.81 

9.64 

9.80 

10.  30 

5.... 

9.60 

7.08 

7.90 

7.56 

6.00 

8. 37 

14.23 

11'.  81 

8.61 

9.79 

13.62 

15. 63 

6.... 

8.30 

7.74 

7.56 

8.84 

6.80 

8.70 

12.23 

12.  29 

8.72 

8.97 

17.10 

20. 15 

/ 

8.55 

7.90 

7. 52 

7.80 

6.72 

9.83 

14.25 

11.42 

8.73 

9.26 

13.61 

IS.   Ill 

8.... 

8.61 

7.43- 

10.10 

8.66 

6.  25 

10.50 

13.74 

11.48 

9.83 

8. 54 

12. 64 

18.75 

9.... 

8.66 

7.14 

8.86 

9.37 

6.02 

10. 75 

15. 86 

13.51 

9.02 

8.50 

16.80 

15. 17, 

10.... 

8.34 

7.09 

7.96 

8.63 

5.96 

13.72 

25. 17 

11.14 

11.41 

8.  28 

13.34 

13.29 

11.... 

8.08 

7.06 

7.55 

9.58 

6.10 

11.68 

24.  80 

10.61 

12.  66 

8.07 

16. 58 

12.17 

12.... 

9.01 

7.19 

7.33 

7.15 

6. 28 

13.84 

17. 55 

10. 05 

11. 92 

12.  42 

15. 28 

11.46 

13.... 

11.63 

14.40 

7.  41 

7.97 

7.20 

10.87 

19.40 

9.63 

10.46 

9.55 

14.67 

10.  92 

14.... 

9.98 

13.80 

7.62 

7.98 

6.71 

10.08 

18. 02 

10.22 

9.46 

10.04 

17.23 

10.39 

15.... 

9.88 

9.58 

7.84 

7.37 

6.26 

10.61 

14.68 

10. 58 

10.00 

10.40 

17.03 

10.27 

16.... 

13.10 

8.77 

7.71 

7.31 

6.21 

10.38 

13.30 

10.10 

9.56 

9.19 

15.10 

10.14 

17.... 

10.70 

8.18 

7.32 

7.03 

6.09 

9.68 

12. 12 

9.97 

9.42 

9.81 

13.75 

11. 12 

18.... 

9.76 

8.46 

7.30 

6.93 

6.35 

9.94 

11. 59 

9.74 

9.75 

10.41 

12.72 

14.69 

19.... 

10.16 

8.30 

7.15 

7.04 

9.37 

9.15 

12. 04 

9.47 

9.31 

9.05 

12. 52 

11.93 

20.... 

9.48 

9.71 

7.14 

8.75 

7.79 

10.65 

10.88 

9.00 

9.35 

8.55 

11.36 

10.89 

21 ... . 

8.98 

8.71 

6.93 

7.01 

8.10 

9.82 

10.94 

9.87 

9.47 

8.39 

10.80 

12.07 

22.... 

8.65 

9.50 

6.82 

6.83 

9.56 

9.27 

10.98 

10.76 

9.98 

8.96 

10.29 

10.71 

23.... 

8.39 

9.84 

6.75 

6.65 

11.24 

9.16 

10.  75 

9.47 

11.65 

10.29 

9.92 

10.66 

24.... 

8.46 

10. 92 

6.72 

6.47 

10.76 

8.80 

10. 21 

10. 24 

11.15 

11.39 

10.10 

11. 28 

25.... 

8.72 

9.76 

6.75 

6.38 

9.30 

8.79 

10. 20 

10. 15 

10.33 

9.85 

9.79 

11.56 

26.... 

8.30 

9.64 

6.72 

6.28 

12. 00 

8.80 

10.65 

10.35 

9.73 

10.64 

9.49 

12.09 

27.... 

8.10 

9.64 

7.05 

6.28 

14.09 

8.72 

14.70 

14.50 

9.37 

9.00 

10. 08 

11.11 

28.... 

7.86 

9.36 

7.14 

6.78 

11.86 

10.27 

12. 67 

11.09 

9.37 

8.56 

11.96 

10. 59 

29.... 

7.65 

9.27 

7.00 

11.83 

9.94 

11.00 

10.13 

9.78 

9.74 

10.34 

10. 55 

30.... 

7.50 

6.92 

6.61 

10.  75 

9.33 

10. 22 

10.40 

9.16 

8.97 

11.06 

10.40 

31 ... . 

7.35 

6.  75 

9.82 

14.  59 

9.71 

9.81 

Daily  guage  height  of  Sarapiqui  River  5  miles  above  its  mouth,  for  1900. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1.... 

10.65 

9.90 

4.95 

7.50 

7.15 

10.06 

11.15 

10.20 

9.90 

16.05 

12.95 

16. 55 

2.... 

9.90 

9.75 

4.90 

14.00 

6.80 

11.74 

9.95 

10.00 

9.55 

17.45 

11.20 

13.15 

3.... 

9.45 

9.50 

4.85 

9.50 

6.65 

12.50 

11.65 

12.20 

9.05 

13.80 

14. 05 

11.80 

4.... 

13. 25 

9.50 

4.95 

7.95 

6.45 

11. 15 

11.40 

16.65 

8.75 

13.20 

12.90 

11.70 

5.... 

20.80 

9.35 

7.65 

7.70 

6.35 

12. 95 

10.60 

14.45 

8.45 

13.80 

13. 25 

11. 55 

6.... 

15.50 

9.20 

5.25 

7.20 

6.30 

12.50 

11.40 

12. 65 

8.35 

13.00 

12.05 

12.35 

7.... 

13.70 

9.15 

4.75 

6.95 

7.60 

11.75 

12.90 

12. 65 

8.55 

16.65 

10.95 

14.75 

8.... 

13.30 

9.05 

4.50 

7.35 

7.40 

10.65 

13.20 

11.35 

8.95 

13.15 

13.10 

30. 25 

9.... 

11.85 

9.10 

4.40 

7.30 

7.75 

11.75 

11.85 

14.50 

8.40 

12.15 

23.50 

28.75 

10.... 

10. 95 

9.35 

5.00 

6.90 

7.15 

9.80 

12.65 

16.15 

8.05 

15.35 

18.25 

21.65 

11.... 

10.45 

9.05 

4.65 

6.90 

7.10 

9.30 

11.70 

14.55 

8.25 

12.20 

18.30 

17.00 

12.... 

9.95 

6.85 

4.60 

12. 65 

7.25 

9.40 

11.00 

16.60 

9.30 

11.45 

16.30 

15.75 

13.... 

9.95 

6.80 

4.90 

8.85 

8.55 

10.  65 

11.20 

14.10 

8.15 

10.  65 

17.40 

14. 40 

14.... 

9.80 

6.85 

4.60 

7.80 

9.75 

9.60 

11.10 

12.40 

8.25 

10.20 

17.20 

13.00 

15.... 

9.30 

6.90 

4.50 

7.30 

10.60 

9.25 

10.  35 

12.05 

8.05 

9.95 

17.00 

12. 75 

16.... 

9.00 

6.90 

4.45 

7.15 

9.30 

9.00 

11.15 

11.00 

9.65 

9.60 

14.45 

12. 05 

17.... 

8.80 

6.78 

4.40 

7.70 

8.00 

9.25 

13.90 

10.75 

12.40 

9.50 

13.20 

11.30 

18.... 

8.55 

6.90 

4.40 

8.10 

7.60 

11.10 

12.30 

10.10 

12. 45 

9.60 

12. 10 

10.85 

19.... 

8.40 

6.85 

4.00 

8.70 

7.25 

9.20 

16.60 

10.60 

10.05 

9.90 

11.45 

10.55 

20.... 

S.30 

10.55 

4.00 

9.20 

9.85 

8.90 

14.60 

10.10 

9.50 

10.70 

11.10 

10.15 

21.... 

8.15 

7.35 

4.00 

8.40 

9.65 

9.65 

13.15 

9.90 

9.05 

14.15 

11.00 

9.95 

22.... 

8.00 

5.75 

4.75 

8.88 

8.70 

9.90 

12.30 

9.75 

9.20 

13.60 

10.90 

9.70 

23.... 

8.00 

5.50 

9.90 

7.30 

8. 55 

9.25 

12.66 

9.35 

11.25 

11.80 

12.15 

9.45 

24.... 

8.20 

4.85 

7.75 

8.65 

9.50 

8.80 

12.70 

10.45 

9.65 

11. 25 

10. 65 

9.35 

25.... 

8.20 

4.75 

6.45 

7.60 

11.45 

8.35 

11.40 

10.05 

10.10 

12.00 

10.05 

9.15 

26.... 

7.95 

4.75 

8.45 

7.15 

14.20 

8.90 

10. 65 

10.05 

14.10 

12.00 

9.80 

8.90 

27.... 

9.65 

6.25 

7.05 

6.95 

14.30 

9.35 

10.55 

10.10 

13.45 

12.  50 

11.95 

8.75 

28.... 

9.00 

5.50 

6.80 

7.35 

13.20 

8.65 

10.15 

10.95 

13.55 

11.80 

13. 15 

8.70 

29.... 

8.30 

6.60 

6.90 

11.30 

10.60 

10. 45 

11.30 

15.75 

10.30 

13.25 

8.55 

30.... 

8.00 

6.50 

6.95 

10. 15 

11.60 

10.  65 

11.  75 

19.25 

9.95 

15. 00 

8.45 

31.... 

9.85 

6.40 

12.20 

10.00 

11.00 

13.50 

8.40 

166  KEPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Eating  table  for  Sarapiqui  River  5  miles  above  its  mouth. 
[This  table  is  applicable  only  from  Apr.  1,  1899,  to  Dec.  31,  1900.] 


Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge.  1 

height. 

charge. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

4.0 

800 

6.4 

2,022 

11.5 

9, 290 

19.0 

28, 000 

4.2 

860 

6.6 

2, 200 

12.0 

10, 190 

20.0 

31,000 

4.4 

920 

6.8 

2,400 

12.5 

11,100 

21.0 

34, 000 

4.6 

980 

7.0 

2, 600 

13.0 

12, 090 

22.0 

37,000 

4.8 

1,040 

7.5 

3,100 

13.5 

13,110 

23.0 

40,000 

5.0 

1,100 

8.0 

3,690 

14.0 

14,180    ! 

24.0 

43, 000 

5.2 

1,188 

8.5 

4,320 

14.5 

15, 300 

25.0 

46,000 

5.4 

1,276 

9.0 

5,020 

15.0 

16, 500 

26.0 

49, 000 

5.6 

1,398 

9.5 

5,800 

15.5 

17, 800 

27.0 

52, 000 

5.8 

1,554 

10.0 

6,630 

16.0 

19, 200     ! 

28.0 

55,000 

6.o 

1,710 

10.5 

7,510 

17.0 

22,000     ; 

29.0 

58,000 

6.2 

1,866 

11.0 

8,390 

18.0 

25, 000 

30.0 

61,000 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Sarapiqui  River  5  miles  above  its  mouth. 
[Drainage  area,  1,100  square  miles,  approximately.] 


Month. 

Discharge. 

Total. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

1899. 

Sec.  feet. 
22, 077 
27, 100 
8,972 
6,481 
18,054 
16, 766 
61,479 
23, 347 
15,076 
15,670 
26, 678 
42, 110 

Sec.  feet. 
3,000 
2,710 
2,240 
1,928 
1,694 
3,753 
5,223 
5,020 
4,474 
3,778 
4,219 
6,876 

Sec.  feet. 
5,420 
5,200 
3,350 
3,173 
4,357 
6,553 
14,173 
8,094 
6,418 
5,920 
11,605 
11,512 

Acre-feet. 
333, 260 

288,800 

205, 980 

188, S35 

267,905 

399, 916 

871,488 

497.708 

381, 931 

363,982 

691,724 

685,012 

61,479 

1,694 

7,150 

5,176,541 

1900. 

33, 637 
7,598 
6,464 
14,180 
14, 852 
11,991 
27,038 
21,077 
28,946 
23,498 

11,  SOS 

62,236 

3,631 
1 ,  025 
800 
2,500 
1,944 
4,530 
6,547 
5,566 
3,753 

:>,soo 

6,298 
1, 194 

7,458 
3, 598 
1, 726 
4,055 
5,472 
7,041 
'.'.  s.s(l 

10,257 

7,652 

.11,094 

1 1,258 

13,  (121 

458, 575 

199,828 

106, 119 

241,065 

336, 441 

418,997 

607, 532 

630,690 

155,340 

682,211 

848,  106 

837,718 

62, 236 

800 

8,043 

5,  822.  917 

SAN    JUANILLO 

RIVER. 

Lull  route,  variants  I,  II,  and  III,  all  require  that  the  San  Juanillo 
River  be  diverted  below  the  mouth  of  the  Deseado  River  and  conducted 
to  the  sea  north  of  the  canal  line.  To  obtain  data  on  this  problem,  a 
gauge  was  established  on  that  river  January  1,  1900.     Daily  readings 


REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


167 


of  the  gauge  and  occasional  measurements  of  discharge  were  made, 
the  results  of  which  are  as  follows: 

Daily  gaugt  hi  ighi  of  San  Juanillo  River  below  the  mouth  of  Deseado,  for  1900. 


Day. 


8 

9 

10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 

17  . 

18  . 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23  . 
24. 
25. 
26  . 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30  . 
33  . 


Jan. 


8.82 
8.82 
8.57 
8.41 
9.14 
9.56 
9.  71 
9.67 
9.40 
9.09 
8.79 
8.45 
8.10 
7.79 
7.60 
7.42 
7.08 
6.74 
6.39 
6.17 
5.89 
6.16 
6.92 
7.45 
7.31 
6.95 
7.65 
7.70 
7.81 
7.60 
7.24 


6.87 
6.51 
6.41 
6.36 
6.10 
5.93 
5.62 
5.32 
5.22 
5.11 
5.30 
5.20 
4.75 
4.44 
4.29 
4.23 
4.50 
4.51 
4.32 
5.69 
5.60 
7.92 
7.68 
7.22 
7.00 
6.30 
6.00 
5.66 


Mar. 


5.40 
5.90 
6.00 
6.25 
6.20 
6.25 
5.90 
5.90 
5.58 
5.50 
4.90 
4.90 
4.90 
4.80 
4.50 
4.50 
3.50 
3.20 
3.55 
3.40 
3.80 
3.93 
4.55 
4.68 
4.49 
4.15 
4.00 
3.60 
3.39 
3.25 
3.15 


Apr. 


3.15 
3.12 
3.20 
3.22 
3.00 
2.90 
2.81 
2.75 
2.70 
2.65 
2.60 
2.70 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
3.45 
3.10 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.90 
2.80 
2.70 
2.60 
2.45 
2.40 
2.40 
2.40 


May. 


2.35 
2.32 
2.30 
2.20 
2.15 
2.10 
5.65 
6.00 
6.40 
6.20 
6.70 
6.80 
6.75 
6.70 
6.60 
7.30 
7.00 
6.30 
5.90 
5.10 
5.00 
4.95 
4.70 
4.55 
4.15 
3.90 
3.90 
4.20 
4.50 
4.65 
4.80 


June. 


4.80 


5.20 
5.00 
4.85 
4.75 
4.60 
4.45 
4.30 
4.40 
4.80 
5.00 
4.90 
4.90 
4.80 
4.75 


4.40 
3.90 
4.20 
4.00 


July. 


5.92 
6.75 
7.50 
7.00 
7.15 
7.10 
7.10 
7.05 
7.00 
6.95 
6.70 
6.50 
6.35 
6.20 
6.20 
6.40 
6.70 
7.30 
7.25 
7.40 
7.75 
8.35 
8.60 
8.43 
8.10 
8.10 
8.05 
8.20 
8.50 
8.65 
8.70 


Aug. 


7.35 
9.00 
9.40 
9.90 
10.10 
10. 50 
10.30 
10.00 
9.70 
9.67 
9.90 
10.05 
10.30 
10.25 
10.00 
9.X0 
9.67 
9.50 
9.40 
9.55 
9.40 
9.10 
9.00 
8.90 
9.25 
9.35 
9.40 
9.40 
9.60 
9.60 
9.45 


Sept. 


9.30 
8.50 
8.50 
8.45 
8.30 
8.20 
7.95 
7.80 
7.55 
7.25 
7.05 
6.90 
6.75 
6.80 
7.70 
7.80 
7.90 
8.20 
8.60 
9.05 
9.50 
9.00 


9.70 
9.60 
9.50 


Rating  table  for  San  Juanillo  River,  below  the  mouth  of  the  Deseado. 
[This  table  is  applicable  only  from  January  1,  1900,  to  December  31,  1900.] 


Oct. 


9.20 
9.45 
9.40 
9.60 
9.80 
9.00 
8.80 
8. 55 
8.20 
7.90 
7.70 
7.55 
7.40 
7.35 
7.35 
7.20 
7.05 
7.00 
6.90 
7.50 


9.20 
9.45 
9.60 


8.32 


Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

Gauge 

Dis- 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

height. 

charge. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

Feet. 

Sec.  feet. 

2.0 

240 

4.2 

501 

6.4 

1,097 

8.6 

1,849 

2.1 

245 

4.3 

522 

6.5 

1,131 

8.7 

1,883 

2.2 

250 

4.4 

544 

6.6 

1,165 

8.8 

1,918 

2.3 

255 

4.5 

566 

6.7 

1,199 

8.9 

1,952 

2.4 

260 

4.6 

588 

6.8 

1,234 

9.0 

1,986 

2.5 

265 

4.7 

611 

6.9 

1,268 

9.1 

2,020 

2.6 

270 

4.8 

634 

7.0 

1,302 

9.2 

2,054 

2.7 

280 

4.9 

657 

7.1 

1,336 

9.3 

2,089 

2.8 

290 

5.0 

680 

7.2 

1,370 

9.4 

2,123 

2.9 

300 

5.1 

704 

7.3 

1,405 

9.5 

2,157 

3.0 

310 

5.2 

729 

7.4 

1,439 

9.6 

2,191 

3.1 

320 

5.3 

755 

7.5 

1  473 

9.7 

2,225 

3.2 

330 

5.4 

782 

7.6 

1,507 

9.8 

2,260 

3.3 

340 

5.5 

810 

7.7 

1,541 

9.9 

2,294 

3.4 

355 

5.6 

838 

7.8 

1,576 

10.0 

2,328 

3.5 

370 

5.7 

867 

7.9 

1,610 

10.1 

2,362 

3.6 

385 

5.8 

897 

8.0 

1,644 

10.2 

2,396 

3.7 

400 

5.9 

928 

8.1 

1,678 

10.3 

2,431 

3.8 

420 

6.0 

960 

8.2 

1,712 

10.4 

2,465 

3.9 

440 

6.1 

994 

8.3 

1,747 

10.5 

2,500 

4.0 

4.1 

460 
480 

6.2 
6.3 

1,028 
1,062 

8.4 
8.5 

1,781 
1,815 

10.6 
10.7 

168  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Estimated  monthly  discharg<  of  San  Juanillo  River  below  tin  mouth  of  the  Deseado. 


Month. 


Discharge. 


Maximum.  Minimum.      Mean. 


1900 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

Ten  months 


Second-feet. 

2,520 
1,616 
1,044 

460 
1,405 

729 
1,883 
2,500 
2, 225 
2, 260 


Second-feet. 
925 

507 

325 

260 

245 

440 

934 

1,489 

1,215 

1,268 


2, 520 


245 


Si  cond-ft. 

1,603 

904 

626 

311 

744 

619 

1.421 

2,184 

1,786 

1,794 


icrs  .' 
98. 
50 
38 
is 
45 
36 
8' 

134 
106 
110 


1,211 


.< 

181 
508 
534 

76."> 
sj- 

.  458 

,  305 
292 

,330 


Discharge  measurements  of  tributaries  and  distributaries  to  San  Juan  River  below  Boca 
San  Carlos,  excepting  Machado,  San  Francisco,  and  Sarapiqui. 


River. 

Date. 

Hydrographer. 

Meter. 

Gauge 
height. 

Area 
of  sec- 
tion. 

Mean 
veloc- 
ity. 

Dis- 
charge. 

1899. 
Oct.     9 

Nov.     7 
Nov.  28 

1900. 
Jan.    24 
Feb.   16 
Mar.  18 
Apr.   29 
May   21 
June    4 
June  27 
July   18 
Aug.    1 
Aug.  10 
Aug.  30 
Sept.  10 
Sept.  24 

1899. 
Oct.       9 

Nov.     7 
Nov.  28 

1900. 
Jan.   24 
Feb.  16 

Mar.  18 
Apr.   29 
May   21 

June      ! 

June  27 

July   18 
Aug.     1 
Auk.   16 
Aug,  30 

Sept.  li 
Sept.  24 

1899. 
Oct.     9 

Nov.     7 

1900. 
Jan.    21 
.Mine     1 
June  27 
July   18 
Aug.    1 

An-  u; 

Aug.  30 

Sept.   21 

H.W.Durham 

do 

Feet. 

Sq.ft. 

369 
739 
548 

425 
312 
279 
190 
264 
455 
349 
644 
470 
571 
734 
526 
590 

168 

137 
284 

206 

119 

61 

38 

74 

166 

96 

319 

224 

847 

430 

235 

318 

115 
256 

125 
90 
52 
132 
177 
152 
177 
136 

Ft.p.sec. 
0.41 
1.09 
.75 

.67 
.30 
.28 

.23 

.36 

.71 

.32 

.82 

.85 

2.00 

1.02 

.91 

1.01 

.41 
.81 
.24 

.70 
.24 
.47 
.31 
.32 
.82 
.54 
.61 
.49 
.96 
.81 
.61 
.58 

.24 
.44 

.23 
.15 
.17 
.21 
.22 
.33 
.  is 
.25 

Sec.  ft. 
153 

Do 

do 

808 

Do 

do 

do 

413 

Do 

H.G.Heisler 

H.C.  Hurd 

Price  No.  63 

do 

Do 

93 

Do 

do 

do 

78 

Do 

B.  and  B.  No.  1.. 

43 

Do 

H.G.Heisler 

do 

95 

Do... 

do 

322 

Do... 

do... 

...do 

114 

Do... 

do 

do 

539 

Do... 

do 

...do 

403 

Do... 

do 

...do 

1,145 

Do... 

...do 

735 

Do... 

do 

do 

482 

Do 

do 

do 

.'.H. 

H.W.Durham.... 

do 

do 

69 

Do 

do 

355 

Do... 

...do 

69 

Do 

H.  G.  Heisler 

H.C  Hurd 

do 

145 

Do... 

28 

Do 

do 

28 

Do 

do 

Price  No.  85 

B.  andB.  No.  1.. 

12 

Do 

II.  G.  Heisler 

do 

24 

Do 

do 

137 

Do 

do... 

...do ... 

52 

Do 

do... 

...do... 

197 

Do 

do... 

do 

111 

Do 

do... 

...do... 

335 

Do 

do  ... 

...do... 

348 

Do 

do ... 

...do  ... 

142 

Do 

do ... 

...do  ... 

186 

II.  W.  Durham .... 
do 

Price  No.  34 

27 

Do 

do 

111 

Do 

II.  G.  Heisler 

do 

Price  No.  63 

30 

Do... 

B.  andB.  No.  1.. 

13 

Do 

do 

do 

9 

Do... 

do 

do 

29 

Do. 

do 

do... 

40 

Do     . 

do 

do  ... 

51 

Do 

do 

do ... 

85 

Do 

do 

do 

31 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


169 


Discharge  measurements  of  tributaries  and  distributaries  to  San  Juan  River  below 
San  Carlos,  excepting  Machado,  San  Francisco,  and  Sarapiqui— Continued. 


Boca 


River. 


San  DiTouimo . 

Do 

Do 


Taniborcito. 
Do 

Do 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Copalchi 
Do... 
Do... 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Gausimo. 
Do... 
Do... 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Cafio  de  las  Ceibas 
(near  San  Juan  on 
Sarapiqui). 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 


Date. 


1900. 
Mar.   is 
May    22 
June    4 

1899. 
Oct.      9 

Nov.    7 
Nov.  28 

1900. 
Feb.  16 
Mar.  18 
Apr.  29 
June  27 
July  18 
Aug.  1 
Aug.  16 
Aug.  30 
Sept.  11 
Sept.  24 

1899. 
Oct.      9 
Nov.    7 
Nov.  28 


Hydrograplier. 


H.C.Hurd... 
H.G.Heisler. 
....do 


H.W.  Durham. 

....do 

....do 


H.C.Hurd... 

....do 

....do 

H.  G.  Heisler. 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 


H.  W.  Durham 

do 

do 


Meter. 


B.and  B.No.l. 

....do 

....do 


Price,  No.  34 . 

....do 

....do 


....do 

....do 

Price,  No. 35... 
B.and  B.,No.  1 
....do 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


Gauge 

height 


F<  et. 


do 

H.G.Heisler. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 


1900. 

Jan.   24     H.  G.  Heisler. 
Feb.   16  !  H.C.Hurd... 

Mar.  18  | do 

Apr.  29 
June  4 
June  27 
July  18 
Aug.  1 
Aug.  16 
Aug.  30 
Sept.  11 
Sept.  24 


1899. 
Oct.      9 
Nov.     7 
Nov.  28 

1900. 
Jan.  24 
Feb.  16 
Mar.  18 
Apr.  29 
May  22 
June  4 
June  27 
July  18 
Aug.    1 


H.W.Durham.. 

....do 

....do 


H.G.Heisler. 

do 

H.C.Hurd... 

....do 

H.G.Heisler. 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 


Price,  No.  34 

....do 

....do 


Price,  No.  63  . . . 
Price,  No.  34  . . . 

do 

Price,  No.  35  . . . 
B.andB.,No.  1 
do. 


.do 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 


Price,  No.  34 . 

....do 

....do 


Aug.  16  ; do. 

Aug.  30  ' do. 

Sept.  11  ! do. 

Sept.  24    do. 

1899. 
Sept.  21 


T.  F.  Boltz 


Sept.  27    do. 


Oct. 
Oct.  17 
Oct.  27 
Nov.  7 
Nov.  19 
Nov.  27 
Dec.  10 
Dec.  16 
Dec.   26 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


Price,  No.  63  . . . 
Price,  No.  34  . . . 

....do 

Price,  No.  35 . . . 
B.and  B.,No.  1 
....do 


.do 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
■.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


Price,  No.  68 


1900. 
July  19  I  H.G.Heisler. 

Aug.    2    do 

Aug.  17  I do 

Aug.  31    do 

Sept.  12  I do 


.do. 
.do. 
-do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


B.and  B.No.l. 

do 

do 

do 

do 


5.60 
10.00 
6.39 
7.79 


Area 
of  sec- 
tion. 


Sq.ft. 
16 
12 


409 

797 

177 


364 
270 

205 
290 
660 
445 
576 
723 
480 
553 


143 
455 
224 


145 

91 

50 

46 

178 

79 

278 

206 

292 

425 

210 

271 


121 
431 
117 


92 

49 

27 

115 

49 

74 

38 

89 

97 

177 

230 

139 

201 


318 
165 
288 
241 
592 
468 
261 
534 
307 
177 


832 
295 
325 
420 

297 


Mean 

*$£■  charge. 


Ft.p.sec.  Sea  ft. 

1.04  i  17 

.99  11 

.15  I  3 


.66 

.S3 
.61 


.13 
.08 
.32 
.55 
.59 
1.08 
.  77 
.62 
.51 


1.40 
1.69 

.88 


1.13 
.62 

1.31 
.37 
.65 

1.16 

1.08 
.91 

1.82 
.97 
.66 


.79 

.67 

1.22 

1.23 

.26 

.35 

.37 

.39 

.48 

.62 

1.01 

.40 

.31 


1.65 
.91 
.92 
.86 

2.22 

1.02 
.45 
.98 
.60 

1.48 


1.21 
.87 

1.13 
.33 


272 
661 
295 


170 


KEPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Discharge  measurements  of  tributaries  and  distributaries  to  San  Juan  River  below  Boca 
San  Carlos,  excepting  Machado,  San  Francisco,  and  Sarapigui — Continued. 


River. 

Date. 

Hydrographer. 

Meter. 

Gauge 

height. 

Area 
of  sec- 
tion. 

Mean 
veloc- 
ity. 

Dis- 
charge. 

1899. 
Sept.  21 
Sept.  27 
Oct.      7 
Oct.    17 
Oct     27 

T.F.Boltz 

do 

Price,  No.  68  ... . 

Feet. 

Sq.fL 

133 
123 

79 
109 

83 
250 
238 

96 
225 
184 
177 
233 
287 

238 

412 

Ft.p.sec. 

1.25 
.89 
.53 
.81 
.40 
.99 
.55 
.27 
.60 

1.87 

1.48 
.58 

1.96 

.69 
.51 
(*) 

1.34 

.81 
.27 
.21 
.23 
.31 
.46 
.18 

1.08 

1.17 

.44 

.27 
.  72 
!63 
.56 

1.49 
.93 
.53 
.99 

1.43 
.78 
.96 
.40 
.98 

.46 
1.02 
.45 
.40 
.32 
.47 

.59 

1.13 
1.07 

.70 
.18 
.71 
.  17 
1.11 
.82 

.Ml 

.98 
.82 
.82 

.26 
.03 

Sec.  ft. 
167 

Do 

do 

110 

Do 

do 

do 

42 

Do 

do 

do 

88 

Do 

...do... 

do 

33 

Do 

Nov.     7 
Nov.  17 
Nov.  27 
Dec.  10 
Dec.  17 
Dec.  27 
Oct.    14 

...do 

do 

248 

Do 

...do 

do 

131 

Do. 

do 

do 

5.37 
8.73 

7.88 
7.79 

26 

Do 

...do... 

do 

135 

Do. 

do 

313 

Do 

...do... 

do 

261 

H.W.  Durham  ... 
do 

134 

Do  .. 

do 

565 

Do 

1900. 
Aug.    2 
Aug.  17 
Aug.  31 

1899. 
Oct.    14 

1900. 
Apr.   30 
May  23 
June    5 
Aug.    2 
Aug.  17 
Aug.  31 
Sept.  12 

1899. 
Oct.    14 
Nov.    8 
Dec.    2 

1900. 
Jan.  25 
Feb.   18 
Mar.  19 
Apr.  30 
May  23 
June    5 
June  28 
Julv  19 
Aug.    2 
Aug.  17 
Aug.  31 
Sept.  12 
Sept.  24 

1900. 
Feb.    18 
Feb.  25 
.Mar.  19 
Apr.    30 
May   24 
June    5 

1899. 
Oct.    11 

Nov.    8 
Dec.     2 

1900. 
Jan.   25 
Feb.    18 
June    6 
June  28 
July   19 
Aug.    2 
Aug.   IT 
Aug.  ;;i 

Sept.  12 
Sept.  25 

1900. 
Jan.    14 

Feb.    11 

H.  G.  Heisler 
do 

B.and  B.,No.l. 
do 

164 

Do... 

212 

Do. 

...do... 

do 

H.W.Durham.... 

H.C.Hurd 

H.G.  Heisler 

...do... 

74 

8 
14 
53 
91 
102 
126 
80 

363 

767 
676 

381 
96 
174 
74 
209 
428 
280 
798 
385 
518 
678 
425 
565 

75 
112 
95 
58 
65 
87 

68 

184 

91 

63 
28 

59 
25 

196 

55 
1(15 
153 

80 
115 

408 
254 

100 

Do  

Price,  No.  34 

7 

Do 

B.and  B.,  No.l. 
do 

4 

Do 

11 

Do 

......do... 

do 

22 

Do 

do 

do 

32 

Do 

do 

do 

59 

Do... 

do 

do 

14 

H.W.Durham 

do 

Price,  No.  34 

392 

Do    . 

do 

894 

Do 

do 

do 

300 

Do     . 

H.G.  Heisler 

do 

105 

Do 

H.C.Hurd 

do 

69 

Do 

do 

Price,  No.  35 

110 

Do 

...do... 

do 

41 

Do 

H.G.  Heisler 
...do 

B.and  B.,No.l. 
do 

313 

Do 

396 

Do 

....do... 

do 

149 

Do 

...do... 

...do 

790 

Do 

...do 

do 

545 

Do 

...do... 

do 

406 

Do  . 

...do 

do 

652 

Do    . 

....do 

do 

172 

Do... 

do 

do 

554 

H.C.Hurd 

do 

75 

Do... 

...do 

Price,  No.  34 

119 

Do... 

...do... 

do 

43 

Do... 

..do... 

...do 

24 

Do 

H.G.  Heislet 
do 

B.and  B.,No.  1. 

21 

Do... 

do 

41 

H.W.  Durham.... 
do 

Price,  No.  34 

41 

tributary. 
Do 

do 

151 

Do 

...do... 

do 

97 

Do 

H.G. Heisler 

11.  C.  Hunl 

H.G.  Heisler 
do 

Price,  No.  68 

46 

Do... 

4 

Do 

1',  and  H.,  No.  1.. 

42 

Do 

do 

12 

Do... 

do 

...do 

199 

Do. 

do 

...do 

45 

I>o 

do  ... 

...do ... 

S5 

Ho 

do 

...do... 

151 

Do     . 

do 

do 

66 

Do... 

do 

do 

95 

T.F.Boltz 

Price, No. 34  .... 

do 

6. 12 
4.00 

102 

Do 

H.G.Heisler 

78 

>No  current. 


>■  Below  Sarapiqui. 


FIG.   11— CASTILLO   RAPIDS. 


FIG     12.— SURF  AT  GREYTOWN. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


171 


Discharge  measurement*  of  tributaries  and  distributaries  to  San  Juan  River,  beloiv  Boca 
San  Carlos,  excepting  Machado,  San  Francisco,  and  Sarapiqui — Continued. 


River. 


Date. 


1900. 
Colorado  (below  San     May   24 
Juan). 
Do June    6 

1900. 
San   Juan    (below     Mar.  21 
Colorado  junction) ; 

Do Apr.   30 

Do May   24 


June  6 
June  28 
Aug.  2 
Aug.  17 
Sept.  21 
Sept.  25 


1899. 

The  Parado Oct.    14 

Distributary Nov.    8 

Do Dec.     2 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


The  Taura.. 

Distributary 

Do 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


San  Juanillo 

Tributary  to  Lower 
San  Juan. 


1900. 
Jan.  25 
June  6 
July  19 
Aug.  2 
Aug.  17 
Aug.  31 
Sept.  12 
Sept.  25 

1899. 
Oct.    14 
Nov.    8 
Dec.     2 

1900. 
Jan.  25 
Mar.  19 
Apr.  30 
June  6 
July  19 
Aug.  2 
Aug.  17 
Aug.  31 
Sept.  12 
Sept.  25 

1899. 
Dec.     2 
May     4 


Hydrographer. 


Heisler  &  Reed... 
....do 


H.C.Hurd. 


....do 

H.G.  Heisler. 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 


H.  W.  Durham . 

....do 

....do 


H.  G.  Heisler. 

....do 

....do 

...  do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 


H.W.Durham... 

....do 

....do 


H.G.  Heisler. 
H.C.Hurd... 

....do 

H.G.  Heisler. 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 


H.W.Durham.... 
H.C.Hurd 


B.andB.,No.  1. 
do 


Price,  No.  34 


Price,  No.  35  . . . 
B.andB.,No.l. 
do 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


Price  No.  63. 

do 

do 


B.and  B.  No.l. 
do 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do, 


Price  No.  34. 

....do 

....do 


Price  No. 63... 
Price  No. 34... 
Price  No. 35... 
B.andB.No.  1 

do 

do 

do. 

do 

do 

do 


Price  No.  34. 
Price  No.  35. 


Gauge 
height. 


Feet. 


Area 
of  sec- 
tion. 


Sq.ft. 

9,030 


961 

761 
944 
2,356 
1,225 
2,402 
2,948 
2, 201 
2,744 


74 
154 
105 


76 
90 

170 
85 
94 

152 
76 
97 


333 
740 

632 


256 
64 
4 
285 
803 
428 
521 
727 
339 
451 


1,393 
746 


Mean 
veloc- 
ity. 


Ft.p.st  <■ 

■1.  17 


1.06 

.73 
1.84 
2.32 
1.77 
2.62 
2.25 
2.13 
2. 29 


.72 
1.40 
1.53 


.44 
.60 

1.56 
.81 
.98 

1.36 
.97 

1.41 


1.53 
2.26 
1.92 


1.52 
.13 
.68 
1.20 
2.05 
1.26 
1.12 
1.76 
1.01 
1.78 


.42 
.51 


Dis- 
charge. 


Sec.  ft, 

22,  336 

39, 034 


1,021 

559 
»1,741 
»5,473 
»2,168 
>>6,310 
»>  6, 637 
*  4, 695 
b  6, 273 


54 
215 
162 


34 
55 

265 
71 
93 

208 
74 

137 


509 
1,669 
1,218 


391 


"3 
344 


1,284 
343 
815 


4  587 
d380 


»  One  mile  below  Boca  Colorado. 
b  One-fourth  mile  below  Taura. 
c  Discharging  into  San  Juan 

d  These  gaugings  made  short  distance  above  mouth,  and  the  discharge  includes  the  discharge  of 
Deseado  and  Silico  Lagoon. 

STATION    ON   NEGRO    RIVER   TRIBUTARY    TO    INDIO   RIVER. 

Surveys  were  made  in  1899  to  test  the  feasibility  of  the  canal  route 
from  Machuca  to  the  Caribbean  by  way  of  the  Indio  River.  In  this 
connection  it  was  desirable  to  know  something  of  the  volume  of  the 
streams  to  be  intercepted,  and  it  was  also  desired  to  secure  data  as  to 
the  position  and  extent  of  the  Greytown  district  of  heavy  rainfall.  To 
attain  these  ends  it  was  decided  to  establish  a  station  on  the  Indio  in 
October,  1899.  In  November  the  station  was  removed  to  the  Negro 
River  as  being  the  branch  most  likely  to  be  followed  by  a  canal  loca- 
tion.    The  station  was  discontinued  September  26,  1900. 

A  vertical  pine  rod,  marked  in  feet  and  tenths,  was  fastened  to  a  tree 
on  the  right  bank  and  observations  taken  twice  daily  of  the  height 
thereon,  gaugings  being  made  near  the  same  point  by  means  of  a  Price 


172 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


meter.  As  the  supply  of  water  became  lower  the  stream  at  this  point 
became  too  sluggish  for  accurate  measurement  and  in  April  the  station 
was  moved  to  a  point  about  4  miles  up,  just  below  the  entrance  of  a 
small  tributary.  Here  the  discharge  was  practically  the  same  as  at 
the  first  station,  there  being  no  tributaries  between;  but,  the  velocity 
being  higher,  neasurements  could  be  made  with  greater  accuracy. 

List  of  discharge  measurements  mail  on  Negro  Hirer. 
[12  miles  above  Indio  River.    S.  H.  Harris,  hydrographer.] 


Date. 


Meter 

(Price) 

No. 


Gauge 

height. 


Area  of 
section. 


Mean 
velocity. 


Dis- 
charge. 


Remarks 


December  19 
December  27  . 


January  1... 
January  4... 
January  13.. 
January  16. . 
January  19.. 
January  23.. 
January  26.. 
January  29.. 
February  9.. 
February  10. 
February  12. 
February  14. 
February  17. 

March  24 

March  27 

March  28.... 

April  12 

April  13 

April  16 

April  17 

April  20 

April  24 

April  25 

April  28 

Mav8 

May  9 

May  12 

May  15 

May  17 

MavlS 

May  28 

May  29 

June  9 

June  15 

Julvl3 

Jul  v  14 

July  17 

July  18 

Jul  v  20 

July  24 

July  25 

July  28 

August  13 . .. 
August  15... 
August  20... 


68 


F,  ( /. 
11. 35 

8.85 


8.47 
8.67 
8.07 
8.37 
7.55 
9.05 
7.55 
7.92 
8.32 
7.92 
8.25 
7.40 
7.52 
8.00 
7.15 
7.25 
7.07 
6.90 
6.60 
6.45 
7.10 
6.80 
6.25 
6.40 
9.05 
8.60 
8.60 
11. 25 
8.07 
6.67 
6. 55 
8.65 
7.55 
8.10 
8.72 
6.55 
13.  75 
9.12 
8.82 
7.82 
9. 35 
8.27 
15.5 
15.6 
13. 37 


Sg.  fa  i. 
2,175 
1,830 


1,795 
1,838 
1, 920 
1,975 
1,885 
2, 100 
1,890 
1,923 
1,965 
1,940 
1,970 
1,873 
1, 880 
1,193 

304 
1,135 
1,116 

280 
1, 072 

257 
1,106 
1,087 

245 
1, 054 
1, 336 

386 
1,300 
1, 553 

376 
1,069 
1,049 

392 

323 

350 

399 
1, 082 

983 
1, 350 
1,284 
1,200 

419 
1,245 

990 
2,190 
1,863 


Ft.  per  zee, 
2.  58 
.86 


.67 
.41 
.41 
.48 
.47 
1.24 
.55 
.32 
.38 
.37 
.35 
.20 
.32 
.34 
.50 
.23 
.22 
.49 
.17 
.36 
.12 
.09 
.39 
.10 
.58 
.70 
.35 
1.30 
.65 
.30 
.34 
.77 
.59 
.59 
.87 
.42 
1.81 
.86 
.96 
.61 
.81 
.51 
2. 12 
1.77 
1.47 


.Sec.  feet. 
6,074 
1,791 


1,370 
876 
929 
1, 124 
1,038 
3,094 
1,233 
701 
912 
889 
797 
473 
761 
451 
174 
316 
308 
160 
227 
108 
162 
113 
114 
117 
832 
305 
491 
2, 224 
272 
410 
430 
333 
221 
235 
386 
535 
1,999 

1 ,  250 
1,355 

821 

869 

704 

2,105 

3,896 

2,  736 


At  new  camp. 
Upper  rod. 
New  camp. 

Bo. 
Upper  rod. 
New  camp. 
Upper  rod. 
New  camp. 

Do. 
Upper  rod. 
New  camp. 

Do. 
Upper  rod. 
New  camp. 

Do. 
Upper  rod. 
New  camp. 

Do. 
Upper  rod. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
New  camp. 
Upper  rod. 
New  camp. 

Do. 

Do. 
Upper  rod. 
New  camp. 
Upper  rod. 
New  camp. 

Do. 


RAINFALL. 

Observations  of  rainfall  were  made  at  each  river  station,  the  form  of 
gauge  used  at  most  of  the  stations  being  a  metal  funnel  which  caught 
the  rain  and  discharged  it  into  a  bottle,  from  which  it  was  measured 
in  a  graduate  bearing  a  known  relation  to  the  diameter  of  the  funnel. 
The  gauge  was  always  placed  in  a  position  as  exposed  as  possible, 
but  nearly  always  this  was  a  small  clearing  in  the  forest  which  was 
still  well  sheltered  from  the  wind. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  characteristics  of  Nicaragua  is  its  rain- 
fall, and  the  radical  and  striking  differences  in  the  climate  of  the  east 
and  west  coasts  with  reference  thereto. 


MASAVA 


GRANADA 


FIG.   13.-M0NTHLY  RAfNFALL  AT  MASAYA  AND  GRANADA. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


173 


From  the  records  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  no  definite  dry  season 
on  the  eastern  coast,  but  that  rain  may  be  expected  any  day  in  the 
year  and  the  expectation  will  seldom  be  disappointed. 

On  the  Pacific  coast,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  little  rain  from  the 
beginning'  of  January  till  the  middle  of  May,  when  the  rainy  season 
begins,  but  the  region  is  subject  to  violent  downpours  during  the  rainy 
season,  the  precipitation  for  a  single  day  being  often  several  inches: 
Mr.  William  Climie  reports  a  rainfall  of  9  inches  in  9  hours  at  Nan- 
daime,  a  small  town  south  of  Granada. 

No  less  remarkable  is  the  excessive  aggregate  of  rainfall  in  a  limited 
district  of  which  the  nucleus  seems  to  be  in  the  vicinity  of  Greytown. 
The  annual  rainfall  at  this  point,  as  deduced  from  the  mean  of  six  years' 
observation,  is  about  260  inches,  while  that  at  Bluefields  is  only  about 
105,  at  Fort  Limon  somewhat  less,  and  at  San  Jose  de  Costa  Rica,  about 
70.  While  there  is  a  slight  increase  of  rainfall  with  altitude  on  the 
headwaters  of  the  Deseado  and  Limpio,  yet  in  general  it  may  be  said 
that  the  rainfall  decreases  as  we  pass  up  the  San  Juan. 

So  far  as  known  no  satisfactory  theory  has  yet  been  advanced  to 
account  for  this  local  phenomenon. 

The  heaviest  fall  of  rain  observed  in  Nicaragua  was,  on  the"  report  of 
Mr.  Howard  Scharschmidt,  at  Silico  Station,  on  Lake  Silico,  Novem- 
ber 4,  1899,  10.5  inches  in  six  hours,  or  an  average  of  1$  inches  per 
hour.  On  the  same  date  Mr.  Charles  D.  Scott,  at  Greytown,  observed 
12.48  inches  in  twenty-four  hours,  of  which  8  inches  fell  in  about  six 
hours.  These  are  the  heaviest  falls  for  a  single  day  yet  observed. 
The  heaviest  monthly  rainfall  observed  by  this  Commission  was  at 
Greytown  for  November,  1900,  55.39  inches. 

The  following  records  of  heavy  rainfall  were  compiled  by  the  Nica- 
ragua canal  board  of  1895,  and  are  published  in  Appendix  E  of  its 
report: 

Large  monthly  rainfalls  at  Greytown. 


Month. 


November,  1889  (in  24  days) 

December,  1889 

June, 1890 

July,  1890 

August,  1890 


Inches. 


50.70 
64.39 
41.56 
52. 59 
36.61 


December,  1890 
December,  1891 

May,  1892 

July,  1892 

November,  1892 


Inches. 


41. 65 
32.74 

50. 88 
38.96 
36.93 


Large  daily  rainfalls  at  Greytown. 


July  1.1890 

July  2, 1890 

July  11,1890 

July  12,1890 

Julv  13, 1890 

July  14,1890 

July  15,1890 

September  7, 1«90 

October  9, 1890 

November  5,1890 

December  27, 1890 

January  20, 1891 

April  28.1891 

June  5, 1891 

June6,1891 

Total  for  2  davs 
June  22, 1891  (9  hours) 
July  18, 1891  (9  hours) 
December  8, 1891 


4.20 
4.31 
4.18 
2.19 
5.02 
4.66 
2.57 
4.05 
4.00 
4.10 
7.65 
4.35 
5.75 


3.83 
4.95 


8.78 
4.51 
8.17 
4.05 


May  1,1892. 
May  2, 1892. 
May  3, 1892. 
May  4, 1892. 
May  5, 1892. 
May  6,1892. 
May  7,1892. 
May  8, 1892. 


5.08 
4.95 
4.57 
1.62 
5.10 
5.80 
4.10 
4.20 


Total  for  8  days 

July  23,1892 

October  29, 1892 

October  30, 1892 

October  31, 1892 


35. 42 
5.30 
5.78 
3.50 

8.02 


Total  for  3  days. 

November  20, 1892 

December  5, 1892 

June  3, 1893 

June  19,1893 


17.30 
5.12 
8.95 
4.00 
5.00 


174  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Large  daily  rainfalls  at  Camp  No.  4- 


Month. 


July— ,1890. 
July  5, 1891 . . 


Inches, 


5.25 
7.70 


Month. 


July  6, 1891. 


Inches. 


6.70 


Large  daily  rainfalls  at  Camp  Carazo. 


June  27, 1888 

December  4, 1888 

May  21, 1889 

October  20, 1889.. 


December  19, 1889 
December  28, 1889 
January  22, 1890.. 


2.90 
3.50 
3.00 


Large  daily  rainfall  at  Silico  Lake. 


April  — ,  1890 


Rainfall  observations  at  Sapoa,  Nicaragua,  1899. 


Day. 

July.   Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Day. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1 

0.10 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.19 
.04 
.02 
.45 

1.52 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.28 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.00 
.43 
.10 
.05 
.10 
.01 
.23 

1.67 
.02 
.10 
.02 

0.00 
.21 
.04 
.35 
.24 
.15 
.33 
.03 

1.63 
.16 
.13 
.00 
.02 
.11 
.23 
.00 
.00 

0.05 
.42 
.01 
.07 
.00 
.00 
.19 
.02 
.49 
.08 
.02 
.01 
.04 
.01 
.04 
.00 
.00 

18 

19 

20.      . 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26   .... 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Total . 

0.00 
.56 
.57 

1.84 
.17 
.24 
.22 
.40 
.49 
.62 
.  22 

!oo 

.00 
.07 

1.38 
.14 
.95 
.47 
.06 
.31 
.18 
.26 

1.15 
.37 
.06 
.16 
.35 
.04 

0.25 
.31 
.81 
.01 
.44 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.42 
.48 
.06 

0.00 
.17 
.86 
.00 
.10 
.14 
.00 
.39 
.24 
.99 
.71 
.09 
.00 
.00 

0.09 
.96 
.08 
.40 
.11 
.01 
.19 
.09 
.00 
.52 
.70 
.62 

1.19 

0.05 
.34 

.01 
.03 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.03 
.04 
.00 

2 

.07 
1.41 
.09 
.35 
.10 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.02 
.03 
.09 
.51 
.00 
.07 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

11 

16 

17 

6.66 

.02 

5.42 

8.74 

5.34 

6.45 

8.59 

1.98 

Total,  July  16  to  December  31,  1899,  -  36.52. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION, 

Rainfall  observations  at  Sapoa  and  Tortuga,  Nicaragua,  1900. 


175 


[July  16  to  July  19  estimated.    January  1  to  July  15,  Sapoa.    July  20  to  December  31,  Tortuga.— H.  C. 

Hogan,  observer.] 


Day. 


3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31  . 


Total. 


0.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.02 
.02 
.00 
.04 
.24 
.04 
.09 
.11 
.00 
.03 
.06 
.01 
.01 
.00 
.05 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.25 


Feb.  I  Mar. 


1.11 


0.00 
.00 
.03 
.07 
.01 
.01 
.17 
.01 
.14 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


.57 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.18 
.02 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.11 
.01 
.05 
.04 
.01 
.06 
.01 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.00 
.00 


Apr. 


.  tr,\ 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.12 
.04 
.00 
.02 
.20 
.09 
.01 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


May. 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.07 
.15 
.02 
.12 
.54 
.55 
.22 
.04 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.09 
.92 
.09 
.02 
.16 
.08 
.60 
1.34 
.03 
1.02 
1.17 
1.55 
1.42 


June. 


0.01 
.54 
.42 
.11 
.11 

1.80 
.10 

1.09 
.05 
.72 
.02 
.00 
.98 

1.36 
.32 
.57 
.76 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.11 
.01 
.07 
.42 
.76 
.01 
.00 
.31 
.78 

1.40 


July. 


.  54     10. 21     12. 85 


0.53 
.04 

1.94 
.22 

1.23 

2.65 
.16 
.53 
.56 
.15 
.30 
.31 
.43 
.21 
.39 
.40 
.10 

1.80 
.25 
.00 
.00 
.34 
.22 
.12 
.12 
.19 
.00 

1.03 
.27 
.35 
.10 


Aug. 


0.87 
.04 
.57 
.49 
.06 
.24 
.05 
.20 
.22 
.37 
.04 
.24 
.19 
.18 
.35 
.03 
.22 
.00 
.27 
.39 
2.39 
.02 
.09 
.84 
.99 
.62 
.46 
.15 
.02 
.10 
.00 


Sept. 


0.49 
.00 
.00 

1.64 
.03 
.04 
.20 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.92 
.70 

1.64 

1.85 
.98 

1.54 
.91 
.30 
.05 

2.11 

2.69 
.96 

2.03 

1.09 
.13 
.30 
.78 

2.37 


Oct. 


0.00 

2.43 
.06 
.52 
.72 

6.43 
.02 
.11 
.86 
.41 
.16 
.04 
.04 
.00 

1.20 
.18 
.63 
.82 

1.12 
.85 

1.54 

2.65 
.03 
.73 
.09 
.20 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.40 


14.74 


Nov. 


0.78 
.00 
.20 
.26 
.20 
.13 
.17 
.13 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.43 
.53 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.35 
.00 
.00 
.35 
.11 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.17 


10.70     23.75     22.28     3.51 


Dec. 


Total  from  January  1  to  December  31, 1900=103.60  inches. 

Rainfall  observations  at  Rivas,  Nicaragua,  1899. 
[Dr.  Earl  Flint,  observer.] 


Day. 


1 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17  . 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21  . 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31  . 


Jan. 


0.10 
.00 
.00 
.12 
.00 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.16 
.00 
.43 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


Total.      .85     1.70 


Feb. 


0.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.52 
.00 
.00 
.33 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.69 
.02 
.12 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


Mar. 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.09 
.51 


Apr. 


.65 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


May. 


.00 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.90 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.58 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.00 
.00 


June. 


1.62 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.99 
.00 

1.15 
.62 

2.76 
.00 
.45 
.13 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.34 
.31 
.35 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.32 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.00 
.00 


July. 


0.00 
.93 
.08 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.00 

.11 

.00 
.16 
.20 
.70 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.20 
2.09 
2.32 
.00 
.40 
.83 
1.80 
.71 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.02 


Aug. 


7.53     10.69 


0.00 
.00 
.01 
.19 
.02 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.17 
.58 
.03 
.04 
.01 

1.20 
.20 
.46 
.06 
.00 
.95 
.34 

2.22 

1.04 
.00 
.07 

1.40 
.22 


Sept. 


Oct. 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.93 
1.93 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.08 
.21 
.00 
.00 
.57 
.04 
.51 
.00 
.08 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.69 
.00 


9.26  I     5.15 


0.00 

.00 

.00 

.84 

.00 

.65 

.20 

.95 

.07 

.00 

.10 

.36 

1.99 

.65 

.07 

.50 

.22 

.01 

.09 

.00 

1.07 

.40 

.01 

.10 

1.01 

2.84 

4.21 

1.70 

.80 

.00 

1.55 


Nov. 


20.39 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.32 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.30 

1.07 
.10 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.31 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.26 
.10 
.36 
.00 
.38 
.00 
.44 
.53 

3.15 

1.70 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.07 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.08 
.03 
.00 
.12 
.00 
.30 
.17 
.17 
.41 
.19 
.04 
.04 
.20 
.00 
.06 
.38 
.02 
.03 
.00 
.00 


2.31 


Dec. 


0.06 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.04 
.24 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.20 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.23 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


.III! 


.  92 


Total  January  1  to  December  31,  1899=66.35  inches. 


176  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Rainfall  at  Masaya,  Nicaragua. 


Year. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Total. 

1886.... 
1887.... 

(») 
0.30 

8.23 
7.39 

15.26 

5.74 

15. 34 
9.15 

11.19 

23.56 

0.69 
.94 

0.02 
.99 

72.  70 
61.22 

0.00 

0.  00 

0.00 

2.42 

10.73 

L888-... 

.05 

.14 

.00 

.00 

7.09 

12. 09 

4.95 

9.50 

17.21 

7.67 

.00 

.00 

58.70 

1889.... 

.00 

.00 

2.39 

1.18 

6.43 

17.00 

7.87 

13.43 

14.53 

13.36 

2. 34 

.25 

78.  78 

1890.... 

.14 

.00 

.00 

.60 

1.82 

3.00 

2.86 

2.  66 

2.95 

5.89 

.42 

.18 

20.  52 

1891.... 

.19 

.00 

.00 

1.02 

.48 

20. 94 

4.52 

4.20 

10.40 

6.  45 

2.78 

.00 

49.98 

1892.... 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

7.36 

14.42 

8.70 

6.  75 

9.64 

15.  71 

1.66 

.30 

64. 54 

1893.... 

.00 

1.15 

.00 

.00 

9.26 

11.78 

11.47 

15.82 

12.67 

6.51 

2.70 

1.50 

72. 86 

1894.... 

.32 

.50 

.00 

.00 

7.87 

4.77 

3.32 

4.00 

7.49 

13.  42 

1.08 

.11 

42.88 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.41 

4.57 

4.71 

5.22 

2.90 

8.36 

14.46 

.57 

.06 

41.26 

1896.... 
1897  .. 

.23 

.00 

.00 

.09 

5.62 

7.90 

7.13 

2.98 

6.62 

4.  22 

4.85 

.00 

39. 64 

1898 

.28 

.00 

5.30 

2.02 

9.36 
8.62 

7.06 
4.19 

3.27 
9.47 

9.03 
2.80 

13.71 
10.35 

2.19 
5.54 

.53 
1.20 

50.73 
45.24 

1899.... 

.50 

.48 

.07 

1900.... 
Mean. 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

8.66 

15.52 

10.27 

4.70 

7.23 

11.24 

1.91 

.22 

59.75 

.14 

.19 

.20 

.28 

5.30 

10.83 

6.66 

7.19 

9.53 

11.17 

1.98 

.38 

54.20 

'Estimated  rainfall  January  to  June,  1886,  inclusive,  is  21.97  inches. 

Rainfall  observations  at  Granada,  Nicaragua,  1899. 

[Observer,  S.  Vargas.] 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept, 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1 

0.00 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.43 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.07 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
..00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

2. 23 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.07 
.04 
.00 
.01 
.08 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 

1.64 
.35 

1.84 
.78 
.76 
.39 
.22 
.00 
.26 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.17 
.50 
.32 
.22 
.00 
.  .05 
.00 
.48 
.17 
.58 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.01 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.62 
.00 
.00 
.14 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.51 

2.34 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.30 
.87 
.06 
.53 
.00 
.00 
.06 

0.31 
.00 
.02 
.20 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.40 
.30 
.02 
1.21 
1.51 
.11 
.03 
.39 
.39 
.25 
.51 
8.  25 
1.50 
.02 
.00 
.20 
.00 

0.06 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.13 
.00 
.28 
.52 
.73 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.17 
.12 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.07 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.31 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.66 

.15 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.111 

1.56 
.31 
.02 
.00 
.65 
.00 
.46 

.  -51 

1.48 

1.07 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.16 

.39 

1.80 

.07 

.78 

.07 

.36 

.60 

2.03 

.00 

.00 

1.56 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.03 
.  75 
.06 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.06 

1.00 
.00 
.04 
.08 
.00 
.00 
.18 
.15 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.19 
.38 
.39 

L.83 

0.00 
.36 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.08 
.13 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.  00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

2 

3  ...... 

i 

5 

6 

7 

,s 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

is 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

21 

•J."> 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

26 

27 

28 

•j'.i 

30 

31 

Total... 

.00 

.  52 

.11 

.02 

2.43 

8.78 

6.64 

15. 44 

2.39 

14. 79 

5.24 

.  57 

Total  from  January  25  to  December  31,  1899=56.93  inches. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Rainfall  observations  at  Granada,  1000. 
[Stephen  Vargas,  observer.] 


177 


Hay. 

Jan. 

Fob. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.23 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

'.00 
.00 

0. 00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.  00 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.40 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.09 
.02 
.00 
.68 

3.55 
.00 

1.79 

2.89 
.90 
.00 
.54 

1.14 

0.00 
.42 

.12 
.OS 
.00 

2. 85 
.  06 

3.62 
.70 
.25 
.21 
.117 

1.4& 
.75 
.00 
.00 
.25 

2. 05 
.10 
.00 
.12 
.00 
.90 

2.47 
.00 
.11 
.00 

1.05 
.00 
.00 

0. 22 
.60 
.35 
.10 
.36 
.45 
48 
.42 
.37 
.80 
.00 

2.47 
.00 
.00 
.00 

2.15 
.23 
.03 
.00 
.80 
.00 

1.29 
.00 
.25 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.30 
.38 
.35 

0.10 
.00 
.12 

.00 
.18 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.20 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.15 
.00 
.10 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
2. 75 
.00 
.33 
.33 
.00 

0.00 

.00 
.14 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.45 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.88 
.15 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.87 

1.35 
.80 
.00 
.00 
.56 
.00 
.21 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.19 
.00 

2.25 
.00 
.55 
.00 
.00 

1.95 
.00 

1.73 
.00 
.00 

1.04 
.54 

1.97 
.00 
.00 

1.68 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.73 
.00 

2.73 
.00 
.34 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.19 
.00 

0.00 
.14 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.05 
.13 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

2 

3 

4 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12... 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Total. 

.26 

.00 

.03 

.02 

12. 06 

17.63 

12.40 

3.93 

7.60 

16.70 

1.42 

.05 

Total  for  the  vear,  72.10. 


Rainfall  at  Granada,  Nicaragua. 


Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Total. 

1876 

5.77 
11.57 

13.65 
10.24 

26.61 
10.12 

4.96 
5.32 

1877 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

.00 

17.36 

5. 27 

0.87 

0.59 

6L34 

1883 

.35 

.00 

.00 

.18 

.28 

5.20 

2.66 

5.47 

9.74 

19.91 

3.64 

.00 

47.43 

1884 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

8.25 

3.  99  1  3.  75 

8.82 

8.63 

2.28 

.26 

35.98 

1897 

.00 

.00 

.97 

1.77 

16.63 

30.79 

8.88   10.87   10.21 

11.97 

1.25 

.28 

93.62 

1898 

1.07 

.00 

.02 

.00 

12.82 

10.44 

6.09 

7.30     5.25 

10.  49 

1.87 

.24 

55.  59 

1899 

.00 

.52 

.11 

.02 

2.43 

8.78 

6.64 

15.44     2.39 

14.79 

5.24 

.57 

56.  93 

1900 
Mean . 

.26 

.00 

.03 

.02 

12.06 

17.43 

12.  40 

3.93     7.60 

16.70 

1.42 

.22 

72.10 

.24 

.07 

.16 

.28 

7.70 

13.10 

9.67 

7.13  ,  8.77 

12. 54 

2.37 

.31 

60. 42 

1876,  Ramon  Espinola;   1877,  Dr.  Earl  Flint;   1883-4,  National  Institute;    1897-98,  William  Climie; 
1899-1900,  Stephen  Vargas. 


S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2- 


-12 


178  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Rainfall  observation*  at  San  Ubaldo,  Nicaragua,  1S99. 


June. 


Total 


0.01 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.10 
.60 
.01 
.17 
.86. 


Jnlv. 


0.01 
.30 
.76 
.35 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.02 
.00 
.23 
.01 
.31 

•«* 
.11 

.00 
.10 
.17 
.12 

.04 
.05 
.30 
.27 
.00 
.22 

!oi 

.00 
.05 
.00 


Aul<. 

Sept. 

0.31 

0.00 

.30 

.04 

.12 

.10 

.01 

1.53 

.84 

.00 

.00 

.23 

.00 

.11 

.00 

1.18 

.00 

.93 

.00 

.17 

.07 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.01 

.00 

.20 

.00 

.30 

.00 

.49 

.36 

.30 


9.45 


.00 
.00 
.25 


.00 

.05 

.18 

.02 

.49 

.12 

.53 

.09 

1.52 

.03 

2. 27 

.00 

.03 

.00 

.16 

.35 

.21 

.04 

.19 

.04 

.45 

Oct.        Nov.        Dec. 


0.56 
.00 
.  36 
.10 
.29 
.00 
.02 
.20 
.05 
.07 
.09 
.54 
.01 
.77 

1.79 
.08 
.07 
.38 
.05 
.32 
.16 
.21 

1.22 
.04 
..50 
.96 

1.58 
.63 
.00 
.03 
.02 


11.10 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.00 
.03 
.04 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.83 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.39 
.33 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.91 
.93 

1.31 
.09 

3.49 
.60 


0.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.12 

1.22 

!oi 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.11 

.00 


1.87 


Total,  June  21  to  December  31,  1899,  44.05. 


Rainfall  observations  at  San  Ubaldo,  1900. 
[G.  C.  W.  Magruder,  observer.] 


Day. 


1 

2 

3 

1 

5 

(i 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

II 

15 

L6 

17 

IS 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

21 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

::l 

Total. 


Jan. 


0.00 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.07 
.(U 
.00 
.  65 
.or, 
Jil 
.00 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.  15 
.00 
.01 

.(10 
.00 

.mi 
.no 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.11 

.01 


Feb. 


1.22 


0.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.07 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 

.00 

.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 


Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.  17 

.03 

.00 

.00 

.97 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.28 

.02 

.00 

.00 

.05 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.14 

.00 

.00 

.03 

.09 

.06 

.00 

.00 

2.  27 

.07 

.00 

.01 

.00 

.01 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.69 

.0(1 

.00 

.00 

.20 

.00 

.00 

.07 

1.72 

.00 

.00 

.02 

.22 

.00 

.00 

.73 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.05 

1.01 

.01 

.00 

.01 

.46 

.00 

.00 

.98 

.62 

.01 

.00 

2.  OS 

.05 

.00 

.07 

.01 

.12 

.01 

.00 

.01 

.  05 

.no 

.00 

.00 

.01 

.00 

.00 

.  26 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.60 

.07 

.00 

.00 

.36 

.00 

.Oil 

.00 

.28 

.07 

.00 

.00 

.15 

.2:! 

.00 

.00 

.01 

.05 

.00 

.02 

1 .  (10 

.01 

.00 

.09 

.27 

.09 

7.  11 

9. 85 

July. 


2. 53 

.75 

.24 

2.40 

1.60 

.36 

.00 

3.17 

1.65 

3.  53 

1.34 

.12 

2.  88 

.  12 
.00 
.72 
.28 
.02 
.01 
1.75 
.53 
.10 
.03 
.06 

.(Hi 

.00 
.00 
.00 

.  59 
.01 

.00 


21.91 


Aug. 


0.43 
.00 
.06 
.39 
.11 
.02 
.08 
.15 
.  22 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.i:; 

.21 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.20 
.12 
.31 
.29 
.75 
.  10 

.88 

.OS 
.12 
.00 
.01 
.  29 


5.  32 


Sept. 


0.07 
.00 
.01 

2. 52 
.  56 
.13 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.23 
.01 
.23 
.00 

.oo 
.87 

1 .  99 
.19 
.  1  I 
.32 
.  69 
.00 

1.  r, 

.09 
.  17 
.19 
.00 

2.  69 
.63 

.07 
.  12 


Oct. 


0.20 
.90 
.81 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.16 
.03 
.00 
.11 
.00 
.  13 
.  00 
.31 
.00 
.20 
.  12 

2.  95 
.  is 

1.70 
.01 

.35 

.00 

.00 

.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 


II.  os       s.-.n 


Nov. 


0.23 
.17 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 

.01 
.02 
.00 
.00 

.  25 
.00 
.00 
.01 

.11 

.02 
.01 
.17 

.01 

.0(1 

.00 
.  12 
.09 
.0(1 
.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.11 


1.  i:; 


Dec. 


o.os 
.00 
.02 
.09 
.16 
.00 
.  00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.  05 
,o| 
.00 

.03 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
IMI 

.no 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


Total  for  the  year,  74.26. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  17V> 

Daily  rainfall  at  Solentiname  Island,  Lake  Nicaragua,  Nicaragua,  woo. 


Pay. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1 

0.04 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.03 
.17 
.07 
.18 
.01 
.31 
.00 
.02 
.13 
.05 
.05 
.01 
.05 
.03 
.04 
.00 
.03 
.05 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.18 
.00 
.08 
.04 
.00 

0.00 
.48 

.64 
.00 
.10 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.22 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.06 
.00 
.20 
.04 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.09 
.02 

0.06 
.02 
.32 
.15 

.02 
.12 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.03 
.01 
.04 
.19 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.08 
.17 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
1.03 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.12 
.08 
.16 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.00 
.30 

2. 40 
.04 
.10 
.05 
.99 

2.00 
.15 
.70 
.71 

3.34 
.25 

0.13 
.25 
.25 
.07 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.16 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 

1.05 
.15 
.24 

1.52 
.02 
.00 
.10 
.51 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.12 
.21 
.43 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.22 

.13 
.58 
.04 
.79 
.36 
.11 
.38 
.72 
.11 
.24 
.50 
.02 
.10 
.94 
.40 
.46 
.37 
.00 
.05 
.15 
.06 
.05 
.21 
.00 
.19 
.06 
.36 
.70 
.33 

1.30 
.17 

1.60 

1.67 
.19 
.45 
.25 
.02 
.50 
.10 
.47 
.50 
.06 

1.05 
.45 
.08 
.33 
.46 
.00 

1.30 
.00 
.18 
.12 
.25 
.32 
.83 
.42 
.72 
.10 
.02 
.30 

0.11 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.10 
.43 
.10 
.13 
.14 
.36 
.56 
.17 
.30 
.20 
.30 
.50 
.10 
.11 

1.12 
.88 
.10 
.11 
.40 
.42 

1.62 
.60 

1.06 

1.50 
.71 

2.30 

0.02 
.05 
.70 
.42 
.90 
.40 
.60 
.45 
.50 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.02 
.00 
.51 
.05 
.32 
.60 
.40 
.32 
.09 

3.00 

3.85 
.15 
.30 
.08 
.03 
.04 
.01 
.00 
.08 

0.13 
.22 
.07 
.10 
.09 
.12 
.04 
.56 
.23 
.12 
.08 
.17 
.03 
.05 
.66 
.31 
.04 
.02 
.00 
.05 
.10 
.13 
.19 
.11 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.01 
.06 
.30 

0.14 
.23 
.20  ' 
.10 
.11 
.09 
.12 
.07 
.10 
.23 
.31 
.12 
.06 
.10 
.22 
.18 
.10 
.14 
.05 
.06 
.10 
.11 
.18 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.45 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

2 

3 

4 

6 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Total. 

1.66 

1.95 

1.10 

1.40 

12.47 

5.31 

8.63 

14.21 

15.43 

14.89 

4.04 

3.59 

Total  for  the  year,  84.68  inches. 

Rainfall  observations  at  Fort  San  Carlos,  Nicaragua,  1899. 


Jan. 


Feb.    Mar.    Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


1 

0.35 

2 

.00 

3 

.74 

4 

5 

.17 

6 

.00 

.03 

8 

.06 

9 

.38 

10 

.17 

11 

.05 

12 

.47 

13 

.05 

14 

.58 

15 

16 

.53 

17 

18 

.26 

19 

.05 

20 

.00 

21 

.22 

■22 

.08 

23 

.05 

24 

.25 

25 

.05 

26 

.10 

27 

.05 

28 

.00 

29 

.10 

30 

.00 

31 

.20 

Total. 


0.00 
.15 
.00 
.10 
.00 
.24 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.54 
.08 
.00 
.13 
.11 
.59 
.08 
.32 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.25 
.00 
.00 


0.06 
.00 
.06 
.00 
.00 
.12 
.04 
.21 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.42 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.32 
.04 
.09 
.29 
.40 
.22 
.10 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.67 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.00 
.15 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.22 
.05 
.03 
.02 
.05 
.00 
.20 
.30 
.00 
.50 
.76 
.04 
.02 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.28 
.95 
1.20 
2.10 
1.06 
.31 
.00 
.51 
.03 
.35 
.81 
.18 
.54 
.21 
.02 
.04 
.00 
.32 
.01 
.17 
1.42 
.14 
.15 
.44 


0.21 
.71 
.54 
.07 
.01 
.00 
.04 
.33 
.00 
.08 
.76 
.07 
.86 
.43 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.52 
.06 

1.19 
.00 

1.08 
.44 
.26 
.72 
.15 
.36 
.37 
.02 
.00 


0.10 
.00 
.00 
.18 
.02 
.00 
.12 
.42 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.59 
.16 
.18 
.01 
.62 
.93 
.08 
.33 
.20 
.41 
.71 
.69 
.92 
.88 
.60 
.10 
.09 
.03 
.84 


0.01 
.00 
.00 
.20 
.07 
.12 
.07 
.16 
.12 
.06 
.03 
.06 
.00 
.21 
.92 
1.44 
.05 
.21 
.41 
2.33 
1.00 
1.39 
.03 
.08 
.12 
.00 
.15 
.80 
.07 
.56 


2.74 
.00 
.09 
.12 

1.09 
.22 
.10 
.01 
.17 
.40 
.12 
.92 
.00 

3.88 
.07 
.05 
.05 
.04 
.03 
.29 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.13 
.09 
.00 
.00 


0.00 
.03 
.81 
.41 
.72 

1.11 
.28 
.19 
.48 
.06 
.00 
.14 
.01 
.06 
.70 
.06 
.81 
.29 
.12 
.00 
.01 
.07 
.72 
.13 
.07 
.06 
.34 
.09 
.32 
.73 


4.99     2.79     1.05     1.48 


3.18 


9.28 


9.23  I  10.67 


10.66  i     9.43 


0  01 
.40 
.02 
.10 
.11 
.01 
.07 
.00 
.95 
.02 
.11 
.06 
.12 
.31 
.02 
.06 
.02 
.15 


.22 
.12 
.03 
.00 
.08 
.10 
.03 
.01 
.05 
.02 
.00 
.00 


3.20 


Total,  January  1  to  December  31,  1899,  77.20. 


180 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Rainfall  observations  at  Fort  San  Carlos,  Nicaragua,  1900. 
[Fred  Davis,  observer.] 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Doc. 

1 

0.00 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.03 
.61 
.06 
.23 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.64 
.22 
.01 
.29 
.03 
.OS 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.03 
.08 
.00 
.06 
.00 
.21 
.00 
.18 
.22 
.03 

0.  09 
.54 
.54 
.00 
.08 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.62 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.09 
.13 
.16 
.01 
.00 
.10 
.14 
.01 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.09 
.00 

0.00 
.01 
.31 
.02 
.05 
.06 
.00 
.01 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.08 
.06 
.19 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.02 
.07 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.03 
.09 
.04 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.01 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.07 
.58 
.10 
.26 
.00 
.52 
.19 
.00 
.01 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.15 

1.80 

1.62 
.64 
.45 
.00 
.08 
.68 

2.02 
.36 
.94 
.95 

2.08 
.68 

0.02 
.21 
.15 
.27 
.11 
.01 
.13 
.06 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.00 
.07 
.30 
.15 
.45 

1.25 
.86 
.09 
.01 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.28 
.03 
.00 

1.03 
.32 
.18 

0.96 

.01 
.51 
.59 
.53 
.40 
.00 
.17 
.79 
.70 
.10 
.27 

1.51 
.27 
.05 

2.92 
.49 

2.14 
.09 
.31 
.01 
.26 
.22 
.10 
.04 
.01 
.41 
.36 
.48 
.66 
.08 

0.96 
.38 

1.19 

1.20 
.37 

2.59 
.47 
.77 
.01 
.19 
.14 
.05 
.02 

1.08 
.39 
.12 
.20 
.46 
.03 
.71 
.12 
.23 
.32 
.52 
.41 
.50 
.85 
.13 
.24 
.59 
.05 

0.61 
.01 
.00 
.00 

1.14 
.00 
.08 
.00 
.00 
.30 
.87 
.46 
.18 
.12 
.00 
.94 
.60 
.19 

1.34 
.07 
.08 
.02 

2.33 
.72 
.05 
.03 

1.80 
.62 

1. 02 

1.51 

2.28 
.48 
.74 
.46 
.17 
.  59 
.75 
.00 
.35 
.00 
.06 
.00 
.29 
.06 
.21 
.68 
.18 
.95 
.15 

1.45 
.03 

1.96 
.40 
.81 
.12 
.21 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.16 

0.26 
.11 
.05 
.06 
.20 
.00 
.62 
.78 
.50 
.00 
.00 
.08 
.00 
.00 
.31 
.16 
.00 
.00 
.09 
.20 
.34 
.17 
.10 
.39 
.07 
.25 
.01 
.00 
.01 
.66 

0.23 
.07 

.57 

JIN 

.03 
.44 
.  23 
.53 
.16 
.21 
.90 
.37 
.20 
.20 
.17 
.38 
.11 
.52 
.07 
.07 
.39 
.03 
.06 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.25 
.05 
.(12 
.00 
.03 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13  ... 

14 

15 

lti 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Total. 

3.09 

2.66 

.81 

.41 

14.19 

6.04 

15.44 

15. 29 

15. 02 

13. 59 

5.42 

6.  38 

Total  for  the  year,  98.34. 

Rainfall  observations  at  Ochoa,  San  Juan  River,  1899. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1 

1.17 

1.83 
.58 
.84 

1.31 
.05 
.67 
.25 
.17 
.  22 
.51 

1 .  28 
.24 
.21 

1.  19 
.80 
.01 

.  i:; 

.16 
.22 
.51 
.44 
.01 
.31 
.03 
.04 
.01 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.05 

0.37 
.11 
.08 
.01 
.18 
.22 
.00 
.00 
.11 
.17 
.08 
.99 
.49 
.01 
.13 
.58 
.33 
.95 

1.45 
.27 
.33 
.09 
.16 
.06 
.05 

.or, 
.33 

.  35 

0.Z5 
.01 
.14 
.05 
.00 
.02 
1.36 
2. 51 
.06 
.00 
.05 
.03 
.35 
.26 
.24 
.09 
.09 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.02 
.00 
.01 
.  22 

0.37 
.09 
.35 
.17 
.65 
.71 
.01 
1.60 
1.17 
.43 
.51 
.47 
.27 
.08 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.(H) 
.15 

.(1(1 

.00 

.on 

.(Ml 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.17 
.07 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.24 
.31 
.15 
.00 
.19 
.32 
.01 
.11 
.  69 
.31 

1.57 
.  39 
.13 
.01 

.is 

2.  11 

2.03 

1.75 

.10 

.  85 

.21 

.(11 

0.26 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.26 

3.24 
.20 

2.  51 
.21 
.19 
.02 
.is 
.41 
.09 
.65 

1.  11 
.26 
.33 
.00 
.  29 
.00 

2.41 
.04 
.03 
.72 
.79 
.24 
.  19 

0. 24 

1.03 

.11 

.69 

.03 

1.10 

.93 

1.16 

6.90 

2.81 

.67 

.43 

:;.::i 

1.07 

.04 

.19 

.15 

.41 

.07 

.53 

1.00 

.70 

.08 

.01 

1.49 

2.18 

.  17 

.78 

.20 

.00 

1.09 

0.23 
.66 
.03 

2.36 
.08 
.06 
.79 

2.21 
.07 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.18 
.01 
.74 
.05 
.90 
.31 
.05 
.71 

2.20 
.20 
.  16 

1.75 

1.02 
.62 
.11 
.13 
.05 
.38 
.12 

0.20 
.00 
.55 
.00 
.00 
.26 
.09 
.55 
.06 
.79 
.31 
.00 
.00 
.  05 
.(H) 

l.:;i 
.02 

.11 

.01 
1 .  52 
1.3s 
1.21 
1.72 
.19 
.57 
.00 
.M 
.31 
.03 
.00 

0.43 
.01 
.33 
.93 
.03 
.17 
.01 
.55 
.02 
T.  " 
.  19 
.01 
.02 
.  90 
.11 
.  69 
.36 
.00 
.11 
.  35 
.01 
.89 
.48 
.  21 
.60 
.01 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.(H) 
.10 

0. 02 
.16 
.S3 

3.29 

.51 

.  98 
.30 

.  is 
.77 
.SI 
1.97 
2.  04 
2.00 
1 .  15 
.94 
.30 
.36 
.47 
.52 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.  12 
.00 
.20 
.04 
.26 
.76 
.00 

0. 02 
.19 
.16 
.42 
.83 
.85 

1.94 

1.54 
.28 
.01 
.31 
.19 
.31 
.16 
.21 
.13 

3.  20 

1.  II 
.  91 

2.69 
.83 
.09 
.  58 
.15 
.04 
.88 

1.30 
.66 
.  50 
.SO 
.  09 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13  . . . 

11 

15  ... 

16 

17  .  . 

18  ... 

19 

•JO 

21 

22 

23 

21 

25 

26 

27    

28 

29 

3D 

:-,l 

Total. 

14.02 

7.96 

5.80 

7.09 

12.  60 

15.69 

30. 20 

17.50 

15.  49 

7. 85 

20.  58 

22. 13 

Total,  from  January  1  to  December  81, 1899,  176.91. 

»  Trace. 


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y 

s'" 

1  : 
1/ 

• 

\ 

\ 

~- 

-" 

U 
* 

>. 

X, 

S3 

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// 

.7 
y 

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1    _ 

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RA 

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'■■• 

FIG.   14.— COMPARATIVE   MONTHLY  RAINFALL  AT  GREYTOWN,   SAN   CARLOS,   AND  GRANADA. 


8 

9 

10. 
11 
12. 
13. 
11  . 
15. 
16. 
17  . 
18. 

19  . 

20  . 
21. 

2LJ  . 

23. 
24  . 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31  . 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Kit  in  foil  observations  at  Ochoa,  1900. 
[H.  S.  Reed,  observer.] 


181 


PllV. 


Total. 


0.00 
.06 
.  23 
.34 

1.10 
.40 
.30 
.10 
.00 
.37 
.00 
.13 
.23 
.09 
.45 
.05 
.02 
.01 
.60 
.09 
.50 

1.34 
.68 
.01 
.02 
.00 
.87 
.35 
.38 
.31 
.09 


y.12 


Feb.    Mar. 


0.15 
.13 
.54 
.02 
.12 
.13 
.28 
.02 
.56 
.00 
.02 
.02 
T. 
.06 
.28 
.05 
.13 
.33 

1.29 
.11 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.19 
.06 
.00 


4.49 


0.00 
.78 
.54 
.73 
.49 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.17 
.42 
.38 
.16 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.94 
.00 
.43 
.43 

1.68 
.12 
.16 
.08 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.02 


Apr. 


0.51 
.12 
.01 
.14 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.10 
.79 

1.33 
.20 
.01 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.19 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.68 
.00 
.10 
.00 
.01 


May. 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
1.52 
1.92 
.19 
1.62 
.01 
.55 
.07 
.87 
.33 
.20 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.19 
.24 
.39 
.10 
.34 
.30 
.08 
1.11 
1.09 
1.35 
.02 
.50 
.33 


7.58 


13.36 


June. 


0.04 
.22 
.97 
.61 
.10 
.02 
.23 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.14 

1.52 
.73 
.23 
.05 

2.75 

1.45 
.09 
.03 
.42 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.09 
.06 
.05 
.00 
.27 
.14 

1.02 


11.24 


July. 


0.37 
.01 
.03 

1.74 
.04 
.53 
.23 
.65 

2. 55 
.13 
.21 
.08 
.52 
.49 
.01 

2.16 
.06 
.53 
.54 
.13 
.10 

2.40 
.14 
.08 
.12 
.00 

1.67 
.51 
.14 
.28 
.00 


16.45 


Aug. 


0.28 

1.40 

.30 

2.56 

.61 

.31 

.83 

.46 

1.66 

1.68 

1.48 

2.75 

.01 

.32 

.62 

.11 

.83 

1.38 

1.24 

.07 

.04 

.02 

.18 

.18 

3.23 

.89 

.60 

.57 

1.54 

.03 

.28 


Sept. 


26.  46 


1.06 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.70 

1.60 
.04 
.03 
.00 
.71 
.00 
.31 

3.20 
.01 
.21 
.26 

2.20 
.53 
.35 
.07 
.19 
.23 
.16 
.14 
.77 
.16 
.16 
.82 

2.75 


16.66 


Oct. 


0.27 
.07 
.02 
.47 
.03 
.00 
.06 
.01 
.01 
.06 
.00 
.01 
.06 
.59 
.02 
.00 
.12 
.00 
.15 
.08 

2.52 
.17 
.36 
.89 
.66 
.76 
.36 
.01 
.14 
.60 
.03 


Nov. 


8.53 


0.06 
.67 
.25 

1.65 
.14 
.03 
.16 
.47 

1.61 
.27 

1.03 
.02 
.20 

1.46 
.56 
.26 
.25 
.01 
.13 
.33 
.19 

1.23 
.09 
.15 
.07 
.54 
.28 
.02 

1.59 

2.07 


15.69 


Total,  from  January  1  to  December  31,  1900,  158.83. 

Rainfall  observations  at  Oreytown,  Nicaragua,  1899. 


Dec. 


0.23 

.03 

.65 

.68 

1.94 

2.68 

4.87 

5.96 

1.23 

.31 

.92 

2.22 

.09 

.29 

.11 

.19 

.33 

.19 

.13 

1.03 

.01 

.30 

.00 

.02 

.34 

.02 

.10 

.00 

.09 

.00 

.00 


24.96 


Day. 


9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 


Total. 


Jan. 


1.44 

.80 

.92 

.27 

.50 

.59 

1.61 

.67 

1.17 

1.91 

2.08 

2.46 

.49 

.46 

2.50 

1.32 

.01 

2.21 

.19 

.29 

.49 

.19 

.12 

.56 

.00 

.11 

.00 

.00 

.05 

.02 

.06 


Feb. 


23.49 


0.08 
1.00 
.00 
.47 
.25 
.02 
.45 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.30 
2.45 
.10 
.04 
1.51 
.45 
1.06 
1.23 
.87 
.45 
.13 
.00 
.00 
.38 
.01 
.00 
.23 
.19 
.00 


0.52 
.00 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.00 
.45 
.00 
.03 
.01 
.06 
.02 
.55 
.30 
.05 

2.19 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.25 
.02 
.09 
.08 
.25 
.00 
.00 

1.36 


Apr. 


0.27 
.03 
.28 
.40 
.30 
.12 
.00 
2.35 
1.57 
1.36 
.48 
1.36 
.37 
.00 
.08 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 


May. 


8.33     9.09 


0.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

4.43 

.30 

.00 

.00 

.69 

.57 

.03 

.00 

.00 

.11 

.00 

1.46 

1.00 

1.02 

.40 

.20 

.27 

.00 

.28 

1.23 

4.00 

.52 

.35 

2.85 

1.16 

.37 


21.24 


June. 


0.35 
.00 
.00 

2.15 
.11 
.46 
.00 
.16 
.00 
.06 
.00 
.06 
.47 
.22 
.00 

1.12 

2.40 

3.07 
.14 
.00 
.30 
.00 

5.25 
.21 
.22 
.67 

1.85 


20.  97 


July. 


2.46 

2.14 

1.05 

.40 

.10 

.45 

2.14 

.46 

3.05 

3.08 

4.89 

.06 

3.63 

.67 

.36 

.28 

.34 

.71 

.06 

1.92 

1.90 

.49 

1.02 

1.03 

1.07 

2.24 

2.17 

.00 

.00 

.12 

1.33 


39;  62 


Aug, 


0.30 
.67 
.00 

5.70 
.07 
.70 
.36 

1.40 
.09 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.06 
.28 

4. 23 
.23 

■1.01 

1.36 
.86 
.08 
.80 
.27 
.60 

1.97 
.20 

1.75 
.16 
.68 
.00 

1.58 
.06 


29. 50 


Sept. 


0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.30 
.85 
.98 
.00 

1.73 

5.60 

1.26 
.53 

1.05 
.06 

3.23 
.00 

1.25 
.15 

6.10 
.65 

3.52 
.71 

1.20 

3.15 
.00 

2.23 

2.40 
.00 
.00 


Oct. 


36.95 


0.10 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.21 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.26 
.00 

1.76 
.00 
.00 
.97 
.00 

1.12 

4.69 
.00 
.88 
.00 
.00 
.60 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.85 


Nov. 


12.44 


0.41 

.00 

.18 

12. 48 

.78 

.00 

.00 

.14 

3.24 

4.90 

4.35 

2.40 

.70 

.38 

1.84 

1.09 

.59 

1.38 

1.25 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.65 

2.20 

.00 

.00 

1.40 


Dec. 


10. 36 


0.00 

.49 

.40 

2.60 

1.23 

.70 

1.58 

.35 

.38 

.00 

.00 

.00 

1.30 

2.33 

.00 

1.10 

2.12 

2.82 

.93 

2.03 

.93 

.87 

2.10 

.67 

.97 

1.83 

1.04 

.62 

.15 

2.53 

.38 


32.25 


Total,  January  1  to  December  31,  1899,  285.93. 


182 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Rainfall  observations  at  Greytown,  Nicaragua,  1900. 

[Charles  I).  Scott,  observer.] 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1 

1.05 
.75 
.10 

3.15 

0.00 
.54 

1.04 
.10 

0.20 

2.25 

1.25 

.22 

0.00 
.27 
.00 
.24 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 

1.40 
.00 

1.45 
.00 
.64 

2.07 

1.68 

1.30 

.41 

4.40 

0.30 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 

1.00 
.22 

2.43 
7.40 
8.  76 
5.70 

0.16 

1.63 

.91 

.63 

2 

3 

4 

5 

4.16 

.00 

.65 

.00 

.30 

.68 

1.74 

3.10 

.00 

1.77 

.42 

1.60 

6 

1.40 

.58 

.11 

.00 

5.60 

.18 

.64 

.92 

.00 

.00 

1.81 

1.47 

7 

.86 

.05 

.00 

.44 

2.79 

.48 

.64 

.98 

.71 

.00 

1.34 

2.60 

8 

.73 

.00 

.00 

.11 

.42 

.00 

.00 

1.50 

.00 

.21 

4.83 

.00 

9 

.12 

.63 

.00 

.00 

.60 

.00 

.00 

.53 

.00 

1.13 

1.83 

.82 

10 

.00 

.00 

.24 

.00 

5.08 

.00 

.00 

3.68 

.00 

2.30 

.54 

.32 

11 

.00 

.00 

1.23 

.30 

2.10 

.28 

.22 

3.29 

.16 

.00 

.83 

1.10 

12 

.80 

.08 

.00 

.22 

.00 

.32 

.12 

.58 

.00 

.00 

.98 

.53 

13 

.57 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.40 

.18 

1.18 

2.06 

.00 

.32 

.58 

11 

.00 

.18 

.00 

.00 

.18 

.52 

.00 

3.68 

6.29 

.00 

.32 

.00 

15 

.80 

.15 

.00 

.00 

1.38 

1.28 

.13 

.24 

.00 

2.03 

1.43 

.00 

16 

.25 

1.23 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.29 

1.58 

.30 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.76 

17 

.00 

.50 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.13 

1.98 

.20 

.00 

.00 

.10 

.75 

18 

.00 

.00 

.18 

.59 

.00 

.00 

1.69 

1.26 

.68 

1.30 

.06 

1.46 

19 

.32 

.18 

.49 

1.00 

.95 

2.58 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.75 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.23 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.13 
.00 
.00 

1.08 

.48 

1.08 

3.20 

.90 

1.36 

.56 

.91 

1.41 

.00 

.28 

1.86 

1.28 

4.97 

1.45 

.00 

.15 

.67 

1.60 

.57 

.42 
.00 
.32 
.92 

20 

21 

22 

23 

1.38 
.00 
.00 
.18 

1.42 
.86 
.10 
.19 
.34 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.48 
1.15 
.48 

.39 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

1.81 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.41 

.58 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.86 
.29 
.76 
1.12 

.20 
.00 

2.28 
.10 
.00 
.10 

2.42 
.24 

.00 
.10 
.20 
.29 

3.95 
.41 
.10 

3.26 
.00 

.46 

.56 

1.40 

1.46 

.56 

.12 

1.18 

.26 

.00 

.98 
2.12 
2.43 
1.40 

.58 
3.41 

.58 
1.20 

.39 
1.30 
.80 
.42 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.93 
.94 

.00 
.00 
.53 
3.32 
2.68 
3.03 
2.20 
1.53 

.12 
.00 
.38 
.68 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.18 
.00 

21 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29  . . . 

30 

31 

Total. 

21.20 

10. 72 

7.47 

4.62 

22. 06 

11.43 

27.13 

38.96 

26. 45 

22. 44 

55.  38 

18.24 

Total,  from  January  1  to  December  31, 1900,  266.10. 

Rainfall  at  Greytown,  Nicaragua. 


Year. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Annual. 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1*98 

1899 

1900 

Mean . . 

26.80 
20.80 

28. 57 
17.70 

0.36 
2.  57 
11.38 

7.  53 

5.93 
1 .  95 
4.98 
3.93 
L0.16 
s.  33 
7.47 

18. 11 
10.  10 
18.38 
9.99 
7.82 
9.09 
4.62 

4.93 
13. 78 
50. 88 
2.77 
9.37 
21.24 
22. 06 

46.84 
26. 95 
13.42 

52.55 
23.57 
38.96 

35.72 
19. 49 
23.63 

8.14 
14.16 
11.47 

24.36 
20.21 
27.95 

25.55 
28. 15 
36.93 

41.65 
32. 74 
24.65 

296. 94 
214. 27 
291.20 

19.44    2:..  17 
23.49    11.69 
21.20  jlO.72 

19. 52 
20.97 
11.43 

24.63 

39.62 
27. 13 

16.  38 
29. 50 
38.  96 

7.  24 
36.95 
26.45 

12. 50 
12. 44 
22.44 

32.35 
40.36 
55.38 

17.  06 
32. 25 
18. 24 

201.64 
285.93 
266.  Id 

22. 50 

10.77 

6.11 

11.20 

17.86 

23. 19 

34.41 

27.28 

17.40 

19. 98 

36.  45 

27. 76 

259.  35 

Monthly  rainfall  of  Nicaragua,  1898. 


Station. 


BritO  and  Tola  . 

Etivas 

Las  I  a  jus 

Rio  Vk'jo 

Tipitaj  a 

Morrili  i 

Fori  San  Carlos. 

Sabalos 

Castillo 

Machuca 

Kin  San  Carlos  . 

Ochoa 

San  Francisco  *. 

Sarapiqui  

Deseado b 

Greytown 


Jan. 


0.  25 
1.07 

.  25 


Feb. 


0.00 
.12 
.(15 
.01 
.00 


Mar. 


0.08 
.10 

i.::i 
.66 
.26 


1.21 
2.10 


13.07    11.  us 

1:..::::    Is,  i:; 


7.  52 
8.04 

8.  72 


21.92   26.98 
19.44   25.17 


11.76 
10.16 


Apr. 


May. 


(i.  us  ii.;;n 

.00  16.17 

.28  Ki.oo 

.on  L3.78 

.  00  S.  56 

.(17  S.  92 

:s.  (id  8.22 

('..(III  II.  69 


June.  July. 


11.66 
L2.23 

11.25 


s.  88 
7.  82 


2(1.  12 
15.25 

18.87 


I  I.  sr, 

15.  95 
13.511 

13.45 

16.  SS 
11.115 
15.56 

L7.13 


11.42 
13. 65 
10.64 
4.01 
6.24 
13.84 
13.35 
20.  69 
18.92 


20.  79 

21.  17 
1S.S7 


I  I.M     IS.CC, 
9.37     19.52 


18.  26 

21.60 

19. 22 


26.  86 
24.63 


Aug. 


6.17 
11.85 

s.  II 
11.66 

7.82 
10.20 

8.00 
11.33 
11.46 

6.  52 
11.68 
12.08 
13.45 


13.31 
16.38 


Sept. 


10. 60 
13.99 
6.79 

7.28 
11.25 


10.56 
11.42 

16.22 
12.  86 


15. 12 
10.95 

II.  19 

5.23 
7.24 


Oct. 


25. 70 
20.  S3 
16. 19 
8.99 
7.12 


8.93 

I  I.. si 
1.61 
9.83 


8.  (12 
9.09 
11.35 
11.92 
12. 50 


6.01 

8.19 

1.41 

.61 

.93 


9.86 
12.17 
14.04 

15.65 


2.41 
3.  11 

2.  26 
.17 
.  17 


5.  62 
1(1.20 
11.61 

6.  75 


21.59  8.88 
22.28  10.61 
18.68     7.  12 

29.25  21.07 
32.35  117.06 


Dec.    Total. 


94.88 
108.06 

71.75 
611.62 
59.  23 


84.81 

111.51 


L70.84 

172. 17 


210.63 

201.61 


»  Record  incomplete  from  January  1-6, inclusive,  and  from  December  29-81,  inclusive;  so  the  rainfall 
at  Ochoa  for  those  days  is  added. 
b  Rainfall  not  observed  from  December  25-31,  1898;  so  the  record  was  completed  by  Including  the 

corresi  •  "irling  days  of  1897. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Rainfall  iii  Sicaraijna  ami  <  usla  Rica  durini/  1SU9,  in  inches. 


183 


Location. 

1 >li server. 

Total. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

Bluefields 

Castillo 

114.60 
58. 20 

10.82 

.00 

6.47 

.00 

10.72 

.52 

.43 

11.69 

2.  02 
.00 

11.83 

.11 

.00 

8.  33 

2,  21 

.60 

13.17 

56. 93 

GO.  33 
285. 93 

.(II) 

.30 
23.  -19 

.02 

DO 

Nicaragua  Sugar  Estates 

('has.  D.Scott 

.00 

9.09 

S.  H.  Harris  . . 

W.  H.  S.  Grigs)  >v 

93.08 

12.96 

4.61 

i.65 

5.  61 

T.  Bird  . . . 

J.  Weist 

■15.  24 

.50 

.48 

.07 

.00 

W.  K.  Henlev  . 

H.S.  Reed 

176.91 

14.02 

7. 96 

5.80 

7.09 

T.  W  White 

Earl  Flint 

67.82 

.85 

1.70 

.65 

.00 

Do 

H.  S.  Reed 

98.55 
67. 22 
77.20 

9.82 

.00 

4.99 

4.33 

.44 

2.79 

2.73 

.00 

1.05 

2.65 

San  Antonio  plantation  ... 

Nicaragua  Sugar  Estates 

E.  Humphreys 

.00 
1.48 

San  Miguelito 

S.  F.  Cuadra 

M.  C.  Hogan 

T.  F.  Boltz  et  al 

190.40 

16.57 

7.  77 

5.67 

9.13 

T.  Montiel 

.26 

Do 

* 

May.      June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Estab- 
lished. 


Acoyapa 

Basillas 

Bluefields 

Castillo 

Chichigalpa 

Colorado 

Granada 

Do 

Greytown 

Indio  ( Negro ) , 

Javali  mine , 

Juigalpa 

La  Libertad 

Machuca 

Managua 

Masaya 

Matagalpa 

Momob  mibo 

Moyogalpa 

Ochoa , 

Penon  

Rama 

Rivas 

Do 

Rio  Frio 

Rio  San  Carlos , 

Sabalas 

San  Antonio  plantation . 

San  Carlos 

San  Francisco , 

San  Miguelito 

San  Ubaldo 

Sapoa 

Sarapiqui 

Sardinas 


9.60 


5.90 

.88 
19.11 
2.43 
2.48 
21. 24 


7.08 

'2*02' 


5.50 
2. 12 
3.18 


9.29 

4.  56 


8.78 
10.19 
20.97 


is.  11 
5.13 

43.99 
6.64 
7.47 

39.62 


2.18 
17.73 

6.88 
29. 78 
15. 44 
14.77 
29. 50 


3.30 

.49 

29.11 

12.01 

4.06 


2.39 

3.78 

36.95 


S.58 


18.33 


4.25 
7.05 
18.79 


4.19 


9.47 


15.69  1     30.20 


17.50 


7. 53       10. 69 


2.65 
9.26 


11.31  15.87 
9. 82  8. 08 
11.24        9.28 


12,15 
9.60 
9.23 


4.30 
5.42 

24.89 


9.45 
8.74 
21. 05 


5.60 
.83 
2.85 
5.69 
2.21 
2.80 
1.43 
.97 
3.08 

15.49 
4.94 

11.58 
5.15 


15.32 

5.95 

8.10 

8.21 

32. 29 

11. 92 

14.79 

15.13 

12.44 

.25 

8.81 

12. 97 

8.33 

1.91 

18. 59 

10.  35 

15.88 

26. 55 

18.32 

7.85 

9.11 

10.90 

20.39 


8.95 
9.22 
9.55 
15.33 
3.80 


1.20 
1.96 
9.75 
6.90 
.00 


14.70 

5.50 

10.67 

.82 


6.22 
5.34 
17.05 


.90 
6.03 
6.67 

26.85 

10.66 
1.60 
8.13 

11.10 
6.45 

10.  .".5 


5.24 
4.85 

40.36 

18.55 
7.65 

10.26 
9.12 
4.09 
2.79 
5.54 
6.29 
5.30 
5.99 

20. 58 
5. 24 

13.42 
9.06 
5.91 
8.36 

20.32 
8.09 
4.81 
9.43 
6.82 
6.95 
9.31 
8.  59 

29.  29 

11.59 


.57 

.87 

32.25 

18.65 

4.78 

.60 
5.46 
3.78 

.11 
1.20 
1.18 

.62 

7.03 

22. 13 

2.02 

8.33 

.92 

.57 
3.53 
18.03 
4.73 

.00 
3.20 
3.00 
2.78 
1.87 
1.98 
20.75 
1.71 


Aug.  10 
Sept.  26 
Aug.  26 


Jan.   25 


Oct.  27 
Sept.  17 
Aug.  19 
Aug.  16 

Sept.  16 

Sept.  12 
Sept.  16 
Sept.    1 

Sept.  13 
Aug.  18 

Nov.  7 
Oct.  21 
Oct.    12 


Sept.  23 
Oct.  5 
June  21 
July   16 

Nov.     1 


184 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Rainfall  in  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  during  1899,  in  inches — Continued. 


Location. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Estab- 
lished. 

13. 72 
2.57 
3.35 
2.04 
2.27 
9.45 

13.95 
11.69 
29. 49 
15.95 
16.91 
8.04 
10.57 

30.32 
5.42 
5.48 
6.11 

19.88 
.44 
.52 
.00 

Sept.  17 

(») 
Aug.  13 

2.22 
4.81 

Sept.    2 
Aug.  is 

1.39 
11.63 

2.29           .08 
16.23         6.18 
14.78  i      7.09 

12.33 

July     3 

Do 

Oct.     3 

»  Discontinued  January  24;  reestablished  August  20. 
Rainfall  in  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  daring  the  year  1900,  in  inches. 


Location. 


Observer. 


Total. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Acoyapa,  Nicaragua 

Arena],  Costa  Rica  a 

Basillas  Island,  Nicaragua. . , 

Boca  Sucia,  Costa  Rica 

Bluetields,  Nicaragua , 

Castillo,  Nicaragua 

Frio  (5  miles  up),  Costa  Rica. 

Granada  Wharf,  Nicaragua. . 

Granada  City,  Nicaragua 

Greytown,  Nicaragua 

Juigalpa,  Nicaragua 

Las  Haciendas,  Nicaragua  . . 

Machuca,  Nicaragua 

Managua,  Nicaragua 

Masaya,  Nicaragua 

Matagalpa,  Nicaragua 

Momotombo,  Nicaragua 

Moyogalpa,  Nicaragua 

Negro  (Indio),  Nicaragua  . . . 

Ochoa,  Costa  Rica 

Palo  Seco,  Costa  Rica  b 

Rama.  Nicaragua 

Kivas,  Nicaragua 

Bivas,  Nicaragua  c , 

Sabalos,  Nicaragua 

San  Antonio  plantation, Nic- 
aragua. 

San  Carle  is  River,  Costa  Rica 

San  Carlos,  Nicaragua 

San  Juanillo,  Nicaragua 

San  Migueli to, Nicaragua  .., 

San  Ubaldo,  Nicaragua 

Sapoa,  Nicaragua d 

Sihco,  Nicaragua  ■ , 

Sarapiqui,  I  losta  Rica 

Sardiuas,  Nicaragua 

Solentiname,  Nicaragua  f ... 

Tipitapa,  Nicaragua  s 

Tola  gauge  station,  Nicara- 
gua. 

Valle  Menier,  Nicaragua 

Zapote  (Upper),  Costa  Rica. 


Modesto  Cuadra 
Godfrey  Hahn  .. 
S.  Wilson  et  al  .. 


65.04 

121.70 

77.10 


Thomas  W.  Waters 

John  Augustine 

Fred  Davis 

Stephen  Vargas 

Nicaragua  Sugar  Estates. 

Charles  D.Scott 

J.Jesus  Sequeira 

R.  de  Hennin 

J.  S.  Martinez  et  al 

T.Bird 

J.Wiest 

W.  K.  Henley  et  al 

A.  Peterson 

K.  B. Luna 

S.H.Harris 

H.S.Reed 

A.  Quintania .• 

G.W.White  etal 

Earl  Flint 

Charles  Havman 

Thomas  F.  Boltz 


127.63 


0.58 
4.45 
1.78 
9.65 
5.70 


10-.'.  66 
72.10 
82.46 

266. 10 
37.73 


3.17 

.26 

.45 

21.20 

.05 


0.21 
2.73 
1.04 

.80 
6.95 
4.37 
2.31 

.00 

.00 
10.72 

.12 


0.22 

3.18 

.52 


3. 55 
2. 22 
.92 
.03 
.00 
7.47 
.18 


JL  S.  Reed 

Fred  Davis  et  al... 

Fred  Appleby 

J.  F.  Cuadra 

G.  0.  W.  Magruder. 

M.C.  Hogan 

E.  A.  Keys 

Paulino  Gonzalez. 

Tomas  Montiel 

.1.  M.  Boniche 

L.  Roy  Cannon 

J.  O.Jones 


V.Gavinet  (Nandaime 
(i.  B.  Zampierl 


137. 88 
53.55 
59.70 
85.68 
55.21 
71.70 


158.83 


1.37 
.00 
.00 
.24 
.00 
.13 
12.32 

9.12 


110.  35 
94.68 


2.52 
.19 


1.67 

.00 

.00 

.36 

.00 

.03 

12.69 

4.49 

4.37 

3.31 

.02 


2.05 

.00 

.00 

.87 

.00 

.22 

6."  60 

7.58 

5.47 

3.20 

.11 


107. 34 
95.68 

157.  30 
98.34 

249. 20 
81.11 
74. 26 

103.  60 


3.19 
.00 

8.79 
3.09 
18.79 
1.38 
1.22 
1.11 


3.84 
.00 

4.96 

2.66 

11.79 

1.02 

.19 

.57 


151.48 


84. 68 
96f6i" 


9.65 
1.89 

1.66 
.00 
.17 

.00 
1.09 


5.  00 

2.73 

1.95 

.02 

.00 

.00 
2.62 


1.69 
.55 

6.56 
.81 

7.18 
.49 
.27 
.63 

1,08 

10.76 

.61 

1.10 
.00 
.01 

.00 
2. 29 


Location. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

11.31 
17.:  v. . 
9.54 

10.19 
7.11 
1.  19 

12.91 
L6.95 

10.67 

4.76 
13.  71 
14.05 

9.36 
15.42 
12.48 

12.96 
11.61 
14.45 

1.12 
13.61 
2.97 

1.26 

12. 30 

Ha  si  lias  [aland,  Nicaragua  ... 

4.77 

Bluetields,  Nicaragua 

10.40 

IS.  Ill 

13.61 
L2.06 

it;,  in 
22. 06 

6.  I-.I 

8.90 
9.82 
11.68 
L7.63 

19.71 

11.43 

2.05 

11.60 
18.42 
13.  29 
12.40 
18.  Iti 
27. 13 
3.42 

23.55 
33.83 
12. 21 
3.93 
5.  58 
38.  96 
3.77 

11.20 
15. 24 
11.76 
7.60 
9.46 
26.  If. 
9.  79 

12.32 
21.38 
20. 15 
16.70 
15.90 
22.  1 1 
10.  .56 

14.90 
6.86 
6.19 
1.42 
1.60 

56.  88 
.63 

1 1.  61 
16.93 

Frio  1  •">  miles  u|i  1,  <  losta  Rica . 
1 . ranada  Wharf,  Nicaragua  . . 

Granada  City,  Nicaragua 

Greytown,  Nicaragua 

Juigalpa,  Nicaragua 

6. 62 

.05 

.22 

18.  24 

.45 

»  Upper  San  Carlos  River. 

b  Established  February  7. 

0  Established  June  15. 

1  Removed  to  Tortuga  July  16. 


-  Established  March  22.    Discontinued  July  6- 
rlsla  Venado,  Lake  Nicaragua. 
I  Discontinued  October  30. 


LOCATION 

RAINFALL         INCHES         1899 

3             29              40             60             80            IOO             120             140            160            ISO          200          220           240           260          280       SOO 

CASTI 

CHICHlGALPA 

GRANADA   i»t-»^ 

SAN  ANTONIO  PLANT'S! 
FORT  SAN  CARLOS..  J. 

LOCATION 

RAINFALL            INCHES            1900 

0             BO             41             M             no             IOO            120            140             ICO           180            200          220          £40           St 

K5           280       JOC 

FRIO    5  MILES   UP--    .- 
GRANADA     (/JrKtr1)_  ^^_  _ 

GRANADA    (Ci'y) .-,---- 

SREYTOWN.  j—e 

T™ ™ 

MANAGUA _  .,- 

MATAGALPA , 

MOMOTOU  BO.-_-_ 

MOV0GALPA-__ 

rvun*       |   _U.M,, 

RIVAS-~r^_  „.-„». 

I..II                    '        "'        ' 

SAN  ANTONIO  PLANT'N 

SAN  CARLOS  RIVER 

FORT   SAN  CARLOS—  -- 
SAN  JUANILLO-       __.-. 
SAN    MIGUELITO-,.-- .  - 

SAN  U8ALDO -„s.-_  -  .  _ 

SAPOA m^-rn^^ 

SARAPIQUI ^-■■-•-■- 

SOLENTINAME.-    -  •   - 
TOLA  GAGE  STATION 
ZAPOTE    (Upper) 

III 

"j         1        |         1         |         | 

FIG.   15 —COMPARATIVE   RAINFALL  AT  ALL  STATIONS. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  185 

Rainfall  in  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  during  the  year  1900,  in  inches — Continued. 


Location: 


Las  Haciendas,  Nicaragua  . . . 

Machuea,  Nicaragua 

Managua,  Nicaragua 

Masaya,  Nicaragua 

Matagalpa,  Nicaragua 

Momotombo,  Nicaragua 

Moyogalpa,  Nicaragua 

Negro  ( Indio) ,  Nicaragua 

Ochoa,  Costa  Rica 

Palo  Seco,  Costa  Rica  b 

Rama,  Nicaragua 

Rivas,  Nicaragua 

Rivas,  Nicaragua  • 

Sabalos,  Nicaragua 

San     Antonio     Plantation, 

Nicaragua 

San  Carlos  River,  Costa  Rica. 

San  Carlos,  Nicaragua 

San  Juanillo,  Nicaragua 

San  Mignelito,  Nicaragua 

San  Ubaldo,  Nicaragua 

Sapoa,  Nicaragua  d 

Silico,  Nicaragua  « 

Sarapiqui,  Costa  Rica 

Sardinas,  Nicaragua 

Solentiname,  Nicaragua  f 

Tipitapa,  Nicaragua  e 

TolaGaugeStatlon,  Nicaragua 

Valle  Menier,  Nicaragua 

Zapote  (Upper), Costa  Rica  .. 


May. 


June. 


8.95 
17.70 

6.62 

8.66 
16.06 

6.67 
13. 59 
18. 13 
13. 30 
16.01 
12.70 
11.19 


8.57 

6.05 
15.42 
14.19 
17.18 
13.58 

7.44 
10.21 
15. 81 
10.54 


12. 47 

13.  53 
12.91 
10. 36 
12. 13 


7.58 
7.46 
8.54 
15. 52 
14.49 
13.48 
11.46 
10. 41 
11.24 
13.98 
6.73 
16.38 
5.07 
8.37 

22.46 

11.26 
6.04 
6.53 

10. 19 
9.85 

12. 85 
8.72 
9.84 


July. 


16.45 
22.  65 

7.97 
10.27 
13. 13 

6.96 

8.28 
12.67 
16.45 
15. 15 
16.30 
10.61 

6.93 
16.89 

18.81 
15.53 
15. 44 
22. 66 
15.83 
24.  91 
14.74 
6.28 
22. 24 


5.31 
12. 60 
12.29 
11.00 

7.11 


8.63 
12.58 
15.67 

9.94 
17. 55 


Aug. 


12.05 

25.80 

3.83 

4.70 

5.12 

.90 

7.95 

40. 15 

26. 46 

24. 96 

19. 56 

9.16 

6.82 

20. 40 

6.80 
22. 72 
15. 29 
41.01 
8.46 
6.32 
10.70 


23.  48 


14.21 
6.04 
4.53 
4.64 

14.50 


Sept. 


20. 61 

18. 20 

7.57 

7. 23 

10.40 

5.63 

12.44 

12.85 

16.66 

18.34 

19. 58 

22.58 

16.86 

11.24 

13.69 
21. 36 
15. 02 
28.18 
7.20 
14.08 
23.75 


6.99 


15.43 
8.32 
24.15 
11.54 
23. 93 


Oct. 


22. 14 
10.68 
17.48 
11.24 
17.35 
18.78 
15.63 


8.53 
11.18 
10.97 
21. 93 
18.12 
16. 34 

24.45 
6.45 
13.59 
24.84 
13.41 
8.91 
22. 28 


ll.i 


14.89 
15.00 
18.46 
17.46 
18.22 


Nov. 


5.58 
12.35 
1.37 
1.91 
4.27 
2.06 
1.58 


15.69 
18.12 
7.61 
1.18 
•  .87 
6.72 

1.85 
16.56 
5.42 
43.34 
4.71 
1.43 
3.91 


24. 86 

"i"ei' 


.87 
"i3.43 


Dec. 


15.56 
.tl 

(17) 
2.30 
.73 
.34 


24.96 

25.80 

6.39 

1.31 

.62 

9.45 

.00 

24.69 

6.38 

25. 42 

3.44 

.55 

2.31 


24.86 


3.59 

'"."65 
11."  33 


Rainfall. 


SAN  ANTONIO  PLANTATION. 
[Latitude,  12°  32'  N.;  longitude, 86°  59'  W.;  elevation, 66  feet.] 


Year. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Total. 

1896.... 
1897.... 
1898.... 
1899.... 
1900. . . . 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.24 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.44 
.00 

0.00 
.00 

1.26 
.00 
.00 
.55 

.20 
.59 
.00 
.00 
1.02 

7.98 
12. 20 
18.23 
16.00 
2.12 
6.05 

6.29 
10.50 
14.53 
11.60 

9.82 
22.46 

3.36 
7.54 
6.81 

8.37 
8.08 
18.81 

5.07 
4.71 
13.86 
14.85 
9.60 
6.80 

21.68 
13.39 
10.94 
16.71 
5.50 
13.69 

21.71 
11.22 
31.06 
7.60 
26.85 
24.45 

3.42 

4.76 
.98 
5.64 
4.81 
1.85 

0.32 

.98 
.00 
.04 
.00 
.00 

69.83 
65.50 
98.26 
81.05 
67. 22 
95.68 

VALLE  MENIER. 
[Latitude,  11°  46'  N.;  longitude,  85°  57'  W.;  elevation, 492  feet.] 


1880.... 
1881.... 
1882.... 
1883.... 
1899.... 
1900.... 

0.00 
.  55 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
0o 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.31 

13.48 
9.94 
1.93 
1.35 

9.92 

12.88 

12. 

7.44 

2.24 
7.52 

S7 
3.94 

9.96 
8.86 
6.30 

6.77 
9.10 
4. 92 

13.46 
22.68 
19.13 

2.72 
9.33 
2.76 

0.00 
.98 
.00 

58.55 
81.84 
47.91 

2.04 
11.54 

15. 95 
17.46 

6.11 

.00 

10.36 

11.00 

9.94 

4.64 

MANAGUA. 
;  Latitude,  12°  7'  N.:  longitude,  86°  16'  W.;  elevation,  148  feet.] 


1891.... 
1892.... 
1899.... 

0.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 

1.08 

8.58 

14.00 
11.34 

5.  04 
6.35 

3.04 
7.98 

8.43 
9.24 

2.21 

7.57 

9.64 
20.55 
18.59 
17.48 

7.24 
3.09 
2.79 
1.37 

0.43 

.11 

.17 

48.90 
67.13 

53.55 

1900. . . . 

.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

0.62 

8.54 

7.97 

3.83 

186 


REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


EVAPORATION. 

The  observation  of  evaporation  b}*  means  of  pans  floating  in  the 
water  was  carried  on  under  both  the  Nicaragua  and  Isthmian  Canal 
commissions. 

The  inherent  obstacles  to  accurate  work  by  this  method  are  great  at 
all  times,  and.  as  might  be  expected,  results  are  rather  discordant. 
They  are  summarized  in  the  tables  following: 

Monthly  evaporation  of  Lake.  Nicaragua. 


Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1898. 

6.42 
8.13 
4.92 

6.26 

5.98 
4.56 

5.19 
4.35 

4.  20 

5.08 
3.38 
3.84 

4.87 
3.41 
3.69 

6.77 
4.74 

2.  73 

3.51 

2.73 
4.09 

3.00 
3.39 

3.01 

4.03 

i 

5.25 

6.49 

5.60 

4.58 

4.10 

3.99 

3.  IS 

3.41 

3.20 

3.52 

1899. 

3.40 
3.72 

3.39 
3.28 

4.25 
4.34 

Fort  San  Carlos 

5.01 

4.65 

3.60 

2. 02 

3.78 

2.85 
4.40 
3.56 
5.42 

2.23 
3.72 
3.24 
3.97 

2.70 

3.87 

3.87 

3.71 

3.91 

Tipitapa 

5.58 

5.79 

3.79 

4.06 

3.29 

4.03 

1900. 

2.89 
4.57 
4.36 
3.28 

3.16 
4.24 
5.40 

4.02 

4.36 
5.47 
6. 33 

5.89 

4. 62 
5.79 
6.41 
6.66 

4.34 
7.59 
5.12 

7.28 

3.93 
4.95 
3.19 
5.16 

2.63 
5.46 
2.54 
4.49 

2.  24 
5. 05 
2.30 
4.  25 

3.24 

1.71 
3.36 
4.89 

2.35 

4.64 

3.39 
3. 90 

3.04 

4.03 

5.18 

3.78 

4.21 

5.61 

5.87 

6.08 

4.31 

3.78 

3.46 

4.06 

4.06 

3. 64 

3. 53 

Allowance  must  be  made  in  the  use  of  these  results  for  the  fact  that 
the  conditions  prevalent  on  the  lake  can  not  be  duplicated  in  the  evapo- 
rating pan.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  trade  winds  blow 
strongly  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  lake  to  the  western.  Except 
along  the  eastern  shore  the  surface  of  the  lake  is  blown  into  billows, 
the  waves  often  attaining  a  considerable  height  and  being  crowned  with 
whitecaps,  and  the  total  water  surface  in  contact  with  the  wind  is  much 
greater  than  the  level  surface  of  the  lake.  Most  of  the  lake  surface 
must  therefore  lose  by  evaporation  a  greater  depth  of  water  than  the  pan. 

The  rate  of  evaporation  during  the  dry  season  was  obtainable  by 
another  method.  The  fluctuations  of  the  lake  were  observed,  and  by 
appl}'ing  to  this  the  observations  of  rainfall  upon  the  lake,  the  inflow 
from  streams,  and  the  discharge  of  San  Juan  River  we  obtain  the 
evaporation  actually  taking  place  upon  the  lake.  During  April,  1898, 
the  evaporation  was  found  by  this  method  to  be  6.12  inches.  The 
results  for  1900  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Evaporation  from  Lah  Nicaragua — Dry  season  of  1900. 
[Evaporation  =  fall  of  lake  +  rainfall  +  inflow     outflow.] 


February 
March  ... 

April 

May  1-15 


Rainfall 

Fall  of 
lake. 

Oil  sur- 
face of 
lake. 

Inflow. 

Total. 

Outflow. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

0.71 

0.08 

0.14 

0.93 

0.  ii 

.83 

.04 

.10 

.97 

.  in 

.70 

04 

.1)7 

81 

.  85 

.32 

.08 

.03 

.  13 

.17 

Evaporation 


/■'/.  In. 
0.  19  5.88 
.57  li  S| 
.  46=5. 52 
.26=3.12 


inches 
per  day. 


0.21 
.  22 
.18 
.21 


Area  of  lake,  1, '.tin, niiii  .mii-.    Rainfall  "ii  surface  of  lake  is  an  average  of  (lie  rainfall  at  Basillas, 
Granada,  Moyogalpa,  San  Carlos,  Ban  Mlguelito,  San  Ubaldo,  Sapoa,  and  Soleutiuanie. 


FIG.    16.— LOWERING   SEDIMENT   TRAP  ON   SARAPIQUI. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  187 

REGULATION    OF   LAKE    NICARAGUA. 

Lake  Nicaragua  being  the  summit  level  upon  which  the  water  .supply 
for  the  canal  depends,  and  from  which  the  surplus  water  must  be  dis- 
charged, its  history,  and  especially  the  extreme  variations  of  its  supply, 
are  important.     Its  fluctuation  depends  upon  four  factors: 

1.  The  inflow,  which  is  a  function  of  the  amount  and  character  of 
rainfall  in  the  basin. 

'2.  The  storage  capacit3T  of  the  lake. 

3.  The  evaporation,  which  varies  with  the  seasons. 

4.  The  outflow,  which  varies  with  the  elevation  of  the  lake. 

The  problem  of  the  storage  capacity  is  simple,  and  its  solution  is 
known  with  all  desirable  accuracy.  The  area  of  the  lake  is  2,975 
square  miles,  or  1,904,000  acres. 

The  evaporation  from  the  lake  has  been  fairl}r  well  determined  and 
can  be  allowed  for  without  important  error.  It  is  given  in  the  table, 
page  1S6. 

The  outflow  was  observed  during  1898,  1899,  and  1900  at  Camp 
Farina,  above  Rio  Sabalos,  which  is  the  first  important  tributary  to 
the  river. 

The  inflow  has  been  observed  by  noting  the  fluctuation  of  the  lake 
surface  at  four  stations — San  Carlos,  San  Ubaldo,  Granada,  and  Sapoa. 
This,  after  allowing  for  evaporation  and  outflow,  gives  the  inflow. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  fix  with  certainty  the  limits  of  the  natural 
fluctuation  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  but  the  best  information  obtainable 
indicates  that  the  range  is  about  14  feet,  from  97  as  the  minimum  to 
111  as  the  maximum. 

The  maximum  stage  was  estimated  as  follows: 

All  the  oldest  inhabitants  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lake  agree  that  a 
stage  attained  in  1861  was  higher  than  any  since  reached.  No  more 
definite  statement  could  be  established  than  that  it  was  "nearly  up  to 
the  top  of  the  wharf  at  Granada."  The  top  of  the  wharf,  in  the  lowest 
place,  is  at  an  elevation  of  111.24  feet  above  sea  level.  If  the  mean 
lake  level  was  within  half  a  foot  of  the  top  of  the  wharf  during  the 
customary  breeze  in  that  region,  it  is  probable  that  the  waves  would 
wash  over  the  wharf,  and  the  report  would  be  that  the  water  was  over 
the  top  of  the  wharf.  It  is  thought  that  the  facts  indicate  111  as  about 
the  elevation  of  the  stage  reported,  as  nearly  as  it  can  be  determined. 

The  low-water  limit  of  97  feet  is  taken  on  the  information  of  Mr. 
William  Climie,  who  testifies  that  the  lake  was  lower  in  1886  than  it 
has  been  since,  and  all  obtainable  evidence  on  the  subject  is  to  the  effect 
that  no  lower  stage  has  occmred  within  the  memory  of  persons  now 
living. 

All  available  testimony,  and  especially  that  of  the  engineman  on  the 
steamer  Victoria,  who  has  been  in  continuous  service  for  sixteen 
years,  is  to  the  effect  that  the  steamer  Victoria  has  in  that  period 
always  been  able  to  discharge  her  cargo  directly  upon  the  wharf,  but 
at  times  of  extreme  low  water,  occurring  at  very  rare  intervals,  she 
could  not  come  alongside,  but  had  to  lie  off  the  end  of  the  wharf. 
touching  only  her  bow.  This  was  the  condition  in  May,  1897.  A  dia- 
gram of  the  wharf  is  shown  in  the  sketch,  figure  17.  At  the  time  it  was 
made  the  water  stood  at  5.8  reading  on  the  gauge-rod,  or  104.24  feet 
above  sea  level.  It  shows  the  bottom  of  the  lake  to  be  at  an  elevation 
of  about  93  feet  near  the  end  of  the  wharf,  and  somewhat  lower,  say 


188  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

92  feet,  off  the  end,  where  the  .steamer  la}T  at  low  water.  The  boat 
draws  from  4  feet  of  water,  when  empty,  to  7  feet  when  fully  loaded. 

Allowing  her  6  feet  of  water  in  May,  1897,  the  stage  of  the  lake 
was  about  98  feet  above  sea  level,  or  at  least  it  could  not  have  been 
lower  than  this. 

If  the  lake  were  1  foot  lower  than  this  in  1886,  it  would  give  a  stage 
of  97,  and  this  is  probably  near  the  true  minimum. 

These  data  hx  the  natural  limit  of  fluctuation  at  11  feet,  though  no 
fluctuation  approaching  this  amount  occurs  in  any  one  year,  nor  even 
in  any  two.  The  low  water  of  1886  was  preceded  by  three  successive 
years  of  low  rainfall,  as  shown  by  the  Granada  record  for  1883  and 
1881,  and  by  the  Rivas  record  for  1885,  the  latter  being  the  lowest 
in  the  Rivas  record  of  twenty  years,  with  one  exception.  A  study  of 
the  rainfall  tables  indicates  another  stage  of  extremely  low  lake  just 
before  the  rainy  season  of  1897;  this  being  preceded  by  three  years  of 
less  than  normal  rainfall.  This  indication  is  confirmed  by  popular 
reports  of  an  extremely  low  lake  level  at  that  time,  and  accounts  for 
the  fact  that  the  heaviest  rainfall  of  the  record,  1897,  did  not  produce 
as  high  a  lake  as  had  occurred  in  other  years.  Though  no  observa- 
tions of  the  lake  were  made  in  1897,  those  of  1898,  considered  with 
the  rainfall  record  of  1897,  indicate  that  the  lake  did  not  reach  stage 
107.  (See  diagram,  figure  21.)  Its  stage  at  the  end  of  1897  is  known 
to  have  been  about  105,  by  observations  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Com- 
mission. 

Judging  from  the  table  of  rainfall,  considered  in  the  light  of  known 
facts,  the  lake  has  passed  through  minimum  stages  in  May  of  the  years 
1886,  1891,  and  1897;  and  maximum  in  the  autumns  of  1889,  1893, 
1900.  None  of  these  stages  is  exactly  known  except  that  of  1900,  in 
which  year  the  lake  reached  a  maximum  stage  of  107.12  feet  on  the 
27th  day  of  October,  and  maintained  about  the  same  elevation  for  one 
week. 

In  this  discussion  we  are  concerned  mainly  with  the  years  of  maxi- 
mum and  minimum  rainfall,  as  giving  the  extreme  conditions  under 
which  Lake  Nicaragua  must  be  controlled.  All  the  records  and  tradi- 
tions at  hand  indicate  that  the  year  1897  was  the  year  of  greatest  precipi- 
tation in  this  vicinity  ever  recorded.  Dr.  Flint  gives  for  Rivas  a  total 
for  that  year  of  123.13  inches,  a  rainfall  over  15  inches  greater  than  any 
other  in  his  record,  while  the  report  of  Mr.  Climie,  for  Granada,  sub- 
stantially confirmed  by  that  of  the  sugar  company,  gives  93.62  inches 
for  that  year,  being  greater  than  any  other  year  in  either  Granada  or 
Masaya  records.  It  may  therefore  be  taken  as  the  year  of  maximum 
rainfall  within  the  range  of  the  records.  It  is  fortunate  that  this  is 
the  case,  for  we  then  have  direct  comparison  by  the  same  observer  of 
the  rainfall  for  L897  with  that  for  the  three  years  covered  by  the 
observations  of  the  fluctuations  of  Lake  Nicaragua  by  this  Commission. 
The  year  of  minimum  rainfall  occurs  in  the  Masaya  record  for*  L890, 
being  only  20.52  inches,  and  being  but  little  more  than  half  of  that  for 
1896,  which  is  the  next  driest  year  in  the  Masaya  record.  The  year 
is  also  the  year  of  smallest  precipitation  in  Dr.  Flint's  record  at  Rivas, 
and  gives  very  much  less  rainfall  than  he  gives  for  any  other  year 
covered  by  the  Masaya  record.  It  seems  safe  to  conclude,  therefore, 
that  1890  was  actually  the  year  of  smallest  precipitation  within  the 
records. 

The  Rivas  record  is  the  longest  and  most  continuous,  and  is  nearly 


REPOBT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


189 


on  the  canal  line  and  nearly  on  the  lake  shore.  In  all  these  respects 
it  promises  very  desirable  and  valuable  information,  completely  cover- 
ing the  period  from  1880  to  date.  An  examination  of  this  record, 
however,  ia  somewhat  disappointing.  During  the  year  1S98  Mr.  J.  A. 
Bull,  an  observer  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Commission,  was  stationed 
at  Las  Lajas,  near  the  point  where  the  canal  leaves  the  shore  of  the 
lake.  This  point  is  only  about  5  miles  from  Kivas,  not  greatly  differ-* 
ent  in  elevation  or  surrounding  conditions  that  might  affect  the  rain- 
fall, and  yet  the  precipitation  recorded  at  Rivas  exceeded  that  observed 
at  Las  Lajas  by  the  percentages  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Las  Lajas. 

Rivas. 

Excess. 

Las  Lajas. 

Rivas. 

Excess. 

May 

Inches. 
10.60 
13.50 
10.64 
8.44 
6.79 

Inches. 
16.17 
18.95 
13.65 
11.85 
13.99 

Per  rent. 
52.5 
40.4 
28.3 
40.4 
106. 03 

Inches. 
16.19 
4.41 
2.26 

Inches. 

20. 83 
8.19 
3.14 

Per  cent. 

28.7 

June 

July 

November 

85.7 
38.9 

August 

September 

Total 

*    72.83 

106. 77 

46.6 

This  table  indicates  that  the  Rivas  record  is  too  large.  Comparing 
it  year  by  year  with  the  recent  records  at  Granada  and  Masaya  also 
tends  to  confirm  the  result  indicated  above. 


Granada. 

Masaya. 

Rivas. 

Excess. 

Granada. 

Masaya. 

Rivas. 

Excess. 

1890 

Inches. 

Inches. 

20.50 
49.98 
64.54 
72.86 
42.88 
41.26 

Inches. 
31.81 
66.03 
78.27 
106. 13 
47.32 
47.68 

Per  cent. 
50.3 
32.1 
21.3 
45.7 
10.3 
15.56 

1896 

Inches. 

Inches. 

39.64 

Inches. 
47.80 
123. 43 
108. 06 
67.82 
94.68 

Per  cent. 
20.6 

1891 

1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 

93.62 
55.59 
56.93 
72.10 

31.8 

1892 

94.4 

1893  .. 

19.10 

1894 

31.3 

1895 

While  Granada  and  Masaya  are  at  considerable  distance  from  Rivas 
and  under  somewhat  different  topographic  conditions,  there  is  no  obvi- 
ous reason  wiry  they  should  have  less  rainfall;  and  this  evidence,  so  far 
as  it  goes,  tends  to  confirm  the  indication  of  the  Las  Lajas  record,  that 
the  record  at  Rivas  is  too  large.  A  similar  result  is  obtained  by  a 
comparison  of  the  Rivas  record  with  the  movements  of  Lake  Nicaragua. 
Many  months  occur  in  which  the  rise  of  the  lake,  if  all  water  had  been 
held  by  a  dam  on  the  Rio  San  Juan  and  evaporation  eliminated,  would 
have  been  much  less  than  the  reported  rainfall  at  Rivas,  proving  that 
the  rainfall  on  the  surface  of  Lake  Nicaragua  is  less  than  recorded  at 
Rivas. 

These  facts,  coupled  with  the  great  importance  of  the  accuracy  of 
any  record  on  which  estimates  are  to  depend,  led  to  the  establishment, 
in  June,  11*00,  of  a  rainfall  observer  in  Rivas,  whose  gauge  is  located 
not  more  than  300  yards  from  that  upon  which  the  long  record  has 
been  taken.  The  observer  employed  by  the  Commission  was  Mr. 
Charles  Hayman,  who  thoroughly  understood  the  work  and  who  was 
cautioned  to  be  extremely  careful.  The  comparison  of  the  observa- 
tions is  given  below.  It  shows  that  the  record  of  Dr.  Flint  exceeded 
that  taken  by  Mr.  Haynian  in  every  month,  and  seems  to  establish  the 
fact  that  the  results  reported  by  Dr.  Flint  are  too  large. 


190 


REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Comparison  of  rainfall  observations  made  at  Rivas,  Nicaragua,  by  Dr.  Earl  Flint  and  the 
observer  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  June  15  to  November  30,  1900. 


Day. 

June. 

July. 

August. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

Dr. 

Flint. 

Com- 
mis- 
sion. 

Dr. 
Flint. 

Com- 
mis- 
sion. 

Dr. 
Flint, 

Com- 
mis- 
sion. 

Dr. 

Flint. 

Com- 
mis- 
sion. 

Dr. 

Flint. 

Com- 
mis- 
sion. 

Dr- 
Flint. 

Com- 
mis- 
sion. 

1 

0.99 
.00 
.20 

1.55 
.85 
.55 
.20 

0.79 
.00 

1.01 
.15 
.38 
.35 
.15 

0.18 
.00 
.60 
.40 
.14 
.46 
.07 
.00 
.48 
.00 
.02 
.30 
.00 

1.60 
.13 
.03 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.49 

1.61 
.50 
.90 
.02 
.43 
.70 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.04 

.00 

.47 

.24 

.35 

.10 

.02 

T. 

.35 

.02 

.20 

T. 

.00 

1.10 
.02 
.01 
T. 
.00 
.15 
.20 
.02 
.34 

1.35 
.59 
.01 
.70 
.13 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.43 

0.75 
.00 
.00 
.71 
.14 
.00 

2.  70 
.63 
.16 
.40 
.09 
.74 
.20 
.06 
.00 

1.70 
.40 
.07 

1.97 
.50 
.00 

0.01 
.00 
.00 
.52 
.21 
.03 

2.53 

0.17 
1.30 
1.50 
1.30 
.92 
1.29 
2.00 

0.10 
.98 
1.26 
1.20 
.27 
1.43 
.98 
.07 
.00 
.02 
.01 
.39 
.11 
.11 
.04 
.17 
.60 
.44 
.33 
1.95 
3.50 
2.71 
.19 
.65 
.61 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.00 
.05 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.08 
.08 
.00 
.00 
.02 
.08 
.00 
.00 
.30 
.28 
.04 
.00 
.08 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.01 
.00 
.11 
.00 
.00 
.00 

0.00 
.03 
.09 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.05 
.06 
.00 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.04 
.39 
.00 
.01 
.01 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.06 
.00 
.00 
.07 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

. 26       .  35 

.37         .13 
T.           .00 

9 

.66 
.21 

.87 
.30 
1.49 
.07 
.00 
.40 
.20 
.80 
.30 
.05 
.00 
.10 
.07 
.04 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.37 
.08 
.00 

.36 
.28 
.45 
1.07 
.04 
.06 
.17 
.16 
.16 
.44 
.10 
.01 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.10 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.18 
.02 
.06 
.07 

10 

.17 
.00 
.69 
.03 
.00 
.98 
.44 
.13 
.00 
1.95 
.00 
.00 

.00 
.00 
.50 
.11 
.33 
.02 
.31 
.80 
.30 
.79 
.01 
3.15 
4.80 
.31 
.90 
.99 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.00 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

0.00 
.70 
.60 
.60 
.00 

1.26 

1.50 
.00 
.30 

1.48 
.00 
.00 
.00 
.07 
.00 
.75 

0.01 
.04 
.99 
.01 
.00 
.92 

1.18 
.18 
T. 

1.19 
.01 
.00 
.00 
.03 
.00 
.51 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

1.70     1.42 
1.42     1.07 

23 

24 

.57 
.00 
.08 
.00 
.00 
4.18 
3.41 

.37 
.01 
.05 
.00 
.00 
3.40 
2.48 

26 

27 

29 

30 

31 

Excess  . . 

7.26 

5.07 

10.61     6.93 

9.16 

6.84 

22.  58 

16.86 

21. 93 

18.12 

1.19 

.87 

iSP.ct. 

53  P.  ct. 

34  P.  ct. 

34  P.  ct. 

21  P.  ct. 

37  P.  ct. 

These  comparisons  show  that  the  record  of  Dr.  Flint  exceeded  that 
taken  for  the  Commission  in  every  month,  the  average  excess  being 
about  37  per  cent,  confirming  the  indications  previously  referred  to. 

For  these  reasons  it  is  deemed  safer  at  present  to  eliminate  the  Rivas 
records  from  consideration  in  estimating  the  probable  relation  between 
the  recorded  rainfall  and  the  action  of  Lake  Nicaragua.  We  have  then 
left  available  for  comparison  only  those  records  for  Masaya  and  Gra- 
nada. Some  of  these  arc  published  in  the  report  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal 
Commission,  pages  280  and  281,  and  comprise  a  complete  record  at 
Granada  for  1 S77  taken  by  Dr.  Flint,  and  complete  records  for  1883- 
L884  observed  by  the  National  Institute  at  Granada.  From  the  end  of 
L884  to  the  beginningof  1897  we  have  no  records  for  Granada,  but  for 
L887  to  18H*i,  mclusive,  we  have  a  complete  record  for  the  town  of 
Masaya,  taken  by  Mr.  William  Climie.  This  record  is  believed  to  be 
entirely  reliable,  but  is  not  coincident  with  any  observations  of  Lake 
Nicaragua.  Early  in  1M>7  Mr.  Climie  removed  his  gauge  to  Granada, 
and  gives  the  record  for  LS'»7and  ISDN  at  that  place.  The  rainfall  was 
also  observed  in  1897  by  the  officials  of  the  Nicaragua  sugar  estates  in 
the  city  of  Granada,  and  their  record  continues  up  to  the  present  time. 
It  gives  about  2  per  cent  less  rainfall  for  1897  than  that  of  Mr.  Climie, 
but  the  results  are  sufficiently  accordant  to  confirm  the  substantial 
accuracy  of  both.  During  1899  and  1900  a  guage  was  maintained  by 
this  Commission  at  Granada,  and  these  observations  also  serve  to  con- 


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REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


191 


firm  the  substantial  accuracy  of  those  furnished  by  the  Sugar  com- 
pany. We  therefore  have  a  continuous  record  from  1887  to  date,  the 
worst  feature  of  which  is  that  during  the  first  ten  years  it  was  taken  at 
Masaya  and  the  last  four  years  at  Granada.  Masayais  at  an  elevation 
of  nearly  600  feet  above  Granada  and  is  not  on  the  drainage  of  Lake 
Nicaragua,  but  lies  in  a  small  basin  which  drains  into  Lake  Masaya. 
Observations  taken  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Jacob  Wiest  in  Masa}7a 
are  at  hand  covering  the  period  from  June  11,  1898,  to  November  30, 
1900,  which  includes  the  major  portion  of  three  rainy  seasons  coinci- 
dent with  observations  taken  in  Granada.  The  distance  from  Masaya 
to  Granada  is  about  10  miles,  which  precludes  comparison  day  by  day, 
but  a  monthly  comparison  is  shown  below,  which  shows  considerable 
difference  from  the  precipitation  observed  at  Granada,  that  at  Masaya 
being  less. 

Comparison  of  Granada  and  Masaya  rainfall  records,  1S99  and  1900. 


Months. 


1899. 
January  25-31 

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September... 

October 

November  ... 
December  ... 

Total  .. 


Granada, 


0.00 

.52 

.11 

.02 

2.43 

8.78 

6.64 

15.54 

2.39 

14.79 

5.24 

.57 


56.93 


Masaya. 


0.50 

.48 

.07 

.00 

2.02 

8.62 

4.19 

9.47 

2.80 

10. 35 

6.54 

1.20 


45. 24 


Differ- 
ences. 


0.50 
.04 
.04 
.02 
.41 
.16 

2.45 

5.97 
.41 

4.44 
.30 
.63 


Months. 


11.69 


1900. 
January . . . 
February .. 
March  ..... 

April 

May 

June  

Juiy 

August 

September 
October  . . . 
November. 
December . 

Total 


Granada. 


0.26 

.00 

.03 

.02 

12.06 

17.63 

12.40 

3.93 

7.60 

16.70 

1.42 

.05 


Masaya. 


0.00 

.00 

.00 

.00 

8.66 

15. 52 

10.27 

4.70 

7.23 

11.24 

1.91 


72. 10 


59.53 


Differ- 
ences. 


0.26 

.00 

.03 

.02 

3.40 

2.11 

2.13 

.77 

.37 

5.46 

.49 


>No  record. 


MAXIMUM    SUPPLY   TO    LAKE    NICARAGUA. 

To  obtain  the  probable  inflow  to  the  lake  during  the  season  of  great- 
est rainfall,  1897,  we  compare  the  rainfall  at  Granada  for  that  year 
with  the  rainfall  at  the  same  place  for  some  year  during  which  the 
behavior  of  Lake  Nicaragua  was  observed.  For  the  purpose  of  this 
comparison  the  diagram,  figure  18,  has  been  prepared.  It  shows  three 
lines,  each  of  which  represents  the  relation  of  Granada  rainfall  to 
the  run -off  from  the  basin  for  one  rainy  season,  the  lines  being 
plotted  with  the  Granada  rainfull  as  ordinates  and  the  fluctuation  of 
Lake  Nicaragua  that  would  have  occurred  if  there  had  been  neither 
outflow  nor  evaporation  as  abscissae.  This  diagram  is  essentially  accu- 
rate, involving  no  errors  excepting  those  of  observation.  Apparently 
the  two  years  of  observation  most  suitable  for  comparing  with  1897 
are  the  years  of  1898  and  1900,  these  being  the  years  of  greatest  rain- 
fall of  the  three  observed.  A  diagram  was  plotted  in  which  the  line 
for  1898  was  used  as  the  basis  for  estimating  the  run-off  correspond- 
ing to  rainfalls  observed  in  1897.  On  this  basis  the  fluctuation  of  the 
lake  in  1897  would,  if  all  water  had  been  held,  have  amounted  to 
nearly  14  feet,  bringing  the  elevation  of  the  lake  in  the  spring  of  1897 
below  92  feet.  There  is  abundant  evidence  that  this  stage  of  lake  did 
not  occur,  and  that  the  indication  of  the  observations  of  1898  is  there- 
fore erroneous,  giving  a  much  greater  fluctuation  than  really  occurred. 


192  EEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

This  could  only  be  the  case  if  the  rainfall  for  1898  was  lower  in  propor- 
tion to  the  run-off  of  the  basin  than  that  of  1897.  That  this  was  really 
the  case  is  indicated  by  an  examination  of  the  annual  total  rainfalls 
for  Granada  and  Rivas  on  page  189.  These  show  that  whereas  the  rec- 
ord for  Granada  exceeded  that  for  Rivas  by  32  per  cent  in  1897,  19 
per  cent  in  1899,  and  31  per  cent  in  1900,  in  1898  the  excess  was  94.4 
per  cent.  Though  the  rainfall  record  of  Rivas  is  rejected  as  inaccu- 
rate, the  above  indication  is  significant  when  taken  in  connection  with 
the  known  facts  of  the  fluctuation  of  Lake  Nicaragua. 

The  estimate  of  run-off  for  1897  was  next  made,  using  the  observations 
of  1900  as  the  basis.  The  results  were  obtained  by  months,  taking 
the  run-off  indicated  by  the  given  rainfall  from  the  1900  line  on  the 
diagram  (fig.  18),  and  adding  thereto  the  evaporation  correspond- 
ing to  the  period  covered.  The  result  is  taken  as  the  fluctuation  of 
the  lake  due  to  the  rainfall  and  considered  with  evaporation  in  full 
play  and  with  a  dam  in  the  river  preventing  outflow.  This  result  is 
shown  by  the  continuous  line  in  the  diagram  (fig.  21).  The  dotted 
line  in  the  same  diagram  shows  the  fluctuation  of  the  lake  on  the 
assumption  that  the  outflow  to  the  San  Juan  River  was  that  occurring 
in  the  state  of  nature  due  to  the  altitude  of  the  lake.  It  therefore 
represents  the  actual  changes  that  took  place  in  the  lake  surface  dur- 
ing 1897  as  inferred  from  the  observations  of  1898  and  1900. 

The  rainfall  in  1897  was  greater  than  that  for  1900,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  extrapolate  the  line  indicated  in  figure  18  for  1900. 
This  is  shown  by  the  discontinuous  line  on  the  diagram  for  1900. 

The  fluctuation  of  the  lake  as  indicated  by  this  method  is  about  10 
feet  in  the  aggregate,  or  a  little  over  8  feet  net.  The  stage  of  January 
4,  1898,  having  been  observed  by  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Commission,  it 
is  known  that  the  lake  stood  at  about  105  at  the  end  of  December, 
1897.  The  elevation  indicated  for  May,  1897,  96.7,  is  somewhat  lower 
than  that  indicated  by  the  estimate  on  page  187  and  by  reports  of  peo- 
ple who  were  in  Nicaragua  at  that  time,  notably  Mr.  William  Climie. 
But  if  this  is  the  case,  the  errors  are  on  the  side  of  safety  and  the 
indications  of  the  diagram  may  safely  be  taken  as  correct. 

THE   SEASON  OF  MINIMUM   SUPPLY. 

To  obtain  the  probable  fluctuation  of  the  lake  during  nineteen 
months  ending  May,  1891,  which,  as  has  been  shown,  includes  two 
dry  seasons,  and  the  driest  rainy  season  in  all  the  records  at  hand, 
comparison  is  made  between  the  rainfall  for  that  period  at  Masaya 
and  the  rainfall  for  1900  at  the  same  place  when  the  behavior  of  the 
lake  was  observed.  The  only  two  years  available  for  this  comparison 
are  1899  and  1900,  the  former  being  not  quite  complete.  The  relation 
of  rainfall  at  Masaya  and  the  fluctuation  of  the  lake  is  shown  in  fig. 
19,  page  193,  two  lines  being  plotted,  for  L899  and  L900  respectively, 
as  indicated,  on  the  same  basis  as  figure  18,  already  described. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  diagram  that  by  taking  1900  as  the  basis  of 
comparison  we  obtain  more  conservative  results  than  if  1899  were 
used;  that  is,  a  given  rainfall  at  Masaya  corresponds  to  less  inflow 
to  the  lake  than  in  1899,  this  difference  being  for  a  dry  season  on  the 
side  of  safety. 

On  both  diagrams  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
year  the  line  tends  to  approach  a  horizontal  position,  there  being  a 


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REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  193 

considerable  run-off  during  the  months  of  November  and  December 
with  little  or  no  rainfall,  this,  of  course,  being-  due  to  the  rainfall  of 
previous  months.  During-  1890  there  were  only  20.52  inches  of  rain- 
fall at  Masaya,  and  this  quantity  corresponds  to  the  rainfall  plotted 
in  the  diagram  before  the  end  of  June  at  a  time  when  the  rainy  season 
had  only  endured  a  little  over  a  month  and  when  considerable  rain  had 
fallen  that  had  not  yet  reached  the  lake,  but  which  did  so  later  on. ' 
This  introduces  an  actual  error  into  the  assumption  which  may  be 
important,  but  the  magnitude  of  which  can  not  be  accurately  estimated. 
Against  this  error  must  be  placed  the  well-known  fact  that  for  a  large 
rainfall  the  percentage  of  run-off  is  greater  than  for  a  small  one  on  an 
average,  or,  in  other  words,  the  ratio  of  run-off  to  rainfall  in  1900  was 
in  the  aggregate  greater  than  in  1890.  How  far  these  two  errors 
balance  each  other  can  not,  of  course,  be  known,  but  it  is  practically 
certain  that  their  resultant  is  to  an  important  degree  an  error  on  the 
side  of  safety. 

The  result  is  shown  in  figure  22,  and  indicates  the  fall  of  the  lake 
from  the  1st  of  November,  1889,  to  the  end  of  May,  1891,  the  driest 
consecutive  period  of  nineteen  months  of  which  we  have  record.  It 
indicates  that  if  all  water  had  been  held  by  a  dam  at  the  outlet  of  the 
lake,  and  1,000  cubic  feet  per  second  had  been  used  for  canal  purposes 
throughout  that  period,  the  surface  of  the  lake  would  have  declined 
6.2  feet.  No  resistance  can  be  offered  to  the  decline  of  the  lake  dur- 
ing a  dry  period,  except  to  keep  all  sluices  closed,  and  therefore  we 
ma}7  expect  an  unavoidable  decline  under  extreme  conditions  of  6.2  feet 
in  nineteen  months. 

The  rise  of  the  lake  in  seasons  of  excessive  rainfall  can  be  combated 
b}T  the  discharge  of  water  through  the  dam  at  Boca  San  Carlos  and 
into  the  valle}7  of  Grande  River  on  the  west  side. 

It  is  not  permissible  to  use  the  latter  outlet  extensively,  owing  to 
the  danger  of  carrying  to  the  sea  an  excessive  quantity  of  detritus  and 
thereby  obstructing  the  harbor  at  JBrito.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
that  the  surplus  waters  be  discharged  to  the  eastward  through  the  San 
Juan  River. 

If  adjustable  sluices  be  provided  at  Boca  San  Carlos,  to  discharge 
any  desired  quantity  of  water,  the  problem  resolves  itself  into  the 
estimation  of  the  capacity  of  the  canalized  San  Juan  River.  This  is  a 
function  of  the  cross  section,  roughness,  and  slope,  the  latter  depending 
upon  the  stage  of  the  lake. 

To  determine  the  coefficient  of  roughness,  computations  were  made 
of  the  value  of  the  factor  iln"  in  Kutter's  formula,  using  measured 
slope,  velocity,  cross  section,  and  discharge  of  the  San  Juan  River. 
These  computations,  which  were  exceedingly  laborious,  were  made  by 
Mr.  S.  H.  Woodard,  and  the  resulting  mean  values  of  "«,"  varied  from 
0.022  to  0.024.  Applying  the  latter  value  to  the  canalized  river,  its 
discharging  capacity  was  computed  for  the  various  elevations  at  the 
lake  and  at  Boca  San  Carlos.  The  accompanying  diagram  (fig.  20)  has 
been  constructed  by  Mr.  Woodard,  showing  his  results.  It  shows 
that  with  water  at  the  dam  held  at  104  the  discharging  capacity  varies 
from  zero  to  63,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  while  the  lake  level  rises 
from  104  to  110. 

Applying  these  facts  to  the  lake  supply  shown  in  figures  18  and  19, 
we  obtain  results  shown  in  figure  22. 

That  is,  if  the  canal  had  been  constructed  and  the  lake  surface  at 
S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 13 


11)4  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

1  < ) 7 . 3  on  the  1st  of  June,  1897,  the  lake  would  have  risen  to  110.6  by 
the  end  of  June,  in  spite  of  the  discharge  through  the  river  with  sluices 
left  open,  holding  the  water  level  at  104  at  the  dam.  During  July  and 
August  the  discharge  would  have  been  greater  than  the  inflow,  and  the 
lake  might  have  been  drawn  down  to  109.8.  It  would  have  risen 
slightly  in  September,  and  receded  again  in  October.  But  after  June 
the  discharge  would  have  been  checked,  because  it  is  necessary  to  hold 
the  lake  at  110.2  at  the  end  of  October  to  provide  against  exceptional 
drought.  The  aim  would  have  been,  therefore,  for  obvious  reasons, 
to  hold  the  lake  as  nearly  as  possidle  to  the  line  ABC,  and  after  the 
end  of  June  this  could  have  been  accomplished. 

If,  instead  of  the  very  wet  year  1897,  the  driest  year  in  the  record, 
1890,  had  occurred,  the  sluices  would  have  remained  closed,  and  the 
lake  surface  would  have  declined  3.3  feet  under  the  combined  influence 
of  inflow,  evaporation,  and  the  consumption  of  1,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  from  107.3  to  101,  by  the  opening  of  the  following  rainy  sea- 
son, when  the  lake  may  be  expected  to  rise. 

If  the  elevation  of  101  feet  be  adopted  as  the  minimum  summit  level 
to  be  permitted,  the  lake  must  be  at  a  stage  not  lower  than  107.3  feet 
at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season,  as  it  may  be  a  season  of  minimum 
precipitation,  so  that  the  lake  will  decline  3.3  feet  in  the  ensuing 
twelve  months.  To  do  this,  each  rainy  season  must  be  closed  with  the 
lake  at  110.2  as  the  unavoidable  loss  during  the  dry  season  is  2.9  feet, 
as  shown  by  figure  22.  Should  the  following  wet  season  be  one  of 
heavy  rainfall  like  1897,  the  lake  will  rise  to  about  110.6  in  spite  of 
all  the  discharge  of  which  the  river  is  capable.  If,  instead  of  a  very 
wet  season,  the  rainfall  should  be  slight,  like  that  of  1890,  the  lake 
would  decline  to  104  by  the  opening  of  the  next  rainy  season,  with  all 
the  sluices  closed. 

Our  present  information  indicates,  therefore,  that  the  lake  can  be 
kept  within  limits  of  6.6  feet,  provided  two  minimum  years  do  not 
occur  in  succession,  which  seems  to  be  a  safe  assumption. 

As  neither  the  maximum  nor  minimum  years  have  been  actually 
observed,  there  is  necessarily  some  uncertainty  in  any  estimates  that 
can  be  made  for  such  years.  It  has  been  the  effort  to  make  the  esti- 
mates conservative,  as  indicated  in  the  discussion.  If  actual  condi- 
tions should  occur  which  are  more  extreme  than  those  we  have  con- 
sidered, it  might  be  necessary  to  allow  a  greater  fluctuation  than  6.6 
feet.  If  a  season  of  greater  inflow  than  that  estimated  for  L897  should 
occur,  it  would  be  necessary  to  allow  the  lake  to  stand  temporarily  at 
a  higher  level  than  110.6.  If  experience  should  show  a  season  of  less 
inflow  than  that  estimated  for  1890,  it  would  be  necessary  to  begin 
each  rainy  season  with  the  lake  surface  higher  than  107.3  and  to  close 
it  with  the  lake  above  1 10.2  in  order  to  prevent  its  decline  below  104. 
A  very  slight  increase  in  the  upper  limit  allowed  is  a  great  relief  to 
the  conditions,  since  this  not  only  increases  the  allowable  fluctuations, 
but  also  increases  the  discharge  capacity  of  the  river.  If  the  lake 
should  reach  a  height  of  1 1 1  feet,  it  would  only  be  repeating  the  con- 
ditions that  have  probably  occurred  in  its  natural  state.  The  water 
might  rise  to  a  height  of  I  1  -1  feet,  or  even  higher,  without  doing  any 
great  amount  of  damage,  and  il  is  probable  that  permission  to  allow 
this  could  without  difficulty  he  included  in  the  concession.  We 
could  then  begin  each  month  of  June  with  the  lake  at  elevation  LOS; 
if  the  rainy  season  should  furnish  20  per  cent  more  water  than  that 
estimated  for  1897.  we  could  still  control  the  lake  within  the  112-foot 


ELEVATION       OF    WATER   SURFACE     AT     LAKE 

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REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


195 


limit.  If,  instead,  the  rainy  season  should  furnish  only  one-half  the 
supply  estimated  for  1890,  the  lake  would  fall  to  just  104  by  the  open- 
ing oi  the  next  rainy  season.  This  is  certainly  a  very  wide  margin 
of  safety. 

TEMPERATURE    AND    RELATIVE    HUMIDITY. 

The  temperature  of  Nicaragua  is  remarkably  uniform.  While  some' 
of  the  higher  mountain  regions  have  a  rather  cool  climate,  there  is 
never  any  frost,  and  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  inhabited 
portion  of  the  country  the  temperature  seldom  exceeds  95°  or  falls 
belows  70°,  and  in  any  given  locality  the  annual  fluctuation  is  usually 
still  less.  The  relative  humidity  is  high,  except  during  the  dry  season 
on  the  west  side  of  the  isthmus. 

Temperature  and  relative  humidity  at  Tola  gauge  station,  Nicaragua. 


Temperature. 

Mean  rel- 
ative hu- 
midity. 

Months. 

Temperature. 

Mean  rel- 

Months. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean. 

ative  hu- 
midity. 

1900. 

January 

February  

86.0 
86.5 
91.5 
94.0 
93.0 
86.5 

74.0 
73.0 
73.0 
75.5 
73.5 
72.0 

79.0 
81.0 
82.5 
84.8 
82.0 
80.5 

81.0 
79.6 
78.2 
79.0 
88.2 
86.2 

1900. 
July 

87.0 
88.0 
90.0 
88.0 
87.0 
88.0 

73.0 

75.5 
72.5 
72.0 
72.0 
74.0 

78.9 
80.6 
80.6 
79.0 
79.6 
79.8 

89.4 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

93.2 
94.0 

95.2 

88.6 

88.6 

Temperature  and  relative  humidity. 
SAPOA,  NICARAGUA. 


Months. 


Temperature. 


Maximum.   Minimum 


Mean. 


Mean 
relative 
humidity. 


1899 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

1900. 

January  

February 

March 

April 

May  

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 


87.0 
96.0 
94.0 
•86.0 
84.0 


84.5 
86.0 
89.0 
94.0 
93.5 
91.5 
89.5 
87.5 
88.0 
86.0 
86.0 
86.0 


72.0 
70.0 
71.0 
70.0 
72.0 


73.0 
73.0 
73.0 
75.0 
75.0 
72.0 
74.0 
74.0 
74.0 
71.0 
71.0 
72.0 


79.6 
80.5 
78.9 
78.5 
80.3 


77.9 
79.0 
80.3 
80.4 
82.8 
81.3 
79.9 
80.8 
79.8 
78.9 
78.9 
79.1 


87.8 
89.0 
89.4 
89.8 
87.0 


88.6 
87.8 
85.0 
82.6 
84.6 
88.4 
89.8 
90.0 
92.0 
94.0 
91.8 
91.4 


RIVAS,  NICARAGUA. 


1900. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 


75.0 

76.2 

73.0 

77.4 

74.0 

78.5 

79.0 

81.0 

77.0 

80.0 

75.0 

78.6 

75.0 

77.8 

76.0 

79.0 

76.0 

77.8 

74.0 

77.0 

73. 0 

77.4 

72.0 

77.7 

86.2 
80.8 
78.6 
80.8 
85.4 
89.8 
89.4 
86.2 
90.2 
91.0 
89.0 
82.6 


196 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Temperature  and  relative  humidity — Continued. 

SAN  UBALDO,  NICARAGUA. 


September 
October . . . 
November. 
December . 


January... 
February.. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November. 
December . 


Months. 


1900. 


Temperature. 


Maximum.  Minimum.      Mean. 


95.0 
91.0 
91.0 

88.0 


92.0 
93.0 
99.0 
98.0 
101.0 
94.0 
92.0 
93.0 
93.0 
91.0 
90.0 
91.0 


72.0 
72.0 
72.0 
67.0 


69.0 
69.0 
68.0 
72.0 
75.0 
75.0 
71.0 
73.0 
73.0 
70.0 
71.0 
70.0 


81.7 
79.8 
80.0 

78.5 


79.6 
80.7 
82.9 
86.3 
85.8 
82.9 
81.4 
83.0 
83.1 
80.6 
80.3 
81.2 


Mean 

relative 

humidity 


FORT  SAN  CARLOS,  NICARAGUA. 


January 

February  . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 
October  . . . 
November 
December 


84.0 
85.0 
90.0 
93.0 
93.0 


69.0 

75.9 

66. 0 

76.9 

70.0 

77.6 

69.0 

79.6 

71.0 

80.4 

73.0 

78.6 

72.0 

78.0 

73.0 

79.1 

73.0 

79.2 

72.0 

77.7 

69.0 

76.5 

72.0 

77.6 

70.5 

76.9 

January.. 
February 


1900. 


86.0 
87.5 
89.0 
86.5 
84.0 
84.0 


85.0 
85.5 


CAMP  SABALOS,  NICARAGUA. 


January 

February  .. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September . 
October.  . . . 
November  . 
December.. 


1899. 


86.0 
86.0 
90.0 
91.0 
92.0 


66.0 

75.2 

64.0 

76.0 

68.0 

77.1 

67. 5 

78. 2 

70.0 

79.4 

71.0 

78.8 

71.5 

77.8 

71.5 

78.  1 

71.0 

Vs.  9 

71.0 

77.2 

66.0 

75.1 

66. 6 

75.3 

68.0 

76.  0 

67.0 

76.8 

67.5 

79.5 

72.0 

80.4 

71.0 

79.0 

72.  0 

77.0 

72.  5 

77.0 

72.0 

78.7 

71.0 

77.8 

68.  5 

74.6 

68. 5 

76. 4 

January 

February  . 

March 

April , 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September . 

October 

November 
December.. 


88.0 
92.0 
91.0 
91.0 
87.0 
81.0 


85.0 
87.0 
89.0 
96. 0 
95.5 
90.0 
87.0 
86. 5 
92.0 
89.0 
86.0 
85.0 


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REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 
Temperature  and  relative  humidity — Continued. 

OCHOA,  COSTA  RICA. 


197 


Months. 

Temperature. 

Mean 

relative 

humidity. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

1899. 

84.5 
86.0 
91.0 
88.5 
89.5 
86.0 
85.5 
86.0 
90.0 
88.5 
87.0 
84.5 

83.6 
87.0 
87.0 
93.5 
92.5 
91.0 
87.0 
86.0 
92.5 
87.5 
86.0 
85.0 

07.0 
68.0 
67. 0 
68.0 
70.0 
72.0 
72.5 
71.5 
72.0 
72.5 
72.0 
68.0 

70.0 
70.0 
69.0 
69.0 
74.0 
73.0 
71.5 
73.5 
73.0 
72.5 
70.5 
70.5 

74.8 
75.3 
75.6 
76.6 
77.9 
77.7 
77.3 
77.5 
78.4 
79.0 
77.4 
75.1 

75.7 
76.6 
77.1 
79.8 
80.4 
79.6 
78.0 
77.9 
80.0 
78.6 
77.0 
76.8 

93.2 

91.9 

89.7 

87.0 

90.6 

90.2 

July.                                       

92.6 

92.2 

89.8 

89.0 

91.4 

92.6 

1900. 

90.6 

87.8 

87.0 

85.4 

87.0 

88.6 

Julv                                          

90.6 

92.6 

87.0 

89.8 

91.0 

90.6 

GREYTOWN,  NICARAGUA. 


1899. 

January  

February  

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

1900. 

January 

February  

March  

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 


87.0 
89.0 
89.0 
94.0 
93.0 
92.0 
91.0 
89.0 
92.0 
91.0 
88.0 
86.0 


69.0 

77.8 

66.0 

77.2 

72.0 

79.7 

70.0 

80.6 

72.0 

81.0 

74.0 

79.5 

73.0 

78.7 

72.0 

78.0 

73. 0 

79.3 

72.0 

80.3 

73.0 

78.2 

70.0 

76.0 

71.0 

77.4 

71.0 

78.6 

71.0 

78.3 

70.0 

81.7 

74.0 

81.2 

75.0 

81.1 

73.0 

78.6 

75. 0 

80.0 

74.0 

80.9 

73. 0 

79.3 

72.0 

77.2 

71.0 

78.6 

87.3 
87.7 
80.9 
78.0 
84.0 
85.4 
86.2 
87.4 
86.6 
84.2 
88.6 
88.2 


87.0 
85.0 
83.0 
80.8 
85.6 
83.2 
87.8 
86.2 
84.8 
87.8 
89.8 
84.2 


SEDIMENT   OBSERVATIONS. 

An}^  proposition  for  a  ship  canal  which  involves  the  use  of  the  San 
Juan  River  below  the  mouth  of  the  San  Carlos  requires  for  its  intelli- 
gent consideration  some  idea  of  the  quantity  of  sediment  carried  by 
that  stream,  and  if  the  San  Juan  is  to  be  used  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Sarapiqui  the  sediment  carried  by  that  stream  becomes  also  an  impor- 
tant factor.  To  determine  these  quantities  samples  of  water  were 
taken  daily,  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  sediment  measured.     The  sam- 


198  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

pies  were  taken  at  not  less  than  a  dozen  places  in  the  river,  the  water 
taken  aggregating  several  gallons,  and  representing  approximately  the 
average  of  the  various  parts  of  the  current.  The  samples  were  thor- 
oughly mixed,  and  one  sample  of  100  cubic  centimeters  taken  from  the 
mixture  and  the  rest  rejected.  The  sample  taken  was  allowed  to  settle 
for  twenty-four  hours,  the  clear  water  poured  off,  and  another  sample 
added  to  the  remainder,  the  clear  water  was  decanted,  the  next  day 
another  sample  added,  and  so  on.  accumulating  any  sediment  that 
remained  until  it  became  a  measurable  quantity,  when  its  depth  was 
read  on  the  graduated  glass  in  which  the  settlement  was  made.  This 
reading  gives,  of  course,  only  the  bulk  of  the  loose  mud,  and  not  the 
dry  solid  matter.  The  relation  between  the  mud  and  dry  matter  as 
determined  by  a  series  of  experiments  for  a  similar  purpose  made  on 
sediment  from  the  Gila  River,  Arizona,  was  live  parts  of  mud  to  one 
of  dry  material.  This  factor  has,  therefore,  been  used  in  reducing  the 
results. 

The  taking  of  water  samples  and  measurement  of  sediment  therein 
would  not  furnish  all  the  required  data,  as  these  streams  roll  large 
quantities  of  sand  and  gravel  along  their  beds,  which  could  not  be 
taken  in  water  samples.  So  far  as  could  be  learned,  no  attempt  at  such 
measurements  had  ever  been  made,  and  it  was  recognized  as  a  task  of 
difficulty.     The  method  devised  was  as  follows: 

A  galvanized  sheet-iron  pan  was  provided  (tig.  6,  p.  155),  1  meter 
square  and  8  inches  deep,  with  one  side  hinged  so  that  it  could  be 
opened  to  lie  in  the  same  plane  as  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and  a  weight 
and  stays  were  provided  to  hold  it  in  this  horizontal  position.  Four 
chains,  attached  one  to  each  corner  of  the  top  of  the  pan,  met  about 
4  feet  above  the  pan  and  united  in  a  ring,  and  the  whole  was  sus- 
pended from  a  cable  stretched  across  the  river,  with  the  door  open 
upstream.  An  anchor  was  thrown  about  100  feet  upstream  to  hold 
the  pan  firmly  in  position,  while  it  was  gently  lowered  from  the  cable 
by  means  of  a  rope  from  shore  working  in  tackle  blocks.  The  pan 
was  allowed  to  settle  firmly  on  the  bottom  and  to  remain  for  a  limited 
time,  usually  one  hour.  The  attempt  is  to  cause  the  minimum  dis- 
turbance of  natural  conditions  in  the  stream,  and  to  intercept  and 
hold  in  the  pan  the  sediment  traveling  along  the  bottom  in  the  section 
it  occupies.  When  it  is  desired  to  close  the  observation,  a  small  cop- 
per wire  which  has  been  fastened  to  the  open  door  and  passed  through 
the  ring  above  the  pan  is  stoutly  pulled  until  it  raises  the  lid  from  the 
bottom  of  the  stream,  whereupon  the  current  catches  and  slams  the 
lid  shut,  where  it  is  automatically  fastened  by  a  latch  on  each  side. 
Then,  by  means  of  a  windlass  on  shore,  the  pan  is  hoisted  and  brought 
to  land  and  the  entrapped  sediment  measured. 

There  is  nothing  about  this  operation  to  increase  the  motion  of 
sediment  along  the  oottom  into  the  pan,  so  it  is  thought  that  results 
can  never  be  too  large.  On  the  other  hand,  some  sand  may  pass  under 
the  edge  of  the  lid  when  the  bottom  of  the  river  at  this  point  is  marred 
with  local  inequalities.  This  is  supposed  to  be  one  cause  of  the  small 
results  on  certain  days,  when  other  observations  immediately  before 
or  after  give  large  results.  Another  persistent  source  of  error  of 
unknown  magnitude  is  the  washing  out  of  the  sediment  by  the  current 
over  the  weir  formed  by  the  back  of  the  pan.  To  test  the  importance 
of  this  theoretical  possibility  a  temporary  partition  was  placed  in  the 
pan  perpendicular  to  the  current,  and  nearly  as  high  as  the  sides  of  the 


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REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


199 


pan,  the  theory  being  that  if  all  sediment  were  stopped  by  the  parti- 
tion and  deposited  in  front  of  it  that  would  be  good  evidence  that  in 
the  absence  of  the  partition  all  would  be  stopped  by  the  back  of  the 
pan  and  none  lost.  In  the  first  experiment  more  sediment  was 
deposited  behind  than  in  front  of  the  partition,  and  the  quantity  that 
passed  out  of  the  pan  is  unknown.  This  result  was  essentially  re- 
peated for  most  of  the  experiments,  showing  conclusively  that  more- 
or  less  sediment  is  carried  out  over  the  back  of  the  pan  by  the  scour 
which  it  occasions.  It  is  important  to  bear  this  fact  in  mind  when 
studying  the  results,  for  it  is  certain  that  the  results  are  quantitatively 
too  small,  and  should  be  regarded  as  showing  that  large  quantities  of 
sediment  are  traveling  on  the  bed  of  the  stream,  and  as  roughly  indi- 
cating the  relative  amount. 

Sediment  by  water  samples  from  San  Juan  River  at  Sabalos  Station. 
[Five  cubic  yards  of  mud  are  assumed  equal  to  1  cubic  yard  of  solid  matter.] 


Months. 


1900 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 


Mud. 


Cubic  yds. 
1.224J  120 
677, 936 
609,  691 
641, 073 
758, 470 
717, 401 


Solid 
matter. 


Cubic  yds. 
244, 824 
135, 587 
121, 938 
128, 215 
151, 694 
143, 480 


Months. 


1900. 

July 

August 

September... 

October 

November 

December 


Mud. 


Cubic  yds. 
1, 038, 808 
831, 234 
612,973 
566, 014 
542, 392 
534, 232 


Solid 
matter. 


Cubic  yds. 
207, 762 
166, 247 
122, 595 
113,203 
108, 478 
106, 846 


Sediment,  by  water  samples,  from  San  Juan  River  at  Ochoa. 


1899. 

1900. 

Months. 

Mud. 

Solid  mat- 
ter. 

Mud. 

Solid  mat- 
ter. 

Cubic  yards. 

1, 139, 623 

860, 125 

765, 275 

1, 055, 212 

1, 162, 524 

709, 230 

2,969,998 

2,257,480 

3, 107, 248 

1,260,497 

2, 658, 002 

1,696,789 

Cubicyard;-. 
227, 925 
172, 025 
153, 055 
211,042 
232, 505 
141,846 
594,000 
451,496 
621,450 
252, 099 
531,600 
339, 358 

Cubic  yards. 

1,348,513 

651,461 

585, 215 

474, 309 

913, 695 

1,26V, 086 

1, 526, 670 

1,869,237 

2,759,489 

3, 727, 661 

2,498,526 

2,097,570 

Cubicyards. 

269, 703 

130,292 

117,043 

94, 862 

May                              

182, 739 

253, 417 

July                              

305, 334 

373,847 

551, 898 

745,532 

499, 705 

419,514 

Note.— Five  cubic  yards  of  mud  are  assumed  equal  to  1  cubic  yard  of  solid  matter. 
Sediment  rolled  on  bottom  of  San  Carlos  River. 


COSTA  RICA. 


Date. 


1899. 

April  18 

April  24 

April  29 

Mavll 

May  22 

May  26 

June5 

June  13 

June  27 


Gauge 
height. 


11.40 
11. 05 
10. 95 
10.80 
11.40 
12.80 
11.55 
12.90 
12  75 


Amount 
collected 
per  hour. 


Cubic  cen- 
timeters. 
27, 124 
950 
9,954 
53, 088 
31,400 
44,993 
28, 203 
34,839 
94, 563 


Total  for 
river. 


Cu.  yards 

per  hour. 

7.10 

.25 

2.60 

13.89 

9 

11.17 

7.38 

9.11 

24.74 


Mean  for 
month. 


Cu.  yards 
per  hour. 


3.32 


11.55 
"41.23 


Total  for 
month. 


Cubic 
yards. 


2, 390 


8,593 

'•29  ](\SG 


Remarks. 


Gravel  and  sand. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


200 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Sediment  rolled  on  bottom  of  San  Carlos  River — Continued. 
COSTA  RICA— Continued. 


Date. 


Gauge 
height. 


Amount 
collected 
per  hour. 


Total  for 
river. 


Mean  for 
mouth. 

Total  for 
mouth. 

Cu.  yards 

per  hour. 
26. 47 

Cubic 
yards. 

'  19, 694 

•J).  M3 

15, 498 

15. 13 
10.80 

3.01 

11,257 
7,776 
2,239 

2. 80 

9.65 

2, 083 
7,180 

6. 23 
1,34 

4,486 

997 

16. 97 

12, 218 

Remarks. 


1899. 

July  19 

August  2 

August  12 

August  18 

August  25 

August  28 

October  7 

October  30 

October  31 

November  4 

December  4 

1900. 

March  15 

March  21 

March  23 

May  14 

June  27 

June  29 

August  29 

September  6 

Septembers 


15.40 
14.80 
13.70 
13.86 
14.45 
13.60 
13.00 
12.70 
12.80 
12.50 
14.72 


11.36 
11.10 
12. 13 
11.70 
12.41 
14.16 
14.37 
13.50 
14.50 


Cubic  cen- 
timeters. 

101, 200 

115,530 
46, 752 

105, 660 
78,  555 
61, 615 

102, 465 
29, 100 
41,940 
41,300 
11,500 


6,300 
4,400 
21,350 
36,900 
31,080 
16, 537 
5,124 
64, 075 
65, 700 


Cu.  yardi 
per  hour. 

26.47 
30.22 
12.  23 
27.64 
20.  55 
13.50 
26.80 

7.61 
10.97 
10.80 

3.01 


1.65 
1.15 
5.69 
9.65 
8.13 
4.33 
1.34 
16.76 
17.19 


Gravel  and  sand. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
.  Do. 
Do. 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
D.». 
Do. 


Sediment  rolled  on  bottom  ofSarapiqui  River. 

COSTA  RICA. 


Date. 


1899 

March  2 

March  9 

March  14 

April  5 

April  7 

April  12 

April  22 

May5 

May  15 

May  24 

May  29 

June  7 

June  15 

June 20 

June 27 

July  2 

July  8 

July  20 

July  29 

August  1 

August  10 

August  23 

August  26 


Gauge 
height. 


8.3 
8.9 
7.6 
7.6 
7.8 


Amount 
collected 
per  hour. 


Cubic  cen- 
ti  mi  d  rs. 
6,500 
10,000 
1,500 
15,500 
40, 000 
41,000 
4,000 
1,000 
2,060 
7,400 
5,000 
7,000 
31,. 500 
32, 500 
3,200 
10,600 
29, 500 
36, 000 
4,000 
60,000 
118,500 
71,000 
20, 000 


Total  for 
river. 


Cu.  yards 

per  hour. 

0.84 

1.30 

.20 

2.01 

5.20 

5.33 

.52 

.13 

.27 

.96 

.65 

.91 

4.09 

4.22 

.42 

1.38 

3.83 

4.68 

.52 

7.80 

15.  lo 

9. 23 

2.60 


Mean  for  ;  Total  for 
month.  '   month. 


Cu.  yards 
per  hour. 


,.~>o 


I  'libit- 

yards. 


Remarks. 


2.  3-17 


L.735 


Sand  and  gravel. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


WIND   MOVEMENT. 


One  point  of  interest  in  the  consideration  of  the  isthmian  canal  is 
the  strength  and  persistence  of  winds,  considered  as  motive  force  for 
sailing  vessels  and  as  annoyance  to  the  navigation  of  the  canal  and  to 
ships  entering  and  leaving  port. 

The  persistence  of  the  trade  winds  lias  frequently  been  mentioned 
in  discussions  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  route.  In  1898,  it  being  neces- 
sary to  take  gauge  readings  at  Las  Lajas,  on  the  western  margin  of  the 
lake,  for  transferring  the  level  line  across  the  lake,  a  camp  with  an 
observer  was  established  here,  who  observed  the  gauge  height  of  the 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


201 


lake  at  the  hours  of  6  and  !>  a.  in.,  12  noon,  3  and  6  p.  m.  Note  of 
the  condition  of  the  lake  surface  was  made  at  each  observation,  and 
from  January  L9,  1898,  when  the  observations  began,  until  the  1st  of 
May  a  heavy  surf  w  as  beating  on  the  beach  at  this  point  at  every  obser- 
vation, due  to  the  persistence  of  the  trade  winds.  A  few  days  of  calm 
occurred  in  May  and  at  later  periods  during  the  rainy  season. 

On  May  16,  1900,  an  anemometer  was  installed  at  Greytown  and' 
observed  at  8  a.  m.,  12  noon,  and  6  p.  m.  each  day,  and  the  record  was 
kept  practically  continuous  to  the  end  of  the  year.  In  all  this  time 
not  a  single  day  occurred  without  wind  movement.  The  highest  veloc- 
ity recorded  was  something  over  40  miles  per  hour,  and  this  only 
occurred  on  one  day,  November  13,  the  mean  for  that  day  being  24.5. 
The  results  of  the  observations  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Anemometer  record,  Greytmim,  Nicaragua. 


Anemometer  readings. 

Miles. 

Day. 

Anemometer  readings. 

Miles. 

Day. 

8  a.m. 

12  m. 

6  p.m. 

Per 
day. 

Per 
hour. 

8  a.m. 

12  m. 

6  p.m. 

Per 
day. 

Per 
hour. 

May  16 

78.0 

93.6 

117. 2 

68.7 

2.9 

July  14... 

310.1 

349.2 

395.0 

153.9 

6.5 

May  17  ... . 

146.7 

178.0 

212. 1 

99.4 

4.1 

July  15... 

464.0 

478.0 

502.5 

108.2 

4.5 

May  18 ... . 

246.1 

271.0 

313.6 

127. 1 

5.3 

July  16... 

572. 2 

590.0 

664.5 

145.8 

6.1 

May  19 ... . 

373.2 

399.0 

403.3 

62.3 

2.6 

July  17... 

718.0 

733.0 

761.5 

102. 2 

4.3 

May  20 

435.5 

450.3 

497.5 

97.6 

4.1 

July  18... 

820.2 

860.1 

895.0 

142.8 

5.9 

May  21 

533.1 

553.4 

589.0 

85.2 

3.6 

July  19... 

963.0 

991.5 

47.0 

121.6 

5.1 

May  22 ... . 

618.3 

639.3 

688.6 

105.0 

4.4 

July  20 . . . 

84.6 

91.2 

116.0 

62.5 

2.6 

May  23 ... . 

723.3 

755.5 

801.2 

99.9 

4.2 

July  21... 

147.1 

166.5 

182.3 

84.4 

3.5 

May  24 ... . 

823. 2 

869.0 

916.1 

119.8 

6.0 

July  22... 

231.5 

246.2 

276.0 

73.6 

3.1 

May  25 

943.0 

984.1 

41.7 

139.5 

5.8 

July  23 . . . 

305.1 

330.0 

363.2 

83.4 

3.5 

May  26 

82.5 

95.5 

130.9 

91.1 

3.8 

July  24... 

388.5 

406.5 

438.0 

83.5 

3.5 

May  27  ... . 

173.6 

195.2 

226.0 

115.2 

4.8 

July  25... 

472.0 

490.1 

543.2 

107.0 

4.4 

May  28 

288.8 

317.8 

353.5 

129.8 

5.8 

July  26  . . . 

579.0 

602. 1 

650.8 

134.0 

5.6 

May  29 ... . 

418.6 

438.8 

467.7 

84.7 

3.5 

July  27... 

713.0 

725.8 

758.0 

81.0 

3.4 

May  30 ... . 

503.3 

521. 1 

549.1 

101.7 

4.2 

July  28... 

794.0 

836.0 

889.2 

135.0 

5.6 

May  31 ... . 

605.0 

626.2 

652.1 

72.4 

3.0 

July  29... 

929.0 

941.3 

994.0 

84.5 

3.5 

June  1 

677.4 

786.1 

754.5 

127.4 

5.3 

July  30... 

13.5 

24.1 

55.2 

76.0 

3.2 

June  2 

804.5 

922. 9 

980.9 

121.8 

5.1 

July  31 . . . 

89.5 

102.3 

156.2 

110.5 

4.0 

June  3 

926. 3 

950.8 

3.2 

118.8 

4.5 

Aug.  1.... 

200.0 

215.8 

250.0 

127.2 

5.3 

June  4 

45.1 

81.5 

100.4 

164.9 

6.5 

Aug.  2.... 

327.2 

339.3 

381.2 

93.8 

3.9 

June  5 

200. 0 

222. 8 

278.9 

195.7 

8.2 

Aug.  3.... 

421.0 

433.6 

552. 7 

230.5 

9.6 

June  6 

395.7 

413.5 

431.0 

94.5 

3.5 

Aug.  4 

651.5 

663.7 

700.0 

71.6 

3.0 

June  7 

490.2 

525. 0 

562.4 

133.5 

5.6 

Aug.  5 

723.1 

732. 4 

778.3 

85.9 

3.6 

June  8 

623. 7 

659.1 

694.0 

106.3 

4.4 

Aug.  6 

809.0 

838.7 

874.0 

104.2 

4.4 

June  9 

730.0 

754.0 

801.0 

102.1 

4.3 

Aug.  7 

913. 2 

924.2 

950. 0 

86.8 

3.6 

June  10 

832. 1 

835.0 

842.5 

99.4 

4.2 

Aug.  8.... 

1,000.0 

9.2 

29.0 

120.7 

5.0 

June  11 

931.5 

973.1 

19.0 

123.8 

5.1 

Aug.  9.... 

120. 7 

141.9 

196.0 

119.5 

5.0 

June  12 

55.3 

111.0 

133.0 

114.7 

4.9 

Aug.  10... 

240.2 

252. 1 

284.8 

148.8 

6.2 

June  13 

170.0 

193. 2 

221. 5 

81.0 

3.4 

Aug.  11... 

389.0 

415.0 

487.6 

215.5 

8.9 

June  14 

251. 0 

283.0 

315.2 

101.1 

4.2 

Aug.  12... 

604.5 

612.0 

625. 2 

74.2 

3.1 

June  15 

352. 1 

370.7 

416.3 

97.7 

4.1 

Aug.  13... 

678.7 

700.2 

734.5 

48.0 

2.0 

June  16 

449.8 

473.1 

499.0 

75.8 

3.2 

Aug.  14... 

726.7 

820. 0 

867.5 

216.7 

9.0 

June  17 

525.6 

554.1 

569. 0 

78.4 

3.3 

Aug.  15... 

943.4 

975.0 

32.5 

118.9 

4.9 

June  18 

604.0 

620.2 

653. 6 

128.0 

5.3 

Aug.  16... 

62.3 

79.6 

116.1 

93.3 

3.9 

June  19 

732.0 

751.6 

784.1 

93.7 

3.9 

Aug.  17... 

155.6 

182.3 

246.8 

141.4 

5.9 

June  20 

825.7 

837.2 

855. 2 

79.3 

3.3 

Aug.  18... 

297.0 

312.4 

349.5 

101.1 

4.2 

June  21 

905.0 

832.0 

953.2 

82.1 

3.4 

Aug.  19... 

398.1 

416.2 

446.7 

97.1 

4.0 

June  22.... 

987.1 

10.7 

45.2 

78.7 

3.3 

Aug.  20... 

495.2 

506.4 

549.0 

102.1 

4.3 

June  23 

65.8 

81.2 

186.7 

146.3 

6.1 

Aug.  21... 

597.3 

646.6 

680.0 

102.0 

4.2 

June  24 

212. 1 

237.3 

307.2 

117.0 

4.8 

Aug.  22... 

699.3 

718.7 

743.2 

75.8 

3.2 

June  25 

329.1 

343.3 

378.8 

72.5 

3.0 

Aug.  23... 

775.1 

787.4 

818.1 

78.6 

3.3 

June  26... 

401.6 

419.1 

470.0 

98.4 

4.1 

Aug.  24... 

853.7 

877.4 

944.2 

138.6 

5.8 

June,  27 

600.0 

615. 5 

567.2 

103.0 

4.3 

Aug.  25... 

992.3 

18.7 

65.5 

114.3 

4.3 

June  28.... 

603.0 

624.2 

664.0 

129.0 

5.4 

Aug.  26... 

106.6 

117.8 

141. 2 

84.2 

3.5 

June  29 

732.0 

744.2 

822.5 

147.0 

6.1 

Aug.  27... 

190.8 

214.6 

261.  0 

137.2 

5.7 

June  30.... 

879.0 

897.6 

967.0 

155.1 

6.5 

Aug.  28... 

328.0 

346.2 

409.0 

138.1 

5.8 

July  1 

34.1 

50.0 

69.1 

77.8 

3.2 

Aug.  29... 

466.1 

424.5 

511.9 

74.9 

3.2 

July  2 

111.9 

152.2 

172.4 

97.1 

4.1 

Aug.  30... 

541.0 

552.7 

536.2 

140.0 

5.8 

Jnly3 

209.0 

219.1 

235.8 

54.2 

2.3 

Aug.  31... 

681.0 

698.3 

739.6 

87.4 

3.6 

July  4 

263.2 

281.0 

328. 4 

113.9 

4.7 

Sept.l.... 

768.4 

782.0 

799.3 

70.7 

2.9 

July  5  . . . 

377.1 

397.4 

463.5 

140.9 

5.9 

Sept.  2 

839.1 

848.3 

890.1 

81.4 

3.4 

July  6 . 

518.0 

532.1 

568.9 

99.0 

4.2 

Sept.  3.... 

920.5 

947.2 

999.0 

79.5 

3.3 

July  7 . 

617.0 

625.1 

683.1 

167.8 

7.0 

Sept.  4 

1,000.0 

19.9 

76.5 

102. 0 

4.3 

July  8 

784.8 

806.1 

843.2 

88.4 

3.7 

Sept.  5.... 

102. 0 

120.2 

163.8 

97.2 

4.1 

July  9  . . 

873.2 

890. 5 

920.1 

94.8 

3.9 

Sept.  6.... 

199.2 

211.1 

250.4 

108.2 

4.5 

July  10.... 

968.0 

995.  2 

62.  5 

102.0 

4.3 

Sept.7.... 

307.4 

326.4 

369.0 

89.6 

3.7 

July  11.... 

70.0 

83.2 

105. 2 

58.1 

2.4 

Sept.  8.... 

397.0 

411.5 

461.0 

89.7 

3.8 

July  12.... 

128.1 

140. 2 

169.7 

85.7 

3.0 

Sept.  9.... 

486.7 

507.  2 

553. 6 

114.7 

4.8 

July  13 ... . 

213.8 

230.0 

276.  5 

96.3 

4.1 

Sept.  10... 

601.4 

621.0 

673.1 

99.9 

4.2 

202 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION 


Anemometer  record,  Greytown,  Nicaragua — Continued. 


Hay. 


Sept,  11.... 
Sept.  12.... 
Sept.  13.... 

Sept,  14.... 
Sept.  15.... 
Sept.  16.... 
Sept.  17.... 
Sept.  18.... 
Sept.  19.... 

Sept.  20 

Sept.  21.... 
Sept.  22.... 
Sept,  23.... 
Sept.  24.... 
Sept.  26.... 
Sept.  26.... 
Sept.  27.... 
Sept.  28.... 
Sept.  29.... 
Sept,  30.... 

Oct.l 

Oct.2 

Oct.  3 


Anemometer  readings. 


a.  m.     12  m.     6  p.  m 


Oct.  4 

Oct.  5 

Oct.  6 

Oct.  7 

Oct.8 

Oct.  9 

Oct,  10.... 
Oct.  11.  ... 
Oct.  12.... 
Oct.  13.... 
Oct.  14.... 
Oct.  15.... 
Oct.  16.... 
Oct.  17.... 
Oct.  18.... 
Oct.  19.... 
Oct,  20.... 
Oct.  21.... 
Oct.  22.... 
Oct.  23.... 
Oct.  24.... 
Oct.  25.... 
Oct.  26"... 
Nov.  1 . . . . 
Nov.  2.... 
Nov.3.... 

Nov.  4 

Nov.  5 

Nov.  6 

Xov.7.... 
Nov.8.... 


701.3 
803.1 
860.7 
941.7 
37.2 
146.7 
292. 2 
452.0 
523. 0 

614. 2 
765.1 
884.7 
996.0 

82.3 
231. 5 
337.4 
534.7 
675.5 
801.3 
986.0 
127.8 
236.3 
333.0 
447.2 
598.1 

729. 3 
831.1 
901.2 

31.3 
117.1 
229. 0 

298. 4 
386.0 
438.  6 
591.1 
679.0 
797.3 
902. 0 

17.3 
109.3 
217.1 
321.1 
443.3 
194.  7 
612.  0 
769.4 

319. 5 
574.5 
693.7 
siiT.:; 

8.7 
92.  9 


453. 0 


719.5 
815. 7 
873.4 
953.1 

52.1 
160.5 
321.6 
472.1 
540.8 
632.4 
783.9 
899.0 

15.6 
100.2 
243.6 
361.2 
553.1 
693.3 
824.4 

20.1 
162.2 
251.2 
347.1 
472.3 
623.0 
747.8 
846.2 
923. 6 

57.6 
122. 5 
246. 4 

316. 2 
399.4 
463.1 
608.7 
699.3 
812.5 

912. 3 
38.2 

125. 2 
232. 0 
339. 2 
477.0 
516. 2 

650. 0 

805. 1 
326. 1 
593. 0 
716.5 
912.0 

25.8 
74.5 


763.3 
845.0 
911.6 

1,000.0 
102. 3 
223.2 
401.3 
501.3 
601.2 
681.1 
830.5 
948.9 
49.5 
161.1 
299.4 
433.1 
612.2 
759.1 
900.0 
97.3 
203. 7 
300.0 
406.4 
557.9 
693.2 
795.9 
880.0 

1,000.0 
111.1 
202.  6 
273. 1 
359. 6 
427.1 
556. 9 
648.6 
753.2 
860.  0 
995.1 
76.1 
198.6 
275.4 
381.2 
488.2 
578.3 
700.3 
867.4 
515.2 
631.9 
694.  0 
980.9 
125.6 
118.2 


Miles. 


Per       Per 
day.     hour. 


403.  0       480.  5       210.  6 


101.8 

57.6 

81.0 

95.5 

109.5 

145.5 

159.8 

71.0 

91.2 

150.  9 

119.6 

111.3 

86.3 

149.2 

105.9 

197.3 

140.8 

125.8 

184.7 

141.8 

108. 5 

96.7 

114.2 

150.9 

131.2 

101.8 

70.1 

130.1 

85.8 

111.9 

69.4 

87.6 

52.6 

152. 5 

87.9 

118.3 

104.7 

115.3 

92.0 

107.8 

104.0 

122.2 

51.4 

117.3 

157.4 


255. 0 
119.2 

113.6 

201.4 

84.2 


4.2 
2.4 
3.4 
4.0 
4.5 
6.1 
6.6 
3.0 
3.8 
6.3 
5.0 
4.6 
3.6 
6.2 
4.4 
8.2 
5.9 
5.2 
7.7 
6.9 
4.6 
4.0 
4.3 
6.3 
5.4 
4.2 
2.9 
5.4 
3.6 
4.7 
2.9 
3.6 
2.2 
6.4 
3.6 
4.9 
4.4 
4.8 
3.8 
4.5 
4.3 
5.1 
2.1 
4.9 
6.6 


10.6 
5.0 
4.7 
8.4 
3.5 


Day. 


Nov.  9 . . 
Nov.  10 . 
Nov.  11. 
Nov.  12. 
Nov.  13 . 
Nov.  14 . 
Nov.  15 . 
Nov.  16 . 
Nov.  17. 
Nov.  18. 
Nov.  19. 
Nov.  20 . 
Nov.  21. 
Nov.  22 . 
Nov.  23. 
Nov.  24 . 
Nov.  25. 
Nov.  26 . 
Nov.  27 . 
Nov.  28 . 
Nov.  29 . 
Nov.  30. 
Dec.l  .. 
Dec.  2  .. 
Dec.  3  .. 
Dec.  4  .. 
Dec.  5  .. 
Dec.  6  .. 
Dec.  7  . . 
Dec.  8  .. 
Dec.  9  .. 
Dec.  10  . 
Dec.  11  . 
Dec.  12  . 
Dec.  13  . 
Dec.  14  . 
Dec.  15. 
Dec.  16  . 
Dec,  17  . 
Dec.  18  . 
Dec.  19  . 
Dec.  20  . 
Dec.  21  . 
Dec.  22  . 
Dec.  23  . 
Dec.  24  . 
Dec.  25  . 
Dec  26 
Dec.  27 
Dec.  28  . 
Dec.  29  . 
Dec.  3d 
Dec.  31  . 


Anemometer  readings. 


8  a.  m. 


663.6 
860.7 
97.1 
246.0 
424.2 
12.8 
84.3 
294.7 
358. 6 
437.9 
563.0 
702.5 
860.1 
938.9 
994.2 
191.0 
504. 2 
620. 9 
820. 4 
936.2 
992.0 
458.6 
610.5 


835.1 
963.4 
106.8 
261.0 
510.0 
798.  4 
894.0 
92.3 

209. 5 
294.7 
401.2 
16C.  I 
536. 1 
631.5 
761.8 
894.0 
997.1 
142.9 
296. 3 
480.2 

598. 6 
693. 0 
860.1 


694.0 
907.1 
145.3 
234.6 
608.5 
81.1 
94.7 
213.6 
411.0 
490.4 
592.8 
740.6 
878.0 
963.4 
14.8 
214.6 
524.0 
769.8 
846.2 
958.7 
210. 5 
521.4 
674.2 


92.8 
168.2 
22] .  I 
289.6 
338. 2 


866.4 
21.0 
150.1 

296.5 
646.3 
824.0 
976.5 
141.6 
261.2 
312.1 
419.5 
484.6 
581.2 
649.0 
794.0 
931.4 
12.  1 
186.1 
361.2 
511.2 
623. 9 
768. 2 


978. 0 
111.4 
179.0 
236. 0 
302.5 
356.4 


6  p.  m. 


747.8 
955.2 
136.6 
227.9 
870.0 
87.4 
135.7 
355. 2 
428.2 
499.0 
640.7 
794.3 
921.6 
986.0 
132.5 
384.0 
657.7 
798.3 
910.1 
971.6 
401.6 
539.0 
760.1 


902. 8 
49.2 
187.6 
330.0 
741.0 
866.2 
997.0 
188.9 
278.6 
329. 6 
439.2 
504.9 
001.4 
684.0 
822. 6 
962.0 
87.6 
241.0 
398. 0 
531.4 
641.7 
802.0 


Miles. 


Per 
da  v. 


Per 
hour. 


197.1 

236.4 

148.9 

178.2 

588. 6 

71.5 

210.4 

63.9 

79.3 

125. 1 

139.5 

157.6 

78.8 

55.3 

196.8 

313.2 

116.7 

199.5 

115.8 

55.8 

466.6 

151.9 


61.7 

137. 5 
194.7 
252.3 
319.8 

879. 6 


128.3 

143.4 

155. 2 

249. 0 

288.4 

95.6 

198.3 

117.2 

85.2 

106.5 

64.9 

70.0 

95.4 

130.3 

132.2 

103.1 

145.8 

15;',.  4 

1S3.9 
118.4 
91.  1 
167.1 


8.2 
9.9 
6.2 
7.4 

24.5 
3.0 
8.8 
2.7 
3.3 
5.3 
6.8 
6.6 
3.3 
2.3 
8.3 

13.0 
4.9 
8.3 
4.8 
2.3 

19.4 
6.3 


75.4 
53.2 
68.2 
48. 6 
74.2 


5.3 
6.0 
6.5 
10.4 
12.0 
4.0 
8.3 
4.9 
3.6 
4.4 
2.7 
2.9 
4.0 
6.4 
5.5 
4.3 
6.1 
6.4 
7.7 
1.9 
3.9 
7.0 


3.1 
2.2 
2.8 
2.0 
3.1 


•No  record  for  Oct. 27-31. 


REPORT    <>K    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Observations  of  wind  velocity  at  Ochoa  station. 

I  Representing  estimated  mean  velocity  of  wind,  in  miles  per  hour,  for  daytime  only. 


203 


1899. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1 

7 

16 
11 
7 
5 
5 
8 
3 
3 
3 
0 
3 
7 
3 
8 
5 
0 
0 
4 
3 
8 
8 
5 
7 
5 
7 
3 
5 
8 
8 
3 

3 

8 
5 
13 

8 
7 
7 
8 
8 
3 
3 
5 
13 
5 
3 
3 
5 
3 
8 
5 
11 
11 
5 
4 
7 
6 
8 
8 

5 

3 

3 

5 

5 

5 

13 

13 

13 

13 

11 

5 

8 

7 

3 

11 

13 

8 

8 

5 

3 

5 

5 

5 

8 

8 

5 

4 

5 

8 

5 

8 
13 

7 
7 
8 
6 
5 
1 
3 
5 
5 
3 
3 
5 
5 
7 
8 
5 
5 
8 
8 
8 
8 
13 
8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
5 

3 
5 
3 
3 
5 
3 
5 
8 

ir 
n 

5 

5 

13 

23 

5 

13 

3 

22 

0 

6 

3 

10 

13 

0 

0 

13 

22 

4 

3 

5 

3 

4 
3 
5 
5 
3 
8 
5 
3 
2 
0 
1 
1 
3 
3 
5 
5 
8 
0 
3 
3 
7 
8 
8 
3 
0 
0 
5 
5 
8 
5 

8 
5 
5 
8 
8 
3 
8 
3 
0 
0 
0 
3 
0 
0 
3 
5 
8 
3 
4 
7 
2 
3 
0 
13 

3 
3 

8 
7 
5 

7 
o 
7 
0 
3 
3 
4 
0 
0 
6 
5 
4 
4 
4 
0 
3 
5 
0 
7 
5 
3 
5 
4 
5 
8 
3 
1 
4 
3 
1 
0 

3 

4 
3 
3 
4 
4 
5 
5 
7 
5 
3 
3 
4 
4 
5 
0 
8 
3 
7 
1 
0 
0 
3 
0 
3 
5 
0 
0 
3 
3 

4 
3 
5 
4 
4 
3 
7 
5 
3 
5 
3 
5 
7 
4 
3 
5 
5 
8 
3 
3 
7 

13 
0 
3 

13 
7 
7 
4 
3 
0 
3 

3 
3 
0 
0 
3 
0 
3 
3 
5 
0 
3 
8 
0 
18 
13 
3 
0 
3 
4 
4 
5 
4 
3 
1 
0 
5 
0 
5 
0 
0 

3 
0 
3 
3 

""6" 

0 

5 

4 

3 

8 

7 

8 
11 

5 

0 

8 

8 

7 

9 
18 

0 

7 
38 

0 
18 

7 

4 

7 

2 

3 

4 

8 

9  . 

10 

11 

12  

13  . 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18  

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

1 

11 

7 
3 
0 
8 
7 
7 
18 
7 
4 
3 
11 
18 
4 
7 
3 
4 
7 

7 
0 
0 
4 
4 
4 
0 
7 
3 
3 
8 

8 
7 
5 
7 
5 
13 
3 
13 
5 
7 

18 

13 

is 

13 

3 

11 

11 

8 

0 

3 

8 

8 

5 

6 

8 

0 

8 

8 

0 
8 
18 
4 

18 

13 

13 

3 

0 

3 

5 

7 

0 

5 

3 

13 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

8 

3 

8 

7 

0 

5 

8 

8 

5 

13 

13 

5 

13 

13 

3 

8 

8 

0 

0 

5 

13 

13 

18 

16 

18 

11 

22 

5 

13 

8 

4 

0 

0 

0 

8 

5 

3 

8 

8 
7 
0 

13 
8 
0 
8 
0 
3 
7 
3 
5 
0 
8 
8 
8 
8 
5 

13 
7 
0 

15 
1 
4 
2 

0 
2 
0 
5 

8 
6 
8 
5 
0 
5 
4 
4 
3 
0 
8 
5 
0 
7 
4 
0 
0 
•0 
0 
0 
3 
1 
5 
5 
7 
8 
5 
8 
4 
9 

0 
4 
0 
4 
0 
8 
4 
8 
4 
4 
0 
4 
0 
3 
0 
3 
3 
0 
8 
7 
3 
0 
0 
4 
5 
3 
0 
0 
3 
0 
0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
3 
0 
3 
0 
0 
3 
0 
0 
3 
3 
5 
8 
5 
4 
3 
5 
7 
0 
6 
8 
7 
3 
8 
0 
7 
0 
3 

0 
1 
3 
4 
0 
3 
5 
3 
5 
4 
0 
5 
5 
3 
4 
7 
0 
0 
3 
7 
4 
7 
0 
7 
4 
8 
4 
7 

15 
0 

0 
0 
7 
7 
6 
8 

13 
7 
5 
0 
0 
5 
0 
2 
0 
3 
4 
3 
4 
6 
0 
0 
0 
2 
2 
7 
0 
0 

11 
8 

28 
0 
5 
0 
4 
6 
0 
0 
4 
5 

11 
3 
4 
7 
5 

11 
.  7 
8 
7 
7 
4 
5 
3 
0 
3 

i 

7 
4 

7 

3 
3 
3 
3 

4 
3 
3 

0 
3 
1 
0 
1 
5 
1 
3 
5 
8 
0 

11 
5 
7 
3 
5 
0 
7 
7 
5 

11 
5 
7 
5 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8  

9 

10 

11 

12        

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21  

22  

23 

24  

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Appendix  J. 
SURVEYS  OF  UPPER  SAN  JUAN  TO  HEADWATERS  OF  THE  INDIO. 


By  A.  B.  Nichols,  Division  Engineer. 


Concerning  the  surveys  made  to  determine  the  practicability  of  a 
route  for  the  Nicaragua  Canal  from  some  point  on  the  upper  portion 
of  the  Rio  San  Juan  to  the  Caribbean  Sea  b}*-  way  of  the  Rio  Indio  or 
its  tributaries,  I  have  the  honor  to  report: 

That,  for  the  purpose  above  mentioned,  examinations  were  made 
of  Rios  Bartola,  Machuca,  and  La  Cruz  del  Norte,  tributaries  of  the 
San  Juan,  and  of  the  Rio  Negro,  one  of  the  two  streams  which  unite 
to  form  the  Indio  proper,  and  of  a  portion  of  the  Rio  Salvador,  a 
branch  of  the  Negro. 

The  waters  flowing  into  Lake  Nicaragua  and  the  San  Juan  from  the 
northeast  are  separated  from  those  flowing  eastwardly  into  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  by  the  Chontales,  a  ridge  which  rises  from  the  swamps  back 
of  Grey  town,  runs  nearly  due  west  to  a  point  in  the  vicinity  of  Con- 
chuda  and  about  4  miles  directly  east  from  the  mouth  of  La  Cruz  del 
Norte,  and  thence  strikes  nearly  northwest,  rising  gradually  with  more 
or  less  uniformity. 

The  surveys  were  made  to  determine  whether  there  is  in  this  ridge 
a  place  low  enough,  and  where  the  headwaters  of  the  streams  on  each 
side  are  sufficiently  near  together,  to  afford  a  more  desirable  route  for 
the  canal  than  that  projected  by  way  of  the  lower  San  Juan. 

RIO   BARTOLA    SURVEY. 

This  survey  was  made  by  Mr.  M.  W.  Tenny ,  assistant  engineer.  The 
stream  rises  in  the  Chontales  and  flows  into  the  San  Juan  about  5  miles 
below  Castillo.  It  consists  of  two  main  branches  which  come  together 
7.3  miles  (by  the  stream)  from  the  San  Juan.  The  general  direction 
of  flow  of  the  North  Branch,  so  far  as  it  was  traced,  is  about  30  degrees 
west  of  south;  that  of  the  South  Branch  for  about  2  miles  close  to 
its  head,  nearly  southwest,  thence  nearly  west  to  its  junction  with  the 
North  Branch;  and  that  of  the  main  stream  below  the  junction  about 
18  degrees  south  of  west.  A  stadia  line,  carrying  elevations,  was  run 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river  15.4  miles  to  near  the  head  of  the  South 
Branch  to  an  elevation  of  478.6  above  mean  sea  level,  and  thence  leav- 
ing the  river,  a  few  hundred  feet  farther  and  part  way  up  the  ridge, 
to  an  elevation  of  +  636.8.  An  observation  taken  during  the  Machuca 
survey  indicates  that  the  main  ridge  rises  near  here  to  an  elevation  of 
+  1,500  or  over,  although  at  the  heads  of  the  streams  there  may  be 
places  somewhat  lower. 

205 


206  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

A  stadia  line  was  also  run  up  the  North  Branch  to  a  point  13  miles 
(by  the  line)  from  the  San  Juan  to  an  elevation,  on  the  stream,  of 
+224.8.  The  region  between  the  two  branches  is  occupied  by  a  high 
spur  of  the  Chontales,  which  attains  an  elevation  of  +1,500  or  more. 
It  was  deemed  unnecessary  to  carry  the  line  farther  up  this  branch, 
because  both  the  nature  of  the  country  and  the  distance  involved  would 
preclude  its  use  for  canal  purposes.  The  valley  of  the  Bartola  is  gen- 
erally narrow,  its  bottom  of  rock,  and  the  hills  abrupt.  The  height  of 
the  main  ridge  renders  a  canal  by  this  route  impracticable. 

MACHUCA-NEGRO    SURVEY. 

This  survey  was  made  by  the  writer. 

The  Machuca  (called  by  the  natives  Sarnoso)  rises  in  the  Chontales 
southeast  of  the  sources  of  the  Bartola,  and  flows  into  the  San  Juan 
near  the  foot  of  Machuca  Rapids.  Like  the  Bartola,  it  consists  of  two 
main  branches,  which  come  together  5.7  miles  (b}r  the  river)  from  the 
San  Juan.  The  North  Branch  comes  in  from  a  little  east  of  north. 
The  general  direction  from  the  head  of  the  East  Branch  to  the  mouth 
of  the  main  stream  is  about  19°  22'  south  of  west,  making,  however, 
in  the  lower  two-thirds  of  its  course  quite  a  detour  to  the  south  of  this 
line.  The  distance  from  the  mouth  to  the  summit  of  the  survey  (Ity 
the  line)  is  15.2  miles. 

The  Rio  Negro  heads  in  the  Chontales  eight-tenths  mile  nearly  south 
from  the  head  of  the  East  Branch  of  Machuca,  and  flows  a  little  east 
of  north  until  it  approaches  the  latter  within  400  feet,  at  the  place 
where  the  survey  line  crosses  the  ridge.  From  this  point  to  the  foot 
of  the  Great  Falls  of  Negro,  where  the  survey  ended,  a  distance  of 
13  miles  (by  the  line),  the  bearing  is  about  17°  36'  north  of  east,  the 
river,  however,  making  a  long  detour  to  the  north.  It  receives  three 
large  branches  between  its  source  and  Great  Falls.  Only  one  of  them 
is  of  interest  in  this  connection,  as  the  other  two  come  in  from  the 
left.  This  branch  enters  from  the  southwest  about  1.8  miles  (by  the 
line)  above  the  foot  of  Great  Falls.  It  is  60  to  70  feet  wide  at  its 
mouth,  and  appears  to  carry  about  one-half  as  much  water  as  the  Negro 
immediately  above  their  junction.  A  reconnaissance  was  made  of 
it  for  about  2  miles  from  its  mouth,  to  a  point  where  it  forks,  one 
branch  coming  in  from  the  southwest  and  the  other  from  the  south. 
Each  of  these  branches  is  nearly  as  wide  as  the  main  stream.  This 
river,  for  convenience  of  reference,  I  have  called  the  Salvador.  The 
branch  from  the  southwest  is  apparently  the  same  stream  whose 
headwaters  were  examined  by  Mr.  Tenny  during  the  La  Cruz  del 
Norte  survey,  and  will  be  noticed  under  that  head. 

The  survey  along  these  streams  was  made  by  stadia,  and  the  eleva- 
tions determined  partly  by  stadia  and  partly  by  Y  level. 

The  crest  line  south  of  the  Machuca  was  developed  to  a  point  above 
the  forks,  and  reconnoissanccs  made  between  that  point  and  the  main 
ridge  to  determine  the  approximate  course  and  relative  elevation  of 
the  crest. 

The  valley  of  the  Machuca  is  narrow  and  the  slopes  abrupt  in  most 
places.  The  bottom  of  the  stream  is  largely  of  rock,  which  causes 
numerous  rapids  and  occasional  falls.  The  ridge  to  the  south  dividing 
it  from  La  Cruzita  del  Norte  and  La  Cruz  del  Norte  is  generally  very 
narrow  at  its  crest,  especially  in  the  Saddles,  where  it  is  not  unusual 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  207 

to  find  the  top  not  more  than  15  or  20  feet  wide,  the  ground  dropping 
sharply,  and  with  practically  the  same  slope  on  each  side.  The  eleva- 
tions in  the  Saddles  for  5  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  range  from 
+235  to  +345  above  mean  sea  level,  and  then  the  ridge  rises  with 
more  or  less  uniformity  until  it  reaches  +723,  where  it  joins  the  main 
ridge  at  the  point  where  the  waters  of  the  Machuca,  Negro,  and  La , 
Cruz  del  Norte  have  their  common  source.  At  the  summit  the  line 
passes  from  the  Machuca  to  the  Negro  through  a  gap  in  the  ridge  not 
over  100  feet  wide,  the  ground  rising  rapidly  on  each  side  on  a  slope 
of  perhaps  15  to  20  degrees.  The  distance  from  water  to  water  in  the 
two  streams  is  about  -100  feet,  the  relative  elevations  being  as  follows: 

Surface  of  water  in  Machuca +  539. 1 

Surface  of  ground  at  summit +  544.2 

Surface  of  water  in  Negro +520.8 

The  valle}r  of  the  Negro  is  narrow,  the  slopes  of  the  hills  are  steep. 
Falls  and  rapids  are  numerous  and  the  country  more  rugged  than  along 
the  Machuca.  From  a  point  a  short  distance  below  the  mouth  of  the 
Salvador  to  below  the  foot  of  Great  Falls  the  river  runs  through  a 
gorge,  over  rock  bottom,  forming  a  favorable  place  for  damming  the 
stream.  The  line  having  been  run  as  much  as  possible  along  the 
streams,  the  survey  shows  nearly  the  minimum  possible  profile.  A 
profile  along  a  projected  canal  line  would  necessarily  be  much  heavier, 
both  streams  being  tortuous,  with  narrow  valle}rs. 

With  the  bottom  at  +69,  a  canal  by  this  route  would  have  a  cut- 
ting about  24£  miles  long,  with  a  depth  at  the  summit  of  475  feet. 

LA  CRUZ  DEL  NORTE  SURVEY. 

This  survey  was  made  by  Mr.  M.  W.  Tenny,  assistant  engineer.  A 
reconnoissance  was  first  made,  by  means  of  pocket  compass  and  ane- 
roid barometer,  of  the  main  stream  and  all  the  larger  branches,  espe- 
cially those  putting  into  it  from  the  east,  with  the  result  that  the  first 
one  above  the  mouth  was  found  to  have  the  lowest  summit  and  the 
desired  general  direction. 

A  stadia  line,  carrying  elevations,  was  run  up  this  branch,  begin- 
ning at  the  mouth  of  the  main  stream  at  the  San  Juan,  to  a  point 
eight-tenths  mile  beyond  the  summit,  and  6.4  miles  (by  the  line)  from 
the  San  Juan.  Beyond  this  point  a  reconnoissance  was  made  with 
pocket  compass  for  nearly  2£  miles. 

The  La  Cruz  del  Norte  flows  into  the  San  Juan  about  7  miles  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Machuca.  It  occupies  a  somewhat  oval-shaped  vallley, 
the  major  axis  of  which  is  a  line  from  the  head  of  Rio  Negro  (as  deter- 
mined by  the  Machuca-Negro  survey)  to  the  point  where  the  stream 
flows  into  the  San  Juan,  about  5.4  miles  in  length.  The  declivities 
are  therefore  necessarily  steep,  as  the  water  has  to  descend  nearly  700 
feet  in  this  distance. 

The  surve}7  shows  that  the  valley  of  the  East  Branch  is  comparatively 
straight  and  the  rise  to  the  top  of  the  ridge  rapid.  Beyond  the  sum- 
mit, where  the  line  strikes  the  headwaters  of  the  Salvador,  the  fall  is 
very  gradual  for  about  1^  miles,  where  the  stream  plunges  over  a 
30-foot  fall,  and  from  this  point  to  the  end  of  the  reconnoissance 
drops  over  a  succession  of  falls  and  rapids,  a  portion  of  the  way 
through  a  narrow  gorge  so  rough  as  to  be  difficult  of  passage.     Coi- 


208  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

lating  the  information  obtained  by  this  and  the  Machuca-Negro  survey, 
we  have: 

Surface  of  water  in  San  Juan  at  month  of  La  Cruz  del  Norte +    56 

Elevation  of  summit,  5.6  miles  from  mouth  of  La  Cruz -j-  468.  7 

Elevation  at  top  of  30-foot  falls  of  Salvador,  6.9  miles  from  mouth  of  the 

La  Cruz,  about +394 

Surface  of  water  in  Rio  Negro  at  mouth  of  Salvador,  about  14.3  miles  from 

mouth  of  La  Cruz +    68 

Surface  of  water  in  Negro  at  foot  of  "Great  Falls,"  15.8  miles  from  mouth 

of  La  Cruz +    41 

With  bottom  at  +69,  a  canal  by  this  route  would  involve  a  cutting 
about  15^  miles  long,  with  a  depth  at  the  summit  of  400  feet,  but  with 
a  heavier  profile  than  is  shown  by  the  survey,  the  latter  having  fol- 
lowed the  stream  very  closely,  whereas  a  projected  canal  line  would, 
on  account  of  the  crookedness  of  the  streams,  cut  into  the  hills  more 
or  less. 

Bearing  upon  a  supply  of  stone  for  use  in  the  construction  of  a  canal, 
these  surveys  show  that  along  the  streams  falls  occur  at  elevations  at 
or  near  +200,  +300,  and  +400  with  great  uniformit3T,  indicating  .that 
at  these  elevations  there  is  rock  capable  of  withstanding  the  elements. 
In  the  valley  of  La  Cruz  del  Norte  these  formations  may  prove  to  be 
useful,  no  part  of  the  valley  being  more  than  5^  miles  in  a  straight 
line  from  the  projected  service  railroad,  and,  owing  to  the  abruptness 
with  which  the  hills  rise,  available  outcrops  are  likel}^  to  be  found. 

Profiles  of  the  Machuca-Negro  and  the  La  Cruz  del  Norte  lines  are 
submitted  herewith,  marked  plates  61  and  62. 


Appendix  U. 

TRANSLATION  OF  THE  CONTRACT  ENTERED  INTO  BETWEEN  THE 
GOVERNMENT  OF  NICARAGUA  AND  THE  ATLAS  STEAMSHIP 
COMPANY,  LIMITED,  DATED  AT  THE  CITY  OF  MANAGUA,  ON 
THE  30th  DAY  OF  SEPTEMBER,  1897. 


The  National  Legislative  Assembly  decrees: 

Only  article.  The  contract  entered  into  between  the  minister  of 
public  instruction,  provisionally  in  charge  of  the  portfolio  of  public 
works,  on  behalf  of  the  Government,  and  Louis  Wichman,  represent- 
ative of  the  Atlas  Steamship  Company,  Limited,  is,  with  the  modifi- 
cations subsequently  agreed  upon  by  both  parties  and  the  modifications 
introduced  by  the  House,  approved  in  the  following  terms: 

Manuel  Coronel  Matus,  minister  Of  public  instruction,  provisionally 
in  charge  of  the  portfolio  of  public  works,  representing  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  State,  and  Louis  Wichman,  representing  the  Atlas  Steam- 
ship Company,  Limited,  in  accordance  with  the  power  of  attorney 
exhibited,  have  agreed  on  the  following  contracts,  with  the  object  of 
expediting  steam  navigation  on  Lake  Nicaragua  and  the  river  San  Juan 
del  Norte,  which  each  da}r  offers  greater  difficulties;  of  facilitating 
communication  with  the  Atlantic  coast,  on  which  great  interests  depend, 
and  in  the  hope  of  commercial  and  agricultural  development  that  shall 
improve  the  condition  of  the  country. 

I.  In  consideration  of  the  great  expenses  that  the  Atlas  Steamship 
Compan}r,  Limited,  hereinafter  called  "the  company,"  shall  incur  for 
the  aforesaid  object,  the  Government  grants  it  the  exclusive  right 
during  thirty  years  to  navigate  by  steam  the  Silico  Lagoon,  counting 
from  the  final  ratification  of  this  agreement,  and  the  exclusive  right 
during  the  same  period  to  construct  tramways  and  railways  at  con- 
venient places  along  the  line  of  the  river  San  Juan  to  avoid  obstacles 
therein. 

II.  The  company  binds  itself  to  construct  on  its  own  account  a 
narrow-gauge  railway  that  shall  put  the  place  known  as  Colorado 
Junction,  or  another  suitable  point,  in  communication  with  the  Silico 
Lagoon,  so  as  to  avoid  the  navigation  of  the  diy  and  most  difficult 
part  of  the  river  San  Juan  and  effect  more  rapid  transit  to  the  port  of 
San  Juan  del  Norte  during  the  summer.  The  length  of  this  line  shall 
be  5  miles,  more  or  less,  and  at  its  terminals  the  company  shall  erect 
houses  and  piers  that  shall  combine  the  requisites  for  passenger  traffic, 
the  transportation  of  merchandise,  and  for  other  services. 

III.  The  Government  shall  subsidize  the  company  to  the  extent  of 
$5,000  for  each  mile  of  the  said  railway,  payable  in  successive  monthly 
installments  of  $1,000  from  the  time  the  governor  of  San  Juan  del 
Norte  advises  that  the  construction  works  of  the  railway  have  com- 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 U  209 


210  EEPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

inenced,  and  providing-  the  works  are  not  interrupted.  In  case  the 
works  are  interrupted,  payments  shall  be  suspended  until  the  works 
are  reeontinued. 

IV.  The  Government  declares  this  work  to  be  of  public  utility,  so 
that  the  company  may  expropriate  lands  of  private  property  required 
for  right  of  way  in  accordance  with  the  laws  in  the  matter.  The  com- 
pany shall  have  for  the  same  purpose  the  right  to  occupy,  free  of 
all  charge,  such  national  lands  as  the  line  may  cross,  together  with  a 
strip  of  land  luO  yards  wide  along  the  entire  length  of  the  line. 

V.  The  Government  also  grants  the  company  the  right  to  cut  in  the 
national  forests  adjacent  to  Lake  Nicaragua  and  the  river  San  Juan, 
free  of  all  charge,  all  the  wood  it  may  require  for  the  use  of  the  steam- 
ers, tramways,  railways,  piers,  houses,  and  workshops,  and  for  other 
purposes  of  the  traffic. 

VI.  The  Government  concedes  the  right  of  occupying,  in  the  ports 
and  places  of  transit,  such  lots  of  national  land  as  may  be  necessary 
for  the  establishment  of  stores,  tramways,  offices,  workshops,  stations, 
etc.  It  is  understood  that  such  lots  shall  be  selected  b}T  agreement 
with  the  Government,  and  that  in  case  any  of  them  should  be  private 
property,  the  Government  shall  authorize  their  expropriation,  in  ac- 
cordance with  which  the  company  shall  pay  the  just  price  as  fixed  by 
experts,  unless  the  price  shall  have  been  agreed  upon  between  the  own- 
ers and  the  company. 

VII.  The  company's  employees  and  laborers  shall  be  exempt  from 
civil  and  military  service,  and  to  this  effect  the  respective  authorities 
shall  issue  such  exemptions  as  may  be  necessary  to  insure  the  good 
service  of  the  company. 

VIII.  The  steamers,  railways,  tramways,  stations,  service  houses, 
and  other  indispensable  things  for  the  purposes  of  the  company  shall, 
during  the  term  of  this  contract,  be  exempt  from  national  and  municipal 
contributions. 

IX.  The  company  shall  import,  free  of  local  and  customs  dues,  the 
machinery,  tools,  materials,  coal,  provisions,  and  other  articles  neces- 
sary for  its  service,  excepting  strong  liquors,  but  with  strict  observance 
of  fiscal  regulations  and  the  requirements  of  the  ministry  of  finance  for 
due  control  and  statistical  purpose. 

X.  The  company  in  the  service  of-  its  enterprise  shall  have,  subject 
to  the  laws  of  Nicaragua,  the  free  use  of  the  national  telegraph  lines, 
but  this  concession  shall  not  prevent  the  Government  from  selling  the 
said  lines  unconditionally. 

XI.  When  the  railway  from  the  Silico  Lagoon  shall  be  finished, 
should  the  Government  consider  it  convenient  to  its  interests  and  those 
of  the  company,  it  shall  remove  the  custom-house  from  Castillo  to  a 
point  that  will  hinder  as  little  as  possible  the  rapid  transportation  of 
merchandise. 

XII.  The  company  is  obliged  to  make  at  least  three  trips  a  month 
with  its  steamers  from  Granada  to  San  Juan  del  Norte,  and  vice  versa, 
and  to  call  at  least  once  a  month  at  all  the  established  ports  of  the  lake 
which  the  steamer  Victoria^  or  another  of  her  size,  can  reach.  The 
company  shall  carry  the  mails  of  the  State  on  all  trips  free  of  charge. 
The  aforesaid  trips  shall  be  subject  to  an  itinerary  of  which  the  Gov- 
ernment and  public  shall  be  notified  and  which  can  not  be  altered  with- 
out three  months  previous  notification  to  them.  For  each  unjustified 
infraction  of  the  itinerary  the  company  shall  pay  a  fine  of  from  $25 
to  $100,  which  shall  be  collected  by  the  Government. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  211 

XIII.  Passengers  and  freight  tariffs  shall  be  in  the  money  of  the 
country  and  as  moderate  as  the  company  can  make  them.  The  Gov- 
ernment shall  enjoy  a  rebate  of  30  per  cent  on  the  transportation  of 
its  employees,  other  persons  who  travel  for  its  account,  its  troops,  and 
cargo. 

XIV.  In  case  of  war,  the  company's  steamers  shall  be  placed  at  the 
order  of  the  Government,  which  shall  take  them  for  its  own  account,' 
acknowledging,  upon  returning  them,  the  losses  and  damages  their  use 
may  have  occasioned.  These  losses  and  damages  shall  be  appraised 
by  an  engineer,  chosen  by  mutual  agreement,  or  by  two  experts,  one 
for  each  part}7,  providing  the  parties  hereto  can  not  agree  on  the 
nomination  of  the  former.  Should  the  experts  fail  to  agree  on  the 
estimate  of  losses  and  damages,  the  decision  of  an  umpire  appointed 
by  the  experts  prior  to  their  disagreement  shall  be  final,  and  his 
decision  can  not  be  appealed  from. 

XV.  The  compan}T  binds  itself  to  undertake  as  soon  as  possible  such 
works  along  the  river  San  Juan  as  may  be  necessary  to  facilitate  the 
uninterrupted  transportation  of  passengers  and  merchandise  during 
the  whole  year  by  means  of  vessels  and  railways  between  San  Juan 
del  Norte  and  Lake  Nicaragua. 

Should  the  company,  after  careful  study  of  the  obstacles  to  naviga- 
tion, wish  to  undertake  works  of  greater  magnitude,  so  as  to  secure  a 
depth  of  water  of  6  feet  in  the  river  San  Juan  at  all  seasons,  and  to 
deepen  the  bar  of  the  port  so  that  vessels  of  large  tonnage  can  cross 
it,  the  Government  shall  give  the  company  permission  so  to  do. 

XVI.  This  contract  may  be  transferred  to  any  foreign  person  or 
compan}',  but  in  no  case,  neither  in  whole  nor  in  part,  neither  directly 
nor  indirectly,  to'  any  government.  Should  the  contract  be  trans- 
ferred to  a  company  whose  domicile  is  abroad,  it  shall  constitute  a 
representative  in  Nicaragua  fully  authorized  and  instructed  for  all 
affairs,  judicial  or  otherwise.  The  said  company  shall  be  subject  to  the 
laws  of  Nicaragua. 

XVII.  For  the  purposes  of  the  preceding  article  the  company  shall 
have  an  agent  in  Nicaragua. 

Any  difference  that  may  occur  in  regard  to  the  meaning  and  appli- 
cation of  this  contract  shall  be  decided  by  one  arbitrator  chosen  by 
mutual  consent,  or  by  two  arbitrators,  one  for  each  party.  In  this 
case,  should  the  arbitrators  not  agree  as  to  the  amount  of  losses  and 
damage,  the  matter  shall  be  decided  by  an  umpire  appointed  before 
proceeding  to  the  arbitration,  and  his  decision  shall  be  final.  The 
tribunal  of  arbitrators  shall  be  established  at  the  latest  within  fifteen 
days  from  the  time  one  party  has  notified  the  other  of  any  difference 
that  may  occur,  and  it  shall  give  its  decision  within  six  months,  at  the 
latest.     Such  decision  can  not  be  appealed. 

XVIII.  Should  the  railway  from  the  Silico  Lagoon  to  the  river  San 
Juan  be  not  finished  within  three  years  from  this  date,  this  concession 
shall  for  that  reason  be  forfeited. 

The  works  of  construction  of  the  said  railway  shall  commence  at  the 
latest  within  one  year  from  the  date  upon  which  this  agreement  is 
signed,  and  should  the  company  not  do  so  it  shall  lose  the  deposit  of 
$5,000  gold  which  it  binds  itself  to  make  in  the  general  treasury  of  the 
State  within  six  months  under  penalty  of  the  forfeiture  of  this  con- 
tract. 

The  said  deposit  shall  be  returned  to  the  company  when  the  works 
of  the  railway  referred  to  are  finished. 


212  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

XIX.  This  concession  shall  never  be  an  obstacle  to  the  carrying  out 
of  any  contracts  the  Government  may  decide  to  make  in  regard  to  the 
opening  of  an  interoceanic  canal  over  the  same  route,  nor  shall  it  affect 
in  the  least  those  it  may  have  alread}^  made. 

XX.  It  is  understood  that  during  the  term  of  this  agreement  the 
Government  can  not  subsidize  any  other  company  of  steamers  on  Lake 
Nicaragua. 

XXI.  In  case  of  expropriation  owing  to  the  opening  of  the  inter- 
oceanic canal,  and  considering  the  expenses  the  company  may  have 
incurred,  it  shall  be  indemnified  by  whom  it  may  concern  for  the  value 
of  the  materials  of  the  enterprise,  according  to  such  title  as  the  com- 
pany may  be  able  to  show,  it  being  understood  that  the  Government 
of  Nicaragua  shall  not  pay  in  any  case  any  indemnity  whatever. 

XXII.  To  determine  the  indemnity  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
article  the  procedure  stipulated  in  Article  XIV  shall  be  followed  in 
its  entirety. 

XXIII.  Should  either  party  not  appoint  its  arbitrator  within  fifteen 
days  after  having  been  notified  of  any  difference  arising,  or  should  the 
party  appointed  not  accept,  or  should  he  be  absent,  the  president  of 
the  supreme  court  of  justice  shall,  within  three  days,  and  upon  the 
petition  of  the  other  party,  appoint  an  arbitrator. 

XXIV.  In  no  case  and  for  no  reason  shall  the  company  or  whoever 
may  represent  it  have  the  right  of  appealing  to  diplomatic  intervention. 

In  proof  of  which  arc  signed  two  of  same  tenor  at  Managua  on  the 
5th  day  of  June,  1897. 

M.  C.  Matus, 
Louis  Wichman, 
JFbr  the  Atlas  Steamship  Company,  Limited. 

Given  in  the  hall  of  sessions,  Managua,  September  28,  1897. 

M.  Morales,  D.  P. 

Santiago  Lopez. 

Leandro  Garcia. 
Approved. 

National  palace,  Managua,  September  30,  1897. 

J.  S.  Zelaya. 
J.  C.  Munoz, 

Acting  Minister  of  Public  Wo?'ks. 

This  conforms  to  the  contract  published  in  the  official  daily. 
Department  of  public  works,  Managua,  October  31,  1898. 

Munoz. 

The  undersigned,  minister  of  interior  relations  of  the  State  of  Nic- 
aragua, certifies  that  the  signature  of  the  minister  of  public  works 
by  the  law  which  precedes  this,  reading  ""Munoz,"  is  authentic. 

Managua,  November  2,  1898. 

Erasmo  Calderon. 

I,  the  undersigned,  consul  of  the  United  States,  do  hereby  certify 
that  the  above  signature  of  Erasmo  Calderon  is  true  and  genuine. 
Managua,  November  2,  1898. 

Chester  Donaldson, 

United  States  Consul. 


Appendix  C  C  1. 

TREATY  OF  AMITY,  COMMERCE,  AND  NAVIGATION  BETWEEN 
FRANCE  AND  NEW  GRANADA.  SIGNED  AT  BOGOTA,  MAY  15, 
1856.     RATIFICATIONS  EXCHANGED  AT  BOGOTA,  JULY  24,  1857. 


Numerous  commercial  relations  having  for  a  long  time  been  estab- 
lished between  the  French  Empire  and  the  Republic  of  New  Granada, 
it  was  deemed  expedient  to  regulate  their  existence  and  to  promote 
their  extension  by  means  of  a  treaty  of  amity,  commerce,  and  navigation. 

For  that  purpose,  full  powers  have  been  conferred,  to  wTit: 

By  His  Majesty,  the  Emperor  of  the  French,  upon  Baron  Celean 
Goury  du  Roslan,  commander  of  the  Imperial  Order  of  the  Legion 
of  i  Honor,  Grand  Cross  of  the  Pontifical  Order  of  St.  Gregory  the 
Great,  etc. 

By  the  Vice-President  of  New  Granada,  in  charge  of  the  executive 
power,  upon  Mr.  Lino  de  Pombo,  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  rela- 
tions. 

Who,  after  exchanging  the  said  full  powers,  and  finding  them  in 
good  form,  have  agreed  upon  the  following  articles: 

Article  I.  There  shall  be  constant  peace  and  sincere  and  perpetual 
friendship  between  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  the  French,  his  heirs 
and  successors,  of  the  one  part,  and  the  Republic  of  New  Granada,  of 
the  other  part,  and  between  the  subjects  and  citizens  of  either  State, 
without  distinction  of  persons  or  places. 

II.  Frenchmen  in  New  Granada  and  Granadians  in  France  shall  recip- 
rocally enjoy  the  same  liberty  and  security  as  the  nationals  in  entering 
with  their  ships  and  cargoes,  all  places,  harbors,  and  rivers  that  are  or 
may  hereafter  be  opened  to  foreign  commerce.  They  shall,  whether 
touching  at  several  ports  in  succession  or  engaging  in  the  coasting 
trade,  be  respectively  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  subjects  or 
citizens  of  the  most  favored  nation. 

HI.  The  subjects  and  citizens  of  either  of  the  two  contracting 
parties,  shall  be  permitted,  on  the  respective  territories,  freely  to 
travel,  sojourn,  engage  in  trade,  wholesale  or  retail,  hire  and  occupy 
such  dwellings,  warehouses,  and  shops  as  they  may  need,  effect  ship- 
ments of  merchandise  and  money,  and  receive  consignments  from  the 
interior  or  from  abroad  and  in  all  or  any  of  these  operations  the  said 
subjects  or  citizens  shall  not  be  subjected  to  any  obligations  other  than 
those  borne  by  the  nationals. 

In  all  their  purchases  and  sales  they  shall  be  free  to  determine  and 
establish  the  price  of  the  effects,  merchandise,  or  other  articles,whether 
imported  or  domestic,  whether  sold  in  the  interior  or  intended  for 
export,  provided  they  shall  expressly  comply  with  the  laws  and  regu- 
lations of  the  country. 

They  shall  enjoy  like  liberty  for  attending  in  person  to  their  busi- 

213 


214  REPORT   OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

ness,  making  their  own  entries  in  the  custom-house,  or  having  them- 
selves represented  by  whomever  they  may  see  tit,  attorneys,  in  fact, 
factors,  agents,  consignees,  or  interpreters,  either  for  the  sale  or  pur- 
chase of  their  property,  effects,  or  merchandise,  or  for  the  lading, 
unlading,  and  clearing  of  their  vessels.  They  shall  likewise  have  the 
right  to  discharge  all  the  duties  with  which  they  may  be  intrusted  by 
their  fellow-countrymen,  by  aliens,  or  by  nationals  in  the  capacity  of 
attorneys  in  fact,  factors,  agents,  consignees,  or  interpreters;  and  in 
no  event  shall  they  be  subjected  to  charges,  taxes,  or  imposts  other 
than  those  to  which  are  subjected  the  nationals  or  the  citizens  or  sub- 
jects of  the  most  favored  nation. 

IV.  The  subjects  and  citizens  of  either  contracting  party  shall  enjoy, 
in  both  States,  the  most  complete  and  constant  protection  for  their 
persons  and  property.  They  shall,  in  consequence,  have  free  and  easy 
access  to  the  tribunals  of  justice  for  the  prosecution  and  defense  of 
their  rights  in  every  stage  of  proceedings  and  at  every  degree  of  juris- 
diction established  by  law.  They  shall  be  free  to  employ,  under  all 
circumstances,  such  lawyers,  attorne}Ts,  or  agents  of  all  classes  as  they 
may  deem  expedient  to  cause  to  act  in  their  names.  In  line,  they  shall, 
in  this  respect,  enjoy  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as  may  be  accorded 
to  the  nationals  and  shall  be  subject  to  the  same  conditions  as  are 
imposed  on  these  latter. 

V.  Frenchmen  in  New  Granada,  and  Granadians  in  France,  shall 
be  exempted  from  all  personal  services,  in  the  land  or  sea  forces,  either 
in  the  national  guard  or  militia,  as  well  as  from  all  war  taxes,  forced 
loans,  military  requisitions  or  services,  of  whatever  nature.  In  all 
other  cases  they  shall  not  be  subjected,  on  account  of  their  property, 
real  or  personal,  to  charges,  demands,  and  imposts  other  than  those  to 
which  the  nationals  themselves  or  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  the  most 
favored  nation,  without  exception,  may  be  subjected;  it  is  well  under- 
stood that  whoever  may  claim  the  application  of  the  latter  part  of  this 
article  will  be  at  liberty  to  select  that  of  the  two  treatments  which  will 
seem  to  him  more  advantageous. 

VI.  The  subjects  and  citizens  of  either  State  shall  not,  respectively, 
be  subjected  to  any  embargo,  nor  be  detained  with  their  vessels,  car- 
goes, and  effects  for  any  military  expedition  whatsoever  nor  for  any 
public  use  of  any  kind,  without  an  indemnity  previously  agreed  to  and 
determined  by  the  parties  interested  and  adequate  to  the  use  to  be 
made  and  to  the  injuries,  losses,  dela}rs,  and  damages  occasioned  by  or 
likely  to  result  from  the  use  to  which  they  may  have  been  put. 

VII.  Frenchmen  in  N.ew  Granada,  and  Granadians  in  France,  shall 
enjoy  the  most  complete  and  unlimited  freedom  of  conscience;  they 
shall  be  permitted  to  practice  their  religion,  publicly  or  privately,  in 
temples  or  chapels,  where  religious  functions  are  celebrated,  or  within 
their  dwellings,  in  accordance  with  the  system  of  toleration  prevailing 
in  both  countries;  they  shall  also  be  at  liberty  to  bury  their  dead  in 
the  cemeteries  of  their  religious  communities,  or  in  such  others  as  they 
may  designate  and  establish  with  the  assent  of  the  local  authorities. 
The  graves  shall  not  be  disturbed,  nor  the  the  ceremonies  of  interment 
and  disinterment  interrupted,  in  any  way  nor  or  any  pretense. 

VIII.  The  subjects  and  citizens  of  either  contracting  party  shall 
have  the  right  to  own  real  estate  within  their  respective  territories 
and  to  dispose  of  said  real  estate  and  of  all  other  property  held  by 
them  by  means  of  sale,  donation,  barter,  testament,  or  an}-  other  method 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  215 

that  may  best  suit  them.  In  like  manner,  the  subjects  and  citizens  of 
either  State  who  should  fall  heirs,  under  a  will  or  ab  intestate,  to  prop- 
erty situate  in  their  respective  territories  shall  succeed  to  the  said 
property  without  hindrance,  and  dispose  of  the  same  at  will,  without 
paying  inheritance  taxes  other  than  or  different  from  those  that  should 
be  paid  by  the  nationals  of  the  country  in  which  the  property  may  be.. 

IX.  If,  which  God  forbid,  the  peace  between  the  twro  countries 
should,  under  circumstances  that  can  not  be  foreseen,  happen  to  be 
broken,  there  shall  be  granted  on  either  side  a  term  of  not  less  than 
six  months  to  traders  on  the  coast  and  of  one  year  to  those  in  the 
interior  of  the  country  in  which  to  wind  up  their  affairs,  dispose  of 
their  property  and  move  it  wherever  they  shall  see  fit;  in  addition, 
the}T  shall  be  given  a  safe-conduct  with  which  to  embark  at  such  port 
as  they  will  designate  of  their  own  accord,  unless  such  port  be  occu- 
pied or  beleagured  by  the  enemy,  and  their  own  safety  or  that  of  the 
State  should  stand  in  the  way  of  their  departing  from  that  port,  in 
which  event  they  shall  make  their  departure  in  such  manner  and  by 
such  route  as  may  be  practicable.  All  the  other  subjects  or  citizens 
having  a  fixed  and  permanent  establishment  in  the  respective  States 
for  the  practice  of  some  profession  or  industry  of  any  kind,  shall  be 
permitted  to  hold  said  establishment  and  continue  in  the  practice  of 
their  profession  or  industry  without  being  in  anyway  molested,  and 
they  shall  be  left  in  full  and  complete  possession  of  their  liberty  and 
property,  so  long  as  they  shall  commit  no  offense  under  the  laws  of  the 
country. 

X.  In  no  case  of  war  or  conflict  between  the  two  nations  shall  the 
property  or  estates,  of  whatever  nature,  belonging  to  their  respective 
subjects  or  citizens  be  subjected  to  any  seizure,  sequestration,  or 
charges  and  imposts  other  than  are  demanded  of  the  nationals.  Fur- 
thermore, under  the  circumstances  herein  supposed,  moneys  due  b}^ 
private  persons,  as  well  as  public  funds,  or  bank  or  corporation  stock, 
shall  never  be  seized,  sequestered,  or  confiscated  to  the  detriment  of 
the  respective  subjects  and  citizens. 

XI.  In  no  event  shall  the  impost  duties  imposed  in  France  on  prod- 
ucts of  any  kind  whatever,  of  the  growth  or  manufacture  of  New 
Granada,  be  other  or  higher  than  those  to  which  are  or  will  be  sub- 
jected like  products  of  the  most  favored  nations.  The  same  principle 
shall  be  observed  in  regard  to  exports.  No  prohibition  of  or  restric- 
tion on  the  importation  or  exportation  of  anj7  article  whatsoever  shall 
take  place  in  the  reciprocal  trade  of  the  two  countries,  unless  it  be 
equally  applied  to  all  other  nations,  and  such  formalities  as  may  be 
required  to  prove  that  the  merchandise  respective^  imported  in  either 
State  was  produced  in  or  came  from  the  other,  shall  also  be  common 
to  all  other  nations.  In  brief,  French  commerce  in  New  Granada  and 
Granadian  commerce  in  France  shall  be  treated  in  all  cases  and  in 
every  respect  like  that  of  the  most  favored  nation. 

XII.  All  the  products  of  the  growth  or  manufacture  of  either  coun- 
try, the  exportation  of  which  is  not  expressly  prohibited,  shall  pay  in 
the  port  of  the  other  the  same  import  duties  whether  laden  in  French 
or  Granadian  vessels.  In  like  manner,  exported  products  shall  pay 
the  same  duties  and  enjoy  the  same  exemptions,  allowances,  and  draw- 
backs as  are  now  or  may  hereafter  be  reserved  for  exports  shipped  in 
national  vessels. 

XIII.  French  vessels  entering  ports  in  New  Granada  or  clearing 


216  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

therefrom,  and  Granadian  vessels  entering  or  clearing  from  ports  in 
France,  shall  not  be  subjected  to  tonnage,  light-house,  harbor,  pilotage, 
quarantine,  or  other  dues,  dues  charged  to  the  vessel  itself,  different 
from  or  higher  than  those  to  which  national  vessels  are  or  may  be 
subjected. 

XIV.  French  vessels  in  New  Granada  and  Granadian  vessels  in 
France  .shall  have  power  to  discharge  part  of  their  cargoes  in  the  port 
of  their  iirst  arrival,  and  thence  proceed  with  the  remainder  of  their 
cargoes  to  other  ports  in  the  same  State,  either  to  finish  discharging 
their  cargoes  or  to  complete  their  outward  cargo  at  such  ports,  and 
shall  not  pay  in  each  port  dues  other  or  higher  than  those  paid  by 
national  vessels  under  similar  circumstances. 

XV.  When  vessels  owned  by  subjects  or  citizens  of  either  of  the 
two  contracting  parties  shall  be  wrecked  or  stranded  on  the  coasts 
of  the  other,  or  when,  in  consequence  of  stress  of  weather  or  positive 
damage,  the}7  shall  enter  the  ports  or  anchor  on  the  coasts  of  the 
other,  they  shall  not  be  subjected  to  any  navigation  dues,  under  what- 
ever denomination  such  dues  may  be  established,  except  pilotage  and 
other  dues  representing  compensation  for  services  rendered  b}7  private 
concerns,  provided  that  such  vessels  shall  not  discharge  goods  intended 
for  consumption  nor  take  a  cargo  for  export.  They  shall,  however, 
be  permitted  to  land  in  storage  and  to  warehouse  a  part  or  the  whole 
of  their  cargoes,  to  prevent  the  perishing  of  merchandise,  and  no 
other  dues  shall  be  demanded  of  them  than  such  as  ma}7  pertain  to  the 
hire  of  warehouses  and  public  }Tards  that  they  may  need  for  the  stor- 
ing of  the  goods  or  the  repairing  of  the  damage  to  the  vessels. 

XVI.  All  vessels  shall  be  considered  as  French  in  New  Granada  and 
as  Granadian  in  France  that  shall  navigate  under  the  respective  flags 
and  carry  the  license  and  other  documents  required  by  the  legislation 
of  the  two  States  as  evidence  of  the  nationality  of  merchant  vessels. 

XVII.  The  vessels,  merchandise,  and  effects  belonging  to  the  respec- 
tive subjects  and  citizens  that  may  have  been  captured  by  pirates 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  either  contracting  party  or  on  the  high  seas 
and  brought  into  or  found  in  the  harbors,  rivers,  roadsteads,  and  bays 
controlled  by  the  other,  shall  be  turned  over  to  the  owners  upon  pay- 
ment, if  any,  of  the  cost  of  recapture  as  determined  by  the  proper 
tribunals,  after  giving  evidence  of  ownership  to  the  said  tribunals. 
It  is  well  understood  that  the  claim  for  restitution  must  be  presented 
within  a  year  bj7  the  party  in  interest,  its  attorneys,  or  by  the  agents 
of  the  respective  Governments. 

XVIII.  The  war  vessels  of  either  power  shall  be  permitted  to  enter, 
sojourn  in,  and  go  into  the  gearing  docks  of  the  ports  of  the  other 
which  are  opened  to  the  most  favored  nation.  They  shall  be  subject 
to  the  same  regulations  and  enjoy  the  same  advantages. 

XIX.  If  one  of  the  contracting  parties  should  happen  to  be  at  war 
with  a  third  power,  the  other  power  shall  not  under  any  circumstance 
authorize  its  nationals  to  take  or  accept  commissions  or  letters  of 
marque  for  hostile  operations  against  the  former,  or  for  the  purpose 
of  molesting  the  commerce  and  property  of  its  subjects  or  citizens. 

XX.  Both  contracting  parties  adopt,  in  their  nautical  relations,  the 
principle  that  free  ships  make  free  goods.  In  consequence,  should  one 
of  the  parties  remain  neutral  while  the  other  is  at  war  with  another 
power,  merchandise  protected  by  the  neutral  Hag  shall  also  be  deemed 
to  be  neutral,  even  though  it  should  be  the  property  of  the  enemy  of  the 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  217 

oilier  contracting  party.  It  is  likewise  agreed  that  a  free  flag  also  insures 
the  freedom  of  persons,  and  that  individuals  belonging  to  a  hostile 
power  who  might  be  found  on  board  a  neutral  vessel  shall  not  betaken 
as  prisoners  unless  they  be  soldiers  and  for  the  time  being  in  the  service 
of  the  enemy.  As  a  consequence  of  the  same  principle  under  which 
the  flag  and  the  cargo  are  assimilated  neutral  property  found  on  board, 
a  vessel  of  the  enemy  shall  be  considered  as  enemy's  property  unless 
it  .should  have  been  shipped  on  said  vessel  prior  to  the  declaration  of 
war  or  before  it  was  known  at  the  port  whence  the  vessel  may  have 
saiiedt 

The  two  contracting  powers  shall  apply  this  principle  as  regards  other 
powers  to  those  only  which  also  recognize  it. 

XXI.  Should  one  of  the  two  contracting  parties  be  at  war  with 
another  power,  and  its  vessels  have  occasion  to  exercise  the  right  of 
visitation  at  sea,  it  is  agreed  that,  if  they  come  across  a  vessel  belong- 
ing to  the  other  party,  the  latter  having  remained  neutral,  they  shall 
send  in  a  boat  two  examiners  charged  with  the  dut}T  of  examining  the 
papers  relative  to  the  nationality  or  the  cargo.  The  commanders  shall 
be  responsible,  personally  and  pecuniarily,  for  any  vexation,  insult,  or 
act  of  violence  that  may  be  committed  on  the  occasion.  Visitation 
will  be  allowed  on  board  such  vessels  only  as  may  navigate  without  a 
convoy.  In  regard  to  convoyed  vessels,  it  will  be  sufficient  for  the 
commanding  officer  of  the  convoy  to  declare,  orally  and  upon  his  word 
of  honor,  that  the  vessels  placed  under  his  protection  and  escort  belong 
to  the  State  whose  flag  he  flies,  and  to  declare,  when  the  vessels  shall 
be  bound  for  a  port  of  the  enemy,  that  they  do  not  carry  contraband 
of  war. 

XXII.  In  the  event  of  war  between  either  party  and  another  power, 
nation,  or  State,  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  the  other  party  will  be 
permitted  to  continue  trade  and  navigation  with  the  said  States,  except- 
ing the  cities  or  ports  that  may  be  actually  blockaded  or  beleaguered. 
It  is,  however,  well  understood  that  this  freedom  of  trade  and  navi- 
gation shall  not  extend  to  articles  deemed  to  be  contraband  of  war, 
such  as  cannon  and  firearms,  side  arms,  projectiles,  powder,  saltpeter, 
articles  of  military  equipment,  and  all  implements  whatsoever  made 
for  warlike  purposes. 

In  no  event  shall  a  merchant  vessel  owned  b}T  subjects  or  citizens  of 
either  country,  bound  for  a  port  blockaded  by  the  forces  of  the  other, 
be  seized,  captured,  or  condemned,  unless  it  shall  have  received  previ- 
ous notice  or  warning  of  the  existence  of  the  blockade  from  some  vessel 
belonging  to  the  blockading  squadron  or  division.  And  in  order  that 
ignorance  of  the  circumstances  ma}T  not  be  alleged,  and  that  such  vessel 
as  may  have  been  duly  warned  shall  be  liable  to  capture  if  it  should 
again  repair  to  the  same  port  during  the  blockade,  the  commanding 
officer  of  the  war  ship  that  shall  have  met  it  for  the  first  time  shall 
enter  on  the  papers  of  the  said  vessel  the  da}7,  place,  and  distance  of 
his  visit,  and  aforesaid  notification  made  by  him  with  the  requisite 
formalities. 

XXIII.  Consuls  of  each  one  of  the  two  countries  may  be  established 
for  the  protection  of  commerce;  but  these  officers  shall  not  enter  upon 
their  duties  or  enjoy  the  rights,  privileges,  or  immunities  to  which  they 
may  be  entitled  until  they  shall  have  obtained  the  authorization  of  the 
Government  of  the  country.  The  latter  will,  moreover,  retain  the  right 
of  determining  the  residences  at  which  it  shall  see  fit  to  receive  consuls. 
It  is  well  understood  that,  in  this  respect,  neither  Government  shall 


218  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

oppose  to  the  other  any  restriction  that  does  not  apply  in  its  country 
to  all  nations  in  common. 

XXIV.  The  two  contracting  parties  engage  to  negotiate,  as  soon  as 
practicable,  a  consular  convention  which  will  determine  in  a  clear, 
final,  and  reciprocal  manner  the  rights,  privileges,  and  immunities 
that  the  respective  consuls,  their  chancellors  and  clerks,  shall  enjoy  in 
the  respective  countries  as  well  as  the  duties  they  shall  have  to  dis- 
charge and  the  obligations  to  which  they  shall  be  held.  In  the  mean- 
while French  consuls  and  vice-consuls  in  New  Granada  and  Grana- 
dian  consuls  and  vice-consuls  in  France  shall,  respectively,  receive  the 
same  treatment  and  consideration  as  those  of  the  most  favored  nation. 

XXV.  The  Republic  of  New  Granada  shall  enjoy,  in  all  the  French 
possessions  and  colonies,  the  same  rights,  privileges,  and  the  same 
freedom  of  commerce  and  navigation  as  is  now  or  shall  hereafter  be 
enjoyed  by  the  most  favored  nation,  and,  reciprocally,  the  inhabitants 
of  the  French  possessions  and  colonies  shall  enjoy,  to  this  full  extent, 
the  same  rights  and  privileges  and  the  same  freedom  of  commerce 
and  navigation  as  are,  under  this  treaty,  granted  in  New  Granada  to 
the  French,  their  commerce  and  their  navigation. 

XXVI.  It  is  formally  agreed  between  the  two  contracting  parties 
that,  independently  of  the  foregoing  stipulations,  the  diplomatic  agents, 
the  subjects  of  all  classes,  the  vessels  and  merchandise  of  either  State 
shall,  as  of  right,  enjoy  in  the  other  the  exemptions,  privileges,  and 
immunities  whatsoever  conceded  to  the  most  favored  nation,  and  this 
gratuitously,  if  the  concessions  be  gratuitous,  and  for  the  same  con- 
sideration if  it  should  be  conditional. 

XXVII.  The  present  treaty  shall  remain  in  force  for  a  period  of  ten 
years  counted  from  the  day  of  the  exchange  of  ratifications,  but  if,  one 
year  before  the  expiration  of  that  term,  neither  contracting  party  should 
announce,  by  an  official  declaration,  its  intention  to  terminate  or  revise 
it,  it  shall  continue  binding  on  both  parties  for  five  years  longer,  and 
so  on,  from  five  to  five  years,  so  long  as  the  official  notice  herein- 
above mentioned  shall  not  have  been  made  at  least  twelve  months  in 
advance. 

In  the  event  of  one  of  the  contracting  parties  deeming  that  some  of 
the  stipulations  of  the  present  treaty  may  have  been  infringed  to  its 
detriment,  it  shall  first  lay  before  the  other,  together  with  its  demand 
for  redress,  a  statement  of  the  facts,  accompanied  by  such  documents 
and  evidence  as  may  be  necessary  to  show  that  its  complaint  is  well 
founded,  and  it  shall  not,  in  any  way,  authorize  reprisals  or  declare 
war  unless  the  redress  demanded  by  it  shall  have  been  denied  or  unfa- 
vorably received. 

XXVIII.  The  present  treaty  of  amity,  commerce,  and  navigation,  in 
twenty-eight  articles,  shall  be  ratified  by  His  Majesty  the  Kniperor  of 
the  French  and  by  the  President  or  the  person  in  charge  of  the  execu- 
tive power  in  New  Granada,  with  the  approval  of  the  Congress,  and  the 
ratifications  shall  be  exchanged  at  Bogota  within  a  term  of  eighteen 
months  or  sooner  if  possible.  During  that  time  and  pending  the 
exchange  of  ratifications  the  treaty  of  October  28, 1844,  shall  continue 
in  force  and  effect. 

In  witness  whereof  the  plenipotentiaries  have  signed  the  said  treaty 
and  hereunto  affixed  their  private  seals  at  Bogota,  on  the  15th  day  of 
May  of  the  year  of  the  Lord  1856. 

[seal.]  Baron  Goury  du  Roslan. 

[seal.]  Lino  de  Pombo. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMTSSION.  219 

ADDITIONAL   ACT. 

The  undersigned,  plenipotentiaries  of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of 
the  French  and  of  the  Republic  of  New  Granada,  signers  of  the  treaty 
of  amity,  commerce,  and  navigation  concluded  on  May  15,  1856, 
recognizing  the  necessity  and  expediency  of  elucidating  the  sense  and. 
purport  of  some  of  the  stipulations  embodied  in  the  said  treaty,  while 
the  exchange  of  ratifications  is  still  in  abeyance,  and  with  a  view  of 
removing  for  the  future  all  grounds  of  doubt  or  controvers}^  on  the 
subject,  by  virtue  of  the  full  powers  with  which  they  are  vested,  have 
agreed  upon  the  two  following  articles: 

Article  I.  The  reciprocitjr  of  rights,  exemptions,  and  allowances 
regarding  the  importation  and  exportation  of  natural  products,  estab- 
lished, in  favor  of  the  flags  of  both  countries,  by  Article  XII  of  the 
treaty  of  Ma}r  15,  185G,  does  not  include  that  which  relates  to  special 
advantages  or  encouragements  that  may  now  or  hereafter  be  conferred 
upon  the  national  fisheries  in  either  country. 

II.  It  is  stipulated  that  the  freedom  of  commerce  and  navigation  in 
all  the  French  possessions  and  colonies,  on  the  footing  of  the  most 
favored  nation,  granted  to  New  Granada  by  Article  XXV  of  the  said 
treaty,  is  and  must  be  understood  to  be  a  compensation  for  the  con- 
cessions, made  by  New  Granada  to  France,  in  matters  of  commerce 
and  navigation,  and  specially  those  in  Article  II  relative  to  the  coast- 
ing trade. 

These  two  articles,  additional  to  the  above-mentioned  treaty  of  May 
15,  1856,  shall  be  included  in  the  instruments  of  ratification  of  the  said 
treaty,  and  shall  have  the  same  force  and  validity  as  if  they  had  been 
therein  inserted  word  for  word. 

In  witness  whereof  the  two  plenipotentiaries  have  signed  and  affixed 
their  private  seals  unto  the  present  article,  done  in  duplicate,  at  Bogota, 
the  27th  day  of  January  of  the  year  1857. 

[seal.]  Baron  Goury  du  Roslan. 

[seal.]  Lino  de  Pombo. 


Appendix  C  C  2. 

CONVENTION  OF  ALIENAGE,  COMMERCE,  AND  NAVIGATION  BE- 
TWEEN THE  REPUBLIC  OF  COLOMBIA  AND  THE  FRENCH  RE- 
PUBLIC. 


[Translation.] 


The  President  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia  and  the  President  of  the 
French  Republic,  being-  equally  animated  by  the  desire  of  drawing 
closer  the  bonds  of  friendship  which  united  the  two  States,  and  desir- 
ing to  establish  definite  rules  for  the  government  of  the  commercial 
and  maritime  relations  between  Colombia  and  France,  have  determined 
to  conclude  an  arrangement  for  that  purpose,  and  have  named  as  pleni- 
potentiaries: 

The  President  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  Senor  Marco  Fidel 
Suarez,  under  secretary  of  state,  acting  minister  for  foreign  affairs;  and 

The  President  of  the  French  Republic,  M.  Alexander  Napoleon 
Mancini,  charge  d'affaires  of  the  French  Republic  at  Bogota,  Knight 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor; 

Who,  after  having  exchanged  their  respective  full  powers,  found  to 
be  in  due  and  proper  form,  have  agreed  upon  the  following  articles: 

Article  I.  The  two  high  contracting  parties  reciprocally  guarantee, 
each  to  the  other,  the  treatment  of  the  most  favored  nation  in  what- 
ever relates  to  the  settling  of  their  respective  citizens  [in  the  territory 
of  the  other],  and  in  whatever  relates  to  commerce  and  navigation,  as 
well  as  in  respect  to  importation,  exportation  and  transit,  and  generally 
all  matters  connected  with  custom-house  duties  and  commercial  opera- 
tions, as  also  in  respect  to  the  carrying  on  of  trade  or  manufactures, 
and  in  respect  to  the  payment  of  the  taxes  pertaining  thereto. 

Article  II.  The  present  arrangement  shall  be  ratified  and  the  rati- 
fications shall  be  exchanged  in  Paris  as  soon  as  possible,  and  shall  go 
into  effect  eight  days  after  the  exchange  of  ratifications,  and  shall 
remain  in  force  until  the  expiration  of  one  year  after  the  day  on  which 
one  of  the  high  contracting  parties  shall  have  denounced  the  same. 

In  faith  whereof  the  respective  plenipotentiaries  have  signed  the 
present  arrangement  and  affixed  their  seals  thereto. 

Done  in  Bogota,  in  duplicate,  the  30th  day  of  May,  1S92. 

[seal]  Marco  F.  SuArez. 

[seal]  A.  Mancini. 

221 


Appendix  D  I). 

TREATY   OF    PEACE    AND    FRIENDSHIP    BETWEEN    SPAIN    AND 
COLOMBIA  SIGNED  AT  PARIS,  JANUARY  30,  1881. 


[Ratifications  exchanged  at  Paris,  August  12,  1881.] 

The  Republic  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  of  the  one  part,  and 
His  Majesty  Don  Alfonso  XII,  Constitutional  King  of  Spain,  of  the 
other,  desiring  to  put  an  end  to  the  disunion  which  has  unhappily 
existed  between  the  two  States,  have  resolved  to  enter  into  a  treaty 
of  peace  and  friendship,  which  may  perpetuate  the  alliance  that  ought 
naturally  to  unite  the  citizens  of  Colombia  and  the  subjects  of  Spain, 
and  to  that  end  have  named  and  appointed  for  their  pienipotentaries, 
to  wit: 

His  Excellency  the  President  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  Don 
Luis  Carlos  Rico,  envoy  extraordinary  and  minister  plenipotentiary 
of  that  Republic  to  the  French  Republic;  and  His  Majesty  the  King  of 
Spain,  Don  Mariano  Roca  de  Tagores,  Marquis  de  Molins,  Viscount 
de  Rocamoza,  Grandee  of  Spain  of  the  first  class,  Knight  of  the  famous 
Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  Knight  of  the  Order  of  Calatrava,  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Royal  and  Distinguished  Order  of  Charles  II,  Grand 
Cordon  of  the  Order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  of  France,  of  Pius  IX, 
of  the  Rose  of  Brazil,  etc.,  and  his  ambassador  to  the  French  Republic; 

Who,  after  exchanging  their  full  powers,  and  having  found  them  in 
due  order,  have  agreed  on  the  following  articles: 

Article  I.  There  shall  be  total  oblivion  of  all  that  is  past;  and  there 
shall  be  a  solid  and  inviolable  peace  between  the  Republic  of  the  United 
States  of  Colombia  and  His  Majesty  the  King  of  Spain. 

II.  As  soon  as  this  compact  comes  into  force  each  of  the  high  con- 
tracting parties  shall  send  a  diplomatic  representative  to  the  other,  as 
well  as  such  consuls,  vice-consuls,  or  consular  agents  as  it  may  be 
judged  convenient  to  establish  in  their  respective  ports,  cities,  or  pos- 
sessions; and  both  shall  enjoy  reciprocally  all  the  privileges,  exemp- 
tions, and  immunities  that  are  enjoyed  by  similar  agents  of  the  most 
favored  nation. 

III.  The  citizens  of  Colombia  in  Spain  and  the  subjects  of  His 
Catholic  Majesty  in  the  Republic  of  Colombia  shall  be  exempt  from 
all  compulsory  service  in  the  army,  navy,  and  national  guards,  and 
from  every  contribution  and  impost  not  paid  by  the  citizens  or  subjects 
of  the  country  in  which  they  may  be  residing.  With  regard  to  the 
distribution  of  taxes,  imposts,  and  other  general  burdens,  to  libertj^ 
and  protection  in  the  exercise  of  their  calling,  and  to  the  other  rights 
relative  to  property  and  the  security  of  person,  and  with  regard  to  the 
administration  of  justice  they  shall  be  held  to  be  on  the  same  footing 

223 


224  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

as  the  natives  of  the  respective  countries,  subject  in  all  cases  to  the 
laws  and  regulations  of  the  one  in  which  they  may  be  residing. 

IV.  Until  such  time  as  the  high  contracting  parties  may  have  con- 
cluded a  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation,  thej^  agree  that  the  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  their  ships  and  merchandise, 
shall  enjoy  within  the  territory  of  Spain,  its  canals  and  ports,  all  the 
advantages  and  exemptions  accorded  to  the  most  favored  American 
nation,  gratuitously  if  the  concession  be  gratuitous,  and  with  one  and 
the  same  compensation  if  it  be  conditional;  and  that  the  subjects  of  his 
Catholic  Majesty,  their  ships  and  merchandise,  shall  enjoy  in  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  its  canals  and  ports,  all  the  advantages  and  exemp- 
tions accorded  to  the  most  favored  European  nation,  gratuitously  if 
the  concession  be  gratuitous,  and  with  one  and  the  same  compensation 
if  it  be  conditional. 

V.  The  present  treaty  shall  be  ratified,  and  the  ratifications  shall  be 
exchanged  in  Paris,  as  soon  as  may  be  possible. 

In  witness  whereof  the  undersigned  plenipotentiaries  of  the  Republic 
of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  and  of  His  Majesty  the  King  of  Spain, 
have  hereunto  set  their  names  and  seal  in  Paris,  on  the  30th  January, 
1881. 

[seal.]  Luis  Carlos  Rico. 

[seal.]  Marquis  de  Molins. 


Appendix  F  F. 

CONTRACT  BETWEEN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  COLOMBIA  AND 
THE  PANAMA  RAILROAD  COMPANY,  MADE  IN  1867,  AS  MODI- 
FIED BY  THE  CONTRACTS  MADE  IN  1876  AND  1880. 


CONTRACT  REFORMATIVE  OF  THAT  OF  APRIL  15,  1850,  CONCERNING  THE 
CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  RAILROAD,  FROM  ONE  OCEAN  TO  THE  OTHER, 
ACROSS   THE    ISTHMUS   OF   PANAMA. 

The  secretary  of  finance  and  public  improvements  of  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  duly  authorized  by  the  executive  power,  on  the 
one  part,  and  on  the  other  George  M.  Totten,  engineer  in  chief  and 
general  igent  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  with  full  power  and 
authority  from  the  directors  of  said  company,  having  in  consideration 
the  stipulation  in  Article  II  of  the  contract  made  with  said  company 
and  approved  by  the  legislative  decree  of  the  4th  of  June,  1850,  and 
desiring  to  provide  whatever  may  be  needful  for  the  perfection  of  the 
work  of  the  said  railroad,  in  order  that  it  may  better  answer  the  neces- 
sities of  the  commerce  of  the  world,  and  at  the  same  time  furnish  a 
sure  and  permanent  revenue  to  the  treasury  of  the  Republic,  have 
agreed  to  modify  and  reform  the  said  contract  in  the  terms  set  forth  in 
the  following  stipulations: 

Article  I.  The  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  con- 
cedes to  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  the  use  and  possession,  for 
ninety-nine  3Tears,  of  the  railroad  constructed  by  it,  and  which  actu- 
ally exists,  between  the  cities  of  Colon  and  Panama.  This  concession 
comprises  not  only  the  road,  but  also  the  buildings,  warehouses, 
wharves,  dockyards,  telegraph  between  Colon  and  Panama  belonging 
to  the  road,  and,  in  general,  all  the  dependencies  and  other  works  of 
which  the  said  company  is  now  in  possession  necessary  to  the  service 
and  development  of  the  enterprise,  and  those  which  in  the  future  it 
may  establish  with  the  same  purpose. 

Article  II.  The  Government  of  the  Republic  binds  itself,  during 
the  time  that  the  exclusive  privilege  which  is  conceded  to  the  company 
for  the  working  of  the  railroad  remains  in  force,  not  to  construct  for 
itself  nor  to  concede  to  an}7  person  or  company,  by  any  title  what- 
ever, the  power  to  establish  any  other  railroad  on  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama;  and  it  also  stipulates  that  while  the  said  privilege  continues 
in  force  the  Government  shall  not  have  the  power  of  undertaking  for 
itself  nor  permitting  any  person  to  undertake,  without  the  concurrence 
and  consent  of  said  company,  the  opening  or  working  of  an}7  maritime 
canal  which  may  unite  the  two  oceans  across  the  said  Isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama to  the  west  of  the  line  of  Cape  Tiburon  on  the  Atlantic  and  Point 
Garachine  on  the  Pacific;  but  it  remains  stipulated  that  the  right  which 
is  conceded  to  the  company  to  give  its  consent  does  not  extend  to  its 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 15  225 


226  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

opposing  the  construction  of  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
(except  on  the  actual  route  of  the  railroad  itself),  but  only  to  its  exact- 
ing an  equitable  price  for  such  privilege  and  as  indemnification  for  the 
damages  which  the  railroad  company  may  suffer  by  the  rivalry  or  com- 
petition of  the  canal. 

If  the  sum  which  may  be  demanded  by  the  company  shall  not  appear 
equitable  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  then 
it  shall  be  fixed  by  arbitrators  in  New  York  or  Panama,  one  to  be 
named  by  the  Government  and  the  other  by  the  company,  and  in  case 
of  their  not  agreeing  the  two  shall  name  a  third,  whose  decision  shall 
be  without  appeal. 

In  pronouncing  their  decision  the  arbitrators  shall  take  into  consid- 
eration the  grounds  upon  which  the  company  rests  and  the  informa- 
tion which  the  Government  shall  give  upon  the  matter,  and  in  view 
thereof  they  shall  decide  without  appeal  as  they  may  deem  most  just 
and  equitable. 

The  sum,  whatever  it  may  be,  which  shall  be  finally  designated, 
shall  belong  one-half  to  the  railroad  company  and  one-half  to  the 
Government  of  Colombia. 

Article  III.  In  compensation  of  and  as  a  price  for  these  concessions 
the  railroad  company  binds  itself  to  pay  to  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  of  Colombia  $1,000,000  in  American  gold,  or  in  bills  on  New  York 
payable  in  the  same  kind,  as  the  Government  may  elect,  on  the  day  on 
which  this  contract  shall  be  approved  Irv  Congress,  and  to  pay  from 
the  present  time,  and  until  the  expiration  of  the  present  privilege,  an 
annual  revenue  of  $250,000 a  in  American  gold.  The  company  will 
make  the  payments  quarterly  in  New  York  to  the  agent  designated  by 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  or  if  the  Govern- 
ment should  desire,  the  company  will  place  the  money  in  London  or 
Panama,  the  Government  giving  the  necessary  notice  to  the  company 
in  New  York.  These  quarterly  payments  shall  commence  to  count 
from  the  date  of  the  approval  of  this  contract  by  Congress. 

From  the  revenue  which  the  Government  acquires  by  this  contract 
there  shall  be  set  apart  annually  during  twenty  years  $25,000,  which 
the  company  shall  deliver  to  the  Government  of  the  State  of  Panama. 

Article  IV.  The  company  hinds  itself  to  extend  the  railroad  on  the 
Pacific  side  to  the  islands  of  Naos,  Culebra,  Perico,  and  Flamenco,  or 
other  place  in  the  bay  where  there  may  exist  a  permanent  depth  of 
water  for  large  vessels. 

Whereas  a  certain  contract  was  made  between  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  of  Colombia  and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  dated  the  fifth  day  of  July, 
one  thousand  eighl  hundred  and  sixty-seven,  in  abrogation  of  and  to  take  the  place 
of  another  contract  between  the  same  parties  of  the  fifteenth  day  of  April,  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty,  which  first-mentioned  contract  was  afterwards 
approved  by  the  said  <  iovernment,  by  legislative  decree,  on  the  sixteenth  day  of 
August,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-seven,  with  certain  modifications, 
which  modifications  were  accepted  by  the  said  railroad  company;  and  whereas  it 
was  stipulated  by  the  said  new  contract,  by  Article  1  V  of  the  same,  that  the  said 
railroad  company  should  extend  its  railway  to  the  islands  of  Naos,  Culebra,  Perico, 
and  Flamenco,  or  any  other  place  in  the  Bay  of  Panama  where  a  permanent  anchor- 
age may  he  found  for  huge  vessels,  as  by  reference  to  said  contract  will  more  fully 
and  precisely  appear; 

And  whereas  the  said  railroad  company  has  not  yet  completed  the  said  work,  and 
denies  any  present  obligation  to  proceed  with  the  same;  and  whereas  the  Congress 

"$225,000  of  this  annual  subsidy  was  advanced  and  paid  by  the  company  to  the 
Colombian  (iovernment  in  November,  1880,  for  the  full  period  intervening  up  to 
March  27, 1908. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  227 

of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  on  the  twenty-sixth  day  of  July,  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eighty,  by  an  act  passed  on  that  day,  authorized  the  executive 
power  of  the  said  United  States  of  Colombia  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  the  Pan- 
ama Railroad  Company,  in  order  to  declare  it  li Iterated  from  the  obligations  it  assumed 
by  the  aforesaid  Article  IV  of  the  contract  made  on  the  sixteenth  day  of  August,  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-seven,  for  the  extension  of  the  said  railway  in  the 
harbor  of  Panama  as  aforesaid,  by  which  act  a  sum  of  money  was  to  be  paid  to  the 
said  Republic  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  sufficient,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
executive  power  of  the  said  Government,  to  compensate  for  the  release  from  the  said 
article  as  aforesaid ; 

And  whereas  the  national  executive  power  of  the  said  Government  has  appointed 
Mr.  Solomon  Koppel  as  its  agent  and  attorney  for  the  purpose  of  negotiating  with  the 
said  railroad  company  for  the  abrogation  of  the  said  Article  IV,  and  has  given  to  him 
full,  complete,  and  absolute  power  to  enter  into,  carry  out,  and  conclude,  in  the 
name  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  the  negotiations  for  the 
purpose  of  abrogating  the  aforesaid  Article  IV  of  the  said  contract; 

And  whereas  the  chief  executive  of  the  said  Republic  of  the  United  States  of 
Colombia  has  exercised  the  discretion  conferred  upon  him  by  the  aforesaid  act  of 
Congress,  by  the  issue  to  the  said  Solomon  Koppel  of  instructions  by  which  the  said 
Solomon  Koppel,  as  such  agent  and  attorney  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
of  Colombia  as  aforesaid,  is  directed  to  negotiate  only  for  an  exemption  or  abrogation 
of  the  aforesaid  Article  IV  for  a  period  of  not  exceeding  thirty  consecutive  years,  and 
has  further  exercised  the  aforesaid  discretion  and  authority  conferred  by  the  said  act 
of  Congress  by  fixing  the  amount  to  be  paid  by  the  said  Panama  Railroad  Company 
for  the  abrogation  of  the  said  Article  IV,  and  which,  by  the  aforesaid  written  instruc- 
tions, is  limited  to  the  sum  of  ten  thousand  dollars  per  annum  for  each  of  the  years 
during  which  the  said  Article  IV  is  suspended  or  abrogated; 

And  whereas  the  said  Solomon  Koppel  is  now  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  has 
had  a  negotiation  with  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  touching  the  matters  afore- 
said, and  has  agreed  with  the  said  company  to  the  suspension  of  the  said  Article  IV 
for  the  full  period  of  thirty  years  from  the  first  day  of  November,  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eighty,  upon  condition  that  the  said  company  should  pay  to 
the  said  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  the  full  sum  of  ten  thousand 
dollars  per  annum  for  each  of  the  said  thirty  years,  making  an  aggregate  payment  to 
the  said  Government  for  the  suspension  and  abrogation  aforesaid  of  three  hundred 
thousand  dollars  in  American  gold;  in  all  of  which  actings  and  doings  the  said 
Solomon  Koppel  has  complied  exactly  with  the  written  instructions  of  the  said  chief 
executive  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  as  the  same  were  communicated  to  him, 
and  as  the  same  have  been  handed  by  him  to  the  Panama  Railroad  Company: 

Now,  therefore,  this  agreement  witnesseth  that,  in  consideration  of  the  premises 
and  for  the  aforesaid  sum  of  three  hundred  thousand  dollars  in  gold  coin,  payable  at 
the  rate  of  ten  thousand  dollars  in  each  year  from  the  execution  hereof  by  the  Pan- 
ama Railroad  Company  to  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  the  said  Government  has 
fully  exonerated,  released,  and  discharged,  and  does  hereby  fully  exonerate,  release, 
and  discharge,  the  said  Panama  Railroad  Company  from  all  its  obligations  of  every 
nature  whatsoever  arising  upon  or  growing  out  of  the  aforesaid  Article  IV  of  the 
contract  of  the  fifth  day  of  July,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-seven,  by 
which  article  the  said  company  was  bound  to  extend  its  railroad  on  the  Pacific  side, 
as  is  provided  in  and  by  the  said  contract,  to  which  special  reference  is  hereby  made, 
and  the  said  contract,  in  so  far  as  concerns  the  extension  of  the  said  railroad  into  the 
bay  of  Panama  aforesaid,  is  hereby,  in  accordance  with  the  full  power  granted  to 
the  chief  executive  of  the  said  Government  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  of 
Colombia,  abrogated  and  annulled.  But  this  abrogation,  suspension,  and  annulment 
of  the  said  Article  IV  shall  continue  only  for  the  period  of  thirty  years  from  and 
after  the  first  day  of  November  in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
eighty,  and  at  the  expiration  of  the  said  term  of  thirty  years  the  said  Article  IV  of 
the  said  original  contract  of  the  fifth  day  of  July,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
sixty-seven,  shall  again  be  revived,  and  shall  be  and  remain  thereafter  in  force  and 
effect  as  the  same  now  exists.  And  the  said  Panama  Railroad  Company,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  aforesaid  suspension,  release,  and  abrogation  of  the  said  Article  IV 
for  the  term  and  period  as  aforesaid,  hereby  agrees  to  pay  to  the  said  Government 
of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  the  just  and  full  sum  of  three  hundred  thousand 
dollars  in  gold  coin,  as  follows,  viz:  The  sum  of  ten  thousand  dollars  on  the  first  day 
of  November  in  each  and  every  year,  payable  in  the  city  of  New  York,  during  the 
S£.id  term  of  thirty  years,  the  first  of  said  annual  installments  to  be  payable  on  the 
first  day  of  November,  which  will  be  in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
eighty-one,  and  on  each  first  day  of  November  thereafter  until  the  whole  sum  of 


228  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

three  hundred  thousand  dollars  shall  have  heen  paid.  And  it  is  further  provided 
and  agreed  that  in  case  the  said  Panama  Railroad  Company,  or  its  successors,  shall 
determine  to  extend  its  said  line  of  railway  to  the  islands  in  the  bay  of  Panama,  or 
to  deep  water  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  said  Article  IV  as  originally  agreed, 
and  shall  actually  construct  the  same,  that  then  and  from  thenceforward  the  annual 
payment  of  ten  thousand  dollars  for  each  of  said  thirty  years  shall  cease  for  the 
remainder  of  said  term  then  unexpired,  anything  herein  contained  to  the  contrary  in 
anywise  notwithstanding;  but  this  termination  of  said  annual  payments  shall  not 
take  effect  until  the  expiration  of  six  months  after  said  Panama  Railroad  Company 
shall  have  given  notice  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  of  the 
actual  completion  of  said  extended  line  in  the  bay  of  Panama  as  aforesaid. — Contract 
of  1880. 

Article  V.  During  the  whole  term  of  this  privilege  the  company 
shall  have  exclusive  right  to  establish  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
within  the  zone  indicated  in  Article  II,  any  class  of  carriage  roads 
whatever,  from  one  ocean  to  the  other.  The  Colombian  Government 
binds  itself  not  to  undertake  for  itself,  nor  to  permit  any  other  com- 
pany or  person  to  undertake  within  said  zone,  any  other  carriage  road, 
either  macadamized  or  of  plank,  or  of  any  other  class  suitable  for  the 
use  of  wheeled  vehicles,  between  the  two  oceans  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  It  being,  nevertheless,  well  understood  that  the  privilege  of 
which  this  article  treats  can  not  and  must  not,  in  any  manner,  prevent 
the  construction  of  any  kind  of  roads  in  a  direction  distinct  from  that 
expressed,  nor  the  completing,  preserving,  and  improving  of  roads 
already  existing,  or  which  are  actually  being  constructed  on  said 
isthmus. 

Article  VI.  The  eompan}r  shall  have  the  right  for  the  whole  term 
of  this  privilege: 

First.  To  regulate  and  direct  the  use  of  the  ports,  embarking  and 
disembarking  places,  wharves,  anchorage  grounds,  etc.,  at  the  termini 
of  the  railroad,  and  to  establish  agents  with  powers  to  carry  into  effect 
the  regulations  that  it  ma}r  make  in  this  particular  in  conformity  with 
the  laws  of  the  Republic.  These  regulations  shall  be  submitted  to  the 
approval  of  the  executive  power,  without  which  they  can  not  take 
effect.  The  executive  power  may  refuse  its  approbation,  alter  and 
revoke  them,  as  it  ma}^  deem  convenient. 

Second.  To  use  the  embarking  and  disembarking  places,  wharves,  etc. , 
that  it  has  constructed  or  may  construct  in  the  ports  situated  at  the  two 
extremes  of  the  road. 

Third.  To  use  the  landings  necessary,  and  especiall3T  those  designated 
for  the  storage  and  free  deposit  of  all  goods  and  merchandise  admitted 
for  transit  over  the  isthmus  on  the  railroad  constructed  by  the  com- 
pany. By  virtue  of  this  privilege  the  company  may  collect  as  compen- 
sation for  the  use  of  the  line  of  communication,  means  of  transportation, 
landings,  warehouses,  and  establishments  of  all  kinds  belonging  to  it 
such  tolls  lor  transporting,  wharfage,  storage,  and  labor  as  it  may  deem 
proper  to  establish. 

The  company  continues  in  the  exercise  of  all  the  rights  conceded  to  it  in  the  sixth 
article  of  the  contract  of  -r>th  of  July,  1867.  Consequently  it  may  regulate  and  direct 
the  use  of  the  ports,  embarking  and  disembarking  places,  wharves,  anchorage 
grounds,  etc.,  at  the  termini  of  tin;  railroad,  and  establish  agents  witli  powers  to 
carry  into  effect  the  regulations  that  it  may  nuke  in  this  particular  in  conformity 
with  the  laws  of  the  Republic.  These  regulations  shall  be  submitted  to  the  approval 
of  the  executive  power,  without  which  they  can  not  take  effect;  but  the  executive 
power,  after  having  once  approved  them,  can  not  change  them  nor  revoke  them 
without  the  consent  of  the  company. — Article  I  of  contraci  of  1876. 

Article  VII. — The  executive  power  shall  determine  the  forms  to 
be  observed  in  the  landing  of  goods  on  either  ocean,  and  theinterven- 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  229 

tion  therein  of  the  officers  of  the  Republic  to  prevent  the  effects 
destined  for  transit  From  one  ocean  to  the  other  from  being  left  on 
the  way  or  fraudentlv  introduced  for  internal  consumption.  Said  pre- 
cautions shall  be  such  as  may  tend  to  prevent  all  frauds  to  the  injury 
of  the  public  revenue,  without  delaying  or  embarrassing  the  rapid 
dispatch  and  transit  of  passengers  and  packages  of  merchandise,  lug- 
gage, and  goods  of  all  kinds  which  may  be  subjects  of  lawful  commerce. 

Article  VIII. — The  company  may  give  to  the  actual  railroad  a 
different  direction  from  that  which  it  now  has,  and  which  it  may  deem 
most  favorable  to  the  enterprise,  it  being  free  to  choose  the  points  of 
departure  and  arrival  which  may  appear  to  it  most  advantageous  and 
most  convenient  for  the  entrance  and  anchorage  of  vessels,  or  for 
ports  properly  so  called,  and  for  embarking  places,  dry  docks,  places 
for  lighterage,  landings,  warehouses,  stations,  hotels,  and  establish- 
ments of  all  kinds,  and  this  without  prejudice  to  what  is  stipulated  in 
Article  IV  of  this  contract. 

Article  IX.  The  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia 
ratifies  the  concession  made  to  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  by  the 
contract  of  the  15th  of  April,  1850: 

First.  Of  the  lands  that  it  has  required  and  that  it  may  require  for 
the  establishment  of  the  line  of  railway  in  its  whole  extent,  provided 
such  lands  belong  to  the  Government; 

Second.  Of  the  lands  which  were  necessary  for  seaports,  dry  docks, 
river  ports,  landings,  embarking  places,  places  for  lighterage,  ware- 
houses, stations,  hotels,  and  generally  for  all  the  necessities  of  the 
service  of  the  railroad,  always  provided  that  such  lands  shall  be  the 
property  of  the  Republic; 

Third.  Of  the  concession  made  by  gratuitous  title  and  in  perpetuity 
of  64,000  hectares  of  vacant  lands  in  the  territory  of  the  State  of 
Panama,  with  exception  of  the  islands  in  both  oceans  and  of  the  districts 
which  formed  on  the  1st  of  January,  1849,  the  territories  of  Bocas 
del  Toro  and  of  Darien,  limits  of  which  were  fixed  by  the  law  of  the  9th 
of  January,  1855.  This  concession  may  be  extended  to  96,000  hec- 
tares, if  there  shall  be  that  number  disposable  within  the  limits  of  the 
ancient  provinces  of  Panama  and  Veraguas  in  such  manner  that  the 
Government  can  adjudicate  them  as  vacant  lands;  and  the  company 
shall  have  the  right  to  select  them  in  the  continental  part  of  said 
provinces  as  they  may  deem  most  convenient.  But  it  is  stipulated 
that  in  the  lands  which  the  company  ma}T  select  on  the  line  of  road, 
and  its  vicinity,  there  shall  positively  be  left  regular  intervals  equiv- 
alent in  extent  to  those  (tracts)  which  shall  be  given  to  the  company 
in  order  that  the  Government  may  be  enabled  to  make  grants  or  sales 
of  land  for  other  establishments  which  may  desire  to  locate  themselves 
on  the  line  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  road. 

Paragraph. — The  lands  granted  to  the  company  by  sections  first  and 
second  of  this  article  shall  be  returned  to  the  Republic  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  present  privilege  in  the  terms  and  with  the  formalties  pre- 
scribed in  this  contract. 

Article  X.  In  the  grant  of  vacant  lands  in  perpetuity  made  to  the 
company  by  the  contract  of  1850  and  ratified  in  section  third  of  Arti- 
cle IX  of  this  contract,  there  is  not  included  the  number  of  hectares 
contained  in  the  island  of  Manzanillo  in  the  bay  of  Limon,  but  they 
are  included  in  the  grants  treated  of  in  the  first  and  second  sections  of 
the  article  cited,  with  the  exception  of  4  hectares  which  the  Govern- 


2J3U  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

ment  reserves  as  an  area  for  the  construction  of  buildings  for  public 
offices,  schoolhouses,  prison,  and  other  objects  of  public  use,  which 
shall  be  delivered  by  the  company  properly  graded  and  in  condition 
for  building  upon  them.  But  it  is  understood  that  in  the  designation 
by  the  Government  of  the  place  or  places  in  which  it  desires  to  take 
the  4  hectares  reserved  to  it  by  this  article,  it  shall  not  choose  those 
which  may  be  necessary  for  the«construction  and  service  of  the  railway 
and  its  dependencies,  nor  those  which  may  be  already  occupied  b}' 
buildings  now  standing  or  which  are  to  be  reconstructed. 

This  selection  may  be  made  by  the  Government  in  anticipation,  as  it 
may  see  fit,  in  accordance  with  the  plan  of  the  city,  in  order  that  the 
lands  may  be  delivered  to  it  so  soon  as  the  nature  of  the  ground  per- 
mits of  the  grading  being  carried  on. 

Article  XL  The  lands  conceded  to  the  company  by  Article  IX, 
section  third,  shall  be  delivered  as  may  be  requested  on  compliance 
with  the  legal  formalities  established  for  such  cases,  and  it  being  incum- 
bent on  the  company  to  prove  their  character  as  vacant  lands,  to  meas- 
ure them,  and  to  make  the  respective  plans.  The  adjudication  of  said 
lands  shall  be  made  by  the  executive  power,  and  from  the  time  the 
declaration  is  made  in  the  premises  they  shall  be  considered  definite^ 
adjudicated  to  the  company;  but  the  provisional  adjudication  shall  be 
made  by  the  president  of  the  State  of  Panama,  submitted  always  to  the 
examination  and  approval  of  the  national  executive  power,  and  while 
not  disapproved  it  will  only  produce  the  effect  of  preventing  any  ulte- 
rior grant  of  the  same  lands  in  favor  of  a  third  party.  The  Republic 
is  not  bound  in  any  case  to  the  vacating  and  guaranteeing  the  title  of 
the  vacant  lands  which  may  be  adjudicated  to  the  company. 

The  executive  power  will  fix  a  time  in  agreement  with  the  compan}T 
within  which  the  latter  shall  be  bound  to  designate  the  vacant  lands  to 
which  it  has  the  right. 

Article  XII.  When  the  lands  which  may  be  required  for  the  exten- 
sion of  the  line  of  the  railroad,  as  referred  to  in  Article  IV  of  this  con- 
tract, or  for  changes  of  direction  of  the  line,  or  for  the  establishment 
of  a  second  line  of  rails,  shall  be  the  property  of  private  individuals, 
the  company  shall  have  the  right  to  obtain  them  on  an  official  appraise- 
ment and  the  just  indemnification  of  the  proprietor,  in  conformity  with 
the  dispositions  of  the  law  of  the  22d  of  Miiy,  1866,  "concerning  the 
mode  of  proceeding  in  those  civil  cases,  the  cognizance  of  wThich  apper- 
tains to  the  tribunals  of  the  Union." 

Article  XIII.  The  railroad  enterprise  is  esteemed  of  public  utility. 

Article  XIV.  The  company  is  authorized  to  propose  to  the  execu- 
tive power  the  regulations  which  it  may  judge  proper  for  the  police, 
security,  and  preservation  of  its  ways  of  communication,  ports,  works, 
and  establishments  of  all  kinds;  but  such  regulations  shall  not  be  put 
in  force  without  the  express  approval  of  the  executive  power,  which, 
even  after  having  approved  them,  may  amend  or  annul  them  as  it  may 
deem  proper,  proceeding  always  in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  the 
Republic. 

The  company  continues  authorized  to  propose  to  the  executive  power  the  regula- 
tions which  it  may  judge  proper  for  the  police,  security,  and  preservation  of  its  ways 
of  communication,  ports,  works,  and  establishments  of  all  kinds. 

Such  regulations  shall  not  be  carried  into  effect  without  the  express  approval  of 
the  executive  power;  but  the  latter,  after  having  approved  them,  can  not  change 
them  nor  annul  them  without  the  consent  of  the  company. — Article  II  of  contract  of 
1S7G. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION  231 

Article  XV.  The  tariff  of  charges  and  freights  on  money,  carriage 
of  merchandise,  and  transport  of  travelers  over  the  railroad,  board 
and  storage  in  the  depots  and  establishments  of  the  company,  shall  be 
fixed  by  it,  and  modified  as  it  may  deem  best  for  its  interests,  but  it 
shall  be  bound  to  inform  the  local  authorities  of  said  tariffs  and  modi- 
ficationa  with  at  least  thirty  days'  previous  notice. 

Article  XVI.  Tin'  company  binds  itself  to  transport  gratis  over 
the  railroad  the  national  and  state  mails  that  may  have  to  be  carried 
from  ocean  to  ocean  or  to  any  intermediate  point;  and  it  may  make 
such  pecuniary  arrangements  as  it  thinks  proper  for  the  transportation 
of  foreign  mails,  the  passage  of  which  over  the  isthmus  is  declared 
free  to  all  nations;  but  the  Government  of  the  Republic  may  prohibit 
the  passage  by  the  railroad  of  the  mails  of  those  nations  that  may  be 
at  war  with  it,  in  which  case  the  company  shall  refuse  to  carry  them 
over  the  railroad. 

Article  XVII.  The  compan}7  may  freely  introduce  into  the  isthmus 
without  payment  of  duties  or  imposts  of  any  kind  all  the  implements, 
machines,  tools,  materials,  provisions,  and  manufactured  articles 
intended  for  the  construction,  working,  and  preservation  of  the  rail- 
road, and  the  provisioning  of  the  workmen  employed  on  it. 

Article  XVIII.  The  eompan}T  is  exempt  from  paying  taxes  or 
contributions,  national,  municipal,  of  the  State,  or  of  any  other  kind, 
upon  the  railroau,  its  warehouses,  wharves,  machines  or  other  works, 
things  and  effects  of  any  kind  belonging  to  it,  and  which  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  executive  power  are  necessary  for  the  service  of  the  said 
railroad  and  its  dependencies. 

Article  XIX.  In  compensation  for  these  exemptions  the  company 
binds  itself  to  transport  gratuitously,  and  without  the  Government 
having  to  pa}T  anything  either  for  freight  or  for  any  other  cause,  the 
troops,  chiefs,  and  officers,  and  their  equipage,  ammunition,  armament, 
clothing,  and  all  similar  effects  that  may  belong  to,  are  or  may  be 
destined  for  the  immediate  service  of  the  Government  of  the  Republic, 
or  of  the  State  of  Panama,  as  also  their  officials  in  service  or  in  com- 
mission, and  those  individuals  who,  with  their  families  and  baggage, 
may  come  to  the  country  in  the  character  of  emigrants,  and  of  new 
settlers,  with  the  permanent  character  of  such,  for  account  of  the 
Government,  up  to  the  number  of  2,000  annually.  The  executive 
power  shall  dictate  the  provisions  as  it  may  deem  proper  in  such  cases, 
in  order  to  prevent  those  passengers  whose  entry  into  Colombian  ter- 
ritory may  be  purely  accidental  from  availing  themselves  of  this  con- 
cession. 

The  executive  power  of  the  Union  shall  dictate  the  provisions  which  may  be  nec- 
essary, at  the  request  of  the  company,  to  prevent  abuses  in  the  gratuitous  passage 
which  Article  XIX  of  the  aforesaid  contract  concedes  to  national  employees  and 
those  of  the  State  of  Panama. — Article  IV  of  contract  of  1876. 

Article  XX.  Colombian  productions  shall  be  transported  b}T  the 
railroad  during  the  first  twenty  years  of  this  contract,  paving  only 
one-half  the  rates  of  freight  or  transportation  previously  fixed  by  the 
company  for  foreign  products  of  the  same  class,  but,  this  term  being 
concluded,  they  shall  pay  a  charge  or  freight  not  exceeding  two-thirds 
of  that  previously  fixed  in  the  tariff  of  the  company — tariff  rates  which 
the  company  can  not  increase  in  future  in  regard  to  Colombian  pro- 
ductions. 

In  order  that  Colombian  products  may  be  transported  by  the  railroad  under  the 
conditions  of  Article  XX  of  the  same  contract,  there  must"  precede  a  declaration  of 


232  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  shipper,  duly  attested  by  the  bill  of  lading  of  shipment,  with  a  certificate  of  the 
administrator  of  the  national  treasury  at  the  port  of  shipment,  or  other  similar  docu- 
ment, at  the  time  of  offering  them,  that  such  products  are  really  Colombian;  a  nec- 
essary condition,  without  Which  there  shall  be  no  ground  for  any  claim. — Article  V 
of  contract  of  1876. 

Article  XXI. — Passengers,  money,  merchandise,  objects,  and 
effects  of  all  kinds,  destined  for  interoceanic  transit  over  the  railroad, 
while  they  remain  in  the  warehouses  and  depots  of  the  company,  or  in 
its  possession,  are  exempt  from  dues  and  taxes,  national,  municipal,  of 
the  State,  or  of  any  other  description.  In  like  manner  the  vessels 
which  may  enter  the  ports  at  the  termini  of  the  railroad,  as  well  as 
their  officers,  crews,  and  their  agents,  shall  be  exempt  from  the  pay- 
ment of  tonnage  dues,  or  of  any  other  tax  or  contribution  whatever 
on  account  of  service  applied  directty  to  the  interoceanic  transit. 

Article  XXII. — Travelers  passing  from  one  sea  to  the  other  over 
the  railroad  shall  not  require  any  passports  to  pass  over  it,  excepting 
in  cases  of  foreign  war  or  internal  commotion,  when  the  Government 
may  deem  the  presentation  of  passports  expedient  for  the  security  of 
the  country  or  the  preservation  of  public  order.  Nevertheless,  per- 
sons who  have  been  expelled  from  the  territory  of  the  Republic,  or 
other  individuals  whom  the  laws  forbid  an  entrance  into  the  country, 
shall  not  pass  over  the  railroad. 

Article  XXIII.  In  case  the  present  privilege  conceded  to  the  com- 
pany  shall  be  declared  forfeited  by  the  competent  tribunal,  it  shall 
return  to  the  Republic  such  lands  granted  in  ownership,  and  by  gra- 
tuitous title,  as  may  not  be  alread}-  transferred  in  fee  to  a  third  party, 
and  it  shall  have  no  right  to  exact  any  indemnification  for  improve- 
ments nor  for  any  other  cause. 

Article  XXIV.  It  is  obligatory  upon  the  compan}T  to  make  a  sur- 
vey of  the  lands,  with  notice  to  the  owners  of  adjoining  lands,  and  to 
make  a  topographical  plan  of  the  road,  with  all  its  dependencies,  such 
as  bridges,  aqueducts,  viaducts,  and  other  works  which  it  may  have 
constructed  for  the  service  of  the  railroad,  in  order  that  by  means  of 
such  plan  it  may  be  clearly  known  what  the  companjT  holds  in  owner- 
ship and  to  what  purpose  the  exemptions  provided  for  are  destined. 

Article  XXV.  The  company  binds  itself  to  execute  constantly, 
with  all  care,  punctuality,  and  celerity,  the  transportation  of  the  trav- 
elers, cattle,  merchandise,  goods,  and  materials  of  all  kinds  that  may 
be  confided  to  it,  payment  being  made  of  the  charges  and  prices  of 
transportation  that  may  be  fixed  in  the  respective  tariff.  The  dispo- 
sition of  this  article  is,  nevertheless,  no  obstacle  to  the  company's 
entering  into  special  contracts  for  the  transportation  of  articles  whose 
bulk,  weight,  or  exceptional  nature  do  not  allow  of  their  freights 
being  fixed  beforehand. 

The  provision  of  the  final  part  of  Article  XXV  of  the  aforesaid  contract  of  1867, 
by  which  the  company  was  permitted  to  enter  into  special  contracts  for  the  trans- 
portation of  articles  whose  bulk,  weight,  or  exceptional  nature  would  not  allow  of 
their  freights  being  fixed  beforehand,  is  made  applicable  to  all  kinds  of  articles  of 
commerce. — Article  III  of  contract  of  1876. 

Article  XXVI.  Vessels  of  nations  which  may  be  at  war  with  the 
United  States  of  Colombia  shall  not  be  admitted  to  the  ports  situated 
at  either  extremity  of  the  railroad,  nor  shall  the  productions,  effects, 
and  property  of  such  nations  enjoy  the  free  transit  of  the  isthmus  over 
the  said  road. 

Article  XXVII.  It  is  obligatory  upon  the  conipanv  to  maintain 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  233 

constantly  in  Panama  or  Colon  a  representative  with  sufficient  power 
and  authority  to  treat,  whenever  it  may  be  necessary,  personally  with 
the  Government  on  matters  having  relation  to  the  enterprise. 

Article  XXVI 1 1.  The  present  privilege  can  not  be  ceded  or  trans- 
ferred to  any  foreign  Government;  that  is  to  say,  to  any  Government 
existing  outside  of  Colombian  territory,  under  pain  of  forfeiture  of 
the  said  privilege  by  the  mere  act  of  attempting  or  verifying  such  ces- 
sion or  transfer,  which  act,  from  the  present  time,  is  declared  abso- 
lutely null  and  of  no  value  or  effect.  This  privilege  shall  also  be  for- 
feited in  case  the  railroad  company  shall  not  execute  the  transporta- 
tion during  a  period  exceeding  four  consecutive  months  (fortuitous 
cases  excepted). 

This  privilege  will  also  be  forfeited  by  the  failure  of  payment,  after 
being  one  year  overdue,  of  any  of  the  quarterly  payments.  Delay  in 
the  payments  for  a  less  period  subjects  the  company  to  the  payment 
of  interest  at  the  rate  of  7  per  cent  per  annum. 

None  of  the  cases  of  forfeiture  of  the  privilege  fixed  in  Article  XXVIII  shall  go 
into  effect  until  the  resolution  of  the  Government  in  which  the  declaration  of  for- 
feiture is  made  is  served  in  due  form,  and  at  least  three  months  in  advance,  on  the 
company  and  on  the  agents  of  the  persons  to  whom  the  Government  may  transfer 
or  hypothecate  the  revenue  to  which  it  is  entitled  by  Article  III,  if  said  transfer  or 
hypothecation  shall  have  taken  place;  it  being  understood  that  if,  after  the  notifica- 
tion has  been  given,  and  during  the  aforesaid  three  months,  the  company,  or  the 
interested  persons  of  whom  mention  has  been  made,  shall  satisfy  the  Government, 
causing  the  reason  for  complaint  or  forfeiture  to  disappear,  the  said  declaration  shall 
not  be  carried  into  effect. — Article  VI of contract  of  1876. 

The  Government  reserves  to  itself  the  right  to  hypothecate,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
the  revenue,  of  which  mention  has  been  made  in  Article  VI  of  this  contract  (except 
the  right  of  the  State  of  Panama  to  the  annual  proportion  of  $25,000),  before  the 
time  at  which  said  revenue  is  to  be  paid,  and  whatever  may  be  hypothecated  shall 
be  payable  in  such  a  manner  as  the  Government  may  direct;  and  the  railroad  com- 
pany binds  itself,  on  being  notified  of  any  transfer  or  hypothecation,  to  accept  it  and 
to  make  payment  at  the  maturity  of  the  installments  to  the  persons  or  parties  in 
whose  favor  the  transfer  or  hypothecation  may  have  been  made. — Article  VIII of 
contract  of  1876. 

Article  XXIX. — In  case  of  the  forfeiture  of  this  privilege  from 
any  cause,  the  ownership  and  full  possession  of  the  railroad,  with  all 
its  dependencies,  appurtenances,  and  accessories,  shall  pass  to  the 
Republic  without  the  company's  having  thereby  any  right  to  indem- 
nification or  remuneration  of  any  kind. 

Article  XXX. — The  Government  of  the  Republic  binds  itself  to 
protect  and  maintain  in  all  their  integrity  the  rights  of  the  company 
resulting  from  the  present  contract;  provided  the  company  complies 
punctually  on  its  part  with  the  duties  and  obligations  which  it  under- 
takes, and  that  the  privilege  continues  in  force. 

Article  XXXI.  The  rights  which  said  Republic  reserved  to  itself 
by  the  contract  of  the  15th  of  April,  1850,  to  redeem  the  privilege  of 
the  company,  being  especially  lrypothecated  as  an  additional  security 
for  the  loan  contracted  by  the  said  Republic  in  London  under  date  of 
the  1st  of  October,  1863,  it  is  stipulated  that  the  products  from  the 
railroad,  which  by  this  contract  belong  to  the  Government,  remain 
subsidiarily  applicable  to  the  payment  of  the  obligations  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Republic,  in  regard  to  that  loan,  whether  it  be  to  complete 
the  annual  installments  which  the  Government  is  obliged  to  pay  in 
London  on  account  of  the  interest  and  amortization  of  the  capital,  or 
to  redeem  the  bonds  of  the  loan  at  par,  if  in  1874  their  redemption 
shall  not  have  been  completed. 


234  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Article  XXXII.  In  consequence  of  the  stipulation  in  Article  III, 
the  Government  renounces  the  benefit  or  participation  of  3  per  cent 
which  by  Article  LV  of  the  primitive  contract  it  had  in  the  net  prod- 
ucts of  the  enterprise,  and  the  quota  of  5  per  cent  which  had  also  been 
reserved  in  its  favor  by  Article  XXX  of  said  contract  in  the  transpor- 
tation of  correspondence,  and  which  quota  it  was  stipulated  should  not 
be  less  than  $10,000  annually.  The  account  of  these  profits  shall  be 
liquidated  immediately  in  the  terms  fixed  by  Article  LV,  up  to  the 
da}7  on  which  the  present  contract  begins  to  rule  and  have  effect,  and 
the  payment  of  the  balance  which  may  result  in  favor  of  the  Republic 
shall  be  made  by  the  company  in  New  York  to  the  order  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. 

Article  XXXIII.  Questions  which  may  arise  between  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Republic  and  the  railroad  compan}7  concerning-  the  under- 
standing or  the  fulfillment  of  this  contract,  shall  be  decided  by  the 
courts  and  tribunals  of  the  Colombian  Union  according-  to  the  consti- 
tution and  laws  of  the  Republic. 

Questions  that  may  arise  between  the  Government  of  the  Republic  and  the  rail- 
road company  as  to  the  understanding  or  the  execution  of  this  contract,  and  of  those 
of  1850  and  1867,  to  which  this  one  refers,  shall  be  decided  without  appeal  by  the 
federal  supreme  court  of  the  Colombian  Union  without  the  intervention  of  any  other 
tribunal. — Article  VII  of  contract  of  1876. 

Article  XXXV.  The  ninety-nine  years  of  the  duration  of  the  privi- 
lege conceded  by  this  contract  shall  be  counted  from  the  date  on  which 
it  may  be  approved  by  the  Congress. a 

Article  XXXVI.  At  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  the  privilege,  and 
by  the  sole  fact  of  its  expiration,  the  Government  of  the  Colombian 
Union  shall  be  substituted  in  all  the  rights  of  the  company,  and  shall 
enter  immediately  into  the  enjoyment  of  the  line  of  communication,  of 
all  its  fixtures,  of  all  its  dependencies,  and  of  all  its  products.  The 
company  shall  be  bound  to  deliver  to  the  Government,  in  good  order, 
the  roads,  the  works  which  compose  them,  and  their  dependencies, 
such  as  landing  and  discharging  places,  offices,  machines,  and  in  gen- 
eral whatever  movable  or  immovable  objects,  whether  destined  for 
the  especial  service  of  transportation  or  applicable  to  an}f  other  object 
connected  with  the  enterprise. 

Article  XXXVII.  The  present  contract  contains  all  the  conces- 
sions and  privileges  which  the  existing  Panama  Railroad  Company  has 
acquired  for  the  future.  In  virtue  of  which  it  is  declared,  and  the 
parties  hereby  expressly  agree,  that  at  no  time  can  the  company  claim 
rights  or  privileges  which  are  clearly  not  contained  in  this  contract, 
unless  they  may  be  granted  by  subsequent  acts. 

Article  XXXVIII.  The  contract  of  the  15th  of  April,  1850, 
approved  by  the  Legislative  decree  of  the  4th  of  June  of  the  same  year,  is 
hereby  re-formed  by  the  terms  of  the  present  contract;  and  extended  as 
it  is  in  thirty-eight  articles,  it  shall  be  submitted  to  the  approval  of  the 
executive  power  of  the  Republic,  and,  when  obtained,  it  shall  be  pre- 
sented to  Congress,  the  consent  of  which  is  required  in  order  that, 
being  enacted  into  a  law,  it  may  be  carried  into  effect.1' 

» Which  was  August  L6,  L867. 

b  Congress  approved  August  16,  1867. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  235 

AMENDMENTS   AGREED  UPON  BETWEEN  THE  PANAMA  RAILROAD  COMPANY 
AND   THE   REPUBLIC   OF   COLOMBIA,  AUGUST   18,  1891. 

Article  I.  Article  XX  of  the  contract  of  July  5,  1867,  approved 
by  law  No.  16  of  the  same  year,  shall  read  as  follows: 

From  and  after  Jul}'  1,  1892,  Colombian  products  passing  over  the 
Panama  Railroad  shall  pay  onl}r  half  of  the  rate  of  freight  established' 
by  the  company  for  foreign  products  of  the  same  class. 

Article  II.  Salt  from  the  Colombian  salt  pits  of  the  Atlantic  coast 
intended  for  the  national  ports  of  the  Pacific  shall  be  transported  by 
the  same  railroad  company  at  the  following-  rates: 

A  quantity  not  exceeding  6,000,000  of  kilograms  each  year,  and 
which  shall  in  no  case  exceed  1,000  tons  per  month,  at  the  rate  of  $2 
gold  per  ton  without  any  deduction.  Shipments  of  the  salt  referred 
to  that  may  exceed  the  quantity  above  stated  shall  pay  the  rate  that  is 
established  for  the  other  Colombian  products  in  the  previous  article. 


Appendix  G  G. 
WYSE  CONCESSION,  MARCH  20,  1878.R 


CONTRACT   FOR  THE   CONSTRUCTION  OF  AN   INTEROCEANIC   CANAL  ACROSS 
COLUMBIAN   TERRITORY. 

Eustorgio  Salgar,  secretary  of  the  interior  and  of  foreign  relations 
of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  duly  authorized  of  the  one  part, 
and  of  the  other  part  Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse,  chief  of  the  Isthmus  Scien- 
tific Surveying  Expedition  in  1876,  1877,  and  1878,  member  and  dele- 
gate of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  International  Interoceanic  Canal 
Association,  presided  by  General  Etienne  Tiirr,  in  conformity  with 
powers  bestowed  at  Paris,  from  the  27th  to  the  29th  of  October,  1877, 
have  celebrated  the  following  contract: 

Article  I.  The  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia 
grants  to  Mr.  Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse,  who  accepts  it  in  the  name  of  the 
civil  International  Interoceanic  Canal  Association,  represented  by  their 
board  of  directors,  the  exclusive  privilege  for  the  construction  across 
its  territory  and  for  the  operating  of  a  canal  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans.  Said  canal  may  be  constructed  without  restrictive 
stipulations  of  any  kind. 

This  concession  is  made  under  the  following  conditions: 

First.  The  duration  of  the  privilege  shall  be  for  ninety-nine  years 
from  the  day  on  which  the  canal  shall  be  wholly  or  partially  opened 
to  public  service,  or  when  the  grantees  or  their  representatives  com- 
mence to  collect  the  dues  on  transit  and  navigation. 

Second.  From  the  date  of  approbation  by  the  Colombia  Congress 
for  the  opening  of  the  interoceanic  canal,  the  Government  of  the 
Republic  can  not  construct,  nor  concede  to  any  company  or  individual, 
under  any  consideration  whatever,  the  right  to  construct  another  canal 
across  Colombian  territory  which  shall  communicate  the  two  oceans. 
Should  the  grantees  wish  to  construct  a  railroad  as  an  auxiliary  to  the 
canal,  the  Government  (with  the  exception  of  existing  rights)  can  not 
grant  to  any  other  company  or  individual  the  right  to  build  another 
interoceanic  railroad,  nor  do  so  itself,  during  the  time  allowed  for  the 
construction  and  use  of  the  canal. 

Third.  The  necessary  studies  of  the  ground  and  the  route  for  the 
line  of  the  canal  shall  be  made  at  the  expense  of  the  grantees  by  an 
international  commission  of  individuals  and  competent  engineers  in 
which  two  Colombian  engineers  shall  take  part.  The  commission  shall 
determine  the  general  route  of  the  canal  and  report  to  the  Colombian 

a  Translation  from  the  Diario  Official  of  Bogota,  Wednesday,  May  22,  1878. 

237 


238  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Government  directly,  or  to  its  diplomatic  agents  in  the  United  States 
or  Europe,  upon  the  results  obtained,  at  the  latest  in  1881,  unless  una- 
voidable circumstances,  clearly  proven,  should  prevent  their  so  doing-. 
The  report  shall  comprise  in  duplicate  the  scientific  labors  performed 
and  an  estimate  of  the  projected  work. 

Fourth.  The  grantees  shall  then  have  a  period  of  two  years  to  organ- 
ize a  universal  joint  stock  company,  which  shall  take  charge  of  the 
enterprise  and  of  the  construction  of  the  canal.  This  term  shall  com- 
mence from  the  date  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

Fifth.  The  canal  shall  'be  finished  and  placed  at  the  public  service 
within  the  subsequent  twelve  years  after  the  formation  of  the  com- 
pany which  will  undertake  its  construction,  but  the  executive  power 
is  authorized  to  grant  a  further  maximum  term  of  six  years  in  the  case 
of  encountering  superhuman  obstacles  beyond  the  power  of  the  com- 
pany, and,  if  after  one- third  of  the  canal  is  built,  the  company  should 
acknowledge  the  impossibility  of  concluding  the  work  in  the  said 
twelve  years. 

Sixth.  The  canal  shall  have  the  length,  depth,  and  all  other  condi- 
tions requisite  in  order  that  sailing  vessels  and  steamships  measuring 
up  to  140  meters  long,  16  meters  in  width,  and  8  meters  in  draft  shall, 
with  lowered  topmast,  be  able  to  pass  the  canal. 

Seventh.  All  public  lands  which  may  be  required  for  the  route  of  the 
canal,  the  ports,  stations,  wharves,  moorings,  warehouses,  and  in  general 
for  the  construction  and  service  of  the  canal  as  well  as  for  the  railway, 
should  it  be  convenient  to  build  it,  shall  be  ceded  gratis  to  the  grantees. 

Eighth.  These  unoccupied  public  lands  shall  revert  to  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Republic  with  the  railroad  and  canal  at  the  termination  of 
this  privilege;  there  is  also  granted  for  the  use  of  the  canal  a  belt  of 
land,  200  meters  wide,  on  each  side  of  its  banks  throughout  all  the  dis- 
tance which  it  may  run,  but  the  owners  of  lands  on  its  banks  shall  have 
free  access  to  the  canal  and  its  ports  as  well  as  to  the  right  of  use  of 
any  roads  which  the  grantees  may  open  there;  and  this  without  paying 
any  dues  to  the  company. 

Ninth.  If  the  lands  through  which  the  canal  shall  pass  or  upon 
which  the  railroad  may  be  built  should  in  whole  or  in  part  be  private 
property  the  grantee  shall  have  the  right  to  demand  their  expropria- 
tion by  the  Government  according  to  all  the  legal  formalities  in  such 
cases.  The  indemnity  which  shall  be  made  to  the  landowners,  and 
which  shall  be  based  on  their  actual  value,  shall  be  at  the  expense  of 
the  company.  The  grantees  shall  enjoy  in  this  case,  and  in  those  of 
temporary  occupation  of  private  property,  all  the  rights  and  privileges 
which  the  existing  legislation  confers. 

Tenth.  The  grantees  may  establish  and  operate  at  their  cost  the 
telegraph  lines  which  they  may  consider  useful  as  auxiliaries  in  the 
building  and  management  of  the  canal. 

Eleventh.  It  is,  however,  stipulated  and  agreed,  that  if,  before  the 
payment  of  the  security  determined  upon  in  Article  II,  the  Colombian 
Government  should  receive  any  formal  proposal,  sufficiently  guaran- 
teed in  the  opinion  of  the  said  Government,  to  construct  the  canal  in 
less  time  and  under  more  advantageous  conditions  for  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  said  proposal  shall  be  communicated  to  the  grantees 
or  their  representatives  that  they  may  be  substituted  therein,  in  which 
ease  they  shall  be  preferred;  but  if  they  do  not  accept  such  substitu- 
tion the  Colombian  Government,  in  the  new  contract  which  they  may 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  230 

celebrate,  shall  exact,  besides  the  guarantee  mentioned  in  Article  II, 
the  sum  of  $300,000  in  coin,  which  shall  be  given  as  indemnity  to  the 
grantees. 

Article  II.  Within  the  term  of  twelve  months  from  the  date  at 
which  the  international  commission  shall  have  presented  the  definite 
results  of  their  studies,  the  grantees  shall  deposit  in  the  bank  or  banks 
of  London,  to  be  designated  by  the  national  executive  power,  the  sum' 
of  750,000  francs,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  paper  money,  as  security  for 
the  execution  of  the  work.  The  receipt  of  said  banks  shall  be  a 
voucher  for  the  fulfillment  of  said  deposit.  It  is  understood  that  if 
the  grantees  should  lose  that  deposit  by  virtue  of  the  stipulations  con- 
tained in  clauses  2  and  3  of  Article  XXII  of  the  present  contract,  the 
sum  referred  to,  with  interest  accrued,  shall  become  in  toto  the  property 
of  the  Colombian  Government.  After  the  conclusion  of  the  canal, 
said  sum,  without  interest,  which  latter  will  in  this  case  belong  to 
grantees,  shall  lemain  for  benefit  of  the  treasury,  for  the  outlays 
which  it  may  have  incurred  or  may  incur  in  the  construction  of  build- 
ings for  the  service  of  the  public  officers. 

Article  III.  If  the  line  of  the  canal  to  be  constructed  from  sea  to 
sea  should  pass  to  the  west  and  to  the  north  of  the  imaginary  straight 
line  which  joins  Cape  Tiburon  with  Garachine  Point,  the  grantees 
must  enter  into  some  amicable  arrangement  with  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company,  or  pay  an  indemnity,  which  shall  be  established  in  accord- 
ance with  the  provisions  of  law  46,  of  August  16,  1867,  "approving 
the  contract  celebrated  on  July  5,  1867,  reformatory  of  the  contract 
of  April  15,  1850,  for  the  construction  of  an  iron  railroad  from  one 
ocean  to  the  other  through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama." 

In  case  the  international  commission  should  choose  the  Atrato,  or 
some  other  stream  alread}^  navigable,  as  one  of  the  entrances  to  the 
canal,  the  ingress  and  egress  by  such  stream,  and  the  navigation  of  its 
waters,  so  long  as  it  is  not  intended  to  cross  the  canal,  shall  be  open 
to  commerce  and  free  from  all  imposts. 

Article  IV.  Besides  the  lands  granted  in  paragraphs  7  and  8  of 
Article  I,  there  shall  be  awarded  to  the  grantees,  as  an  aid  for  the 
accomplishment  of  the  work,  and  not  otherwise,  500,000  hectares  of 
public  lands,  with  the  mines  they  may  comprise,  in  the  localities  which 
the  company  may  select.  This  award  shall  be  made  directly  by  the 
national  executive  power.  The  public  lands  situated  on  the  seacoast, 
on  the  borders  of  the  canal  or  of  the  rivers,  shall  be  divided  in  alternate 
lots  between  the  Government  and  the  company,  forming  areas  of  from 
one  to  two  thousand  hectares.  The  measurements  for  the  allotment  or 
locating  shall  be  made  at  the  expense  of  the  grantees  and  with  the 
intervention  of  Government  commissioners.  The  public  lands  thus 
granted,  with  the  mines  they  may  hold,  shall  be  awarded  to  the  grantees 
as  fast  as  the  work  of  construction  of  the  canal  progresses,  and  in 
accordance  with  rules  to  be  laid  down  by  the  executive  power. 

Within  a  belt  of  2  myriameters  on  each  side  of  the  canal,  and  dur- 
ing five  years  after  the  termination  of  the  work,  the  Government  shall 
not.have  the  right  to  grant  other  lands  beyond  the  said  lots  until  the 
company  shall  have  called  for  the  whole  number  of  lots  granted  by  this 
article. 

Article  V.  The  Government  of  the  Republic  hereby  declares  the 
ports  at  each  end  of  the  canal,  and  the  waters  of  the  latter  from  sea  to 
sea,  to  be  neutral  for  all  time;  and,  consequently,  in  case  of  war  among 


240  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

other  nations,  the  transit  through  the  canal  shall  not  be  interrupted 
by  such  event,  and  the  merchant  vessels  and  individuals  of  all  nations 
of  the  world  may  enter  into  said  ports  and  travel  on  the  canal  without 
being  molested  or  detained.  In  general,  any  vessel  may  pass  freely 
without  any  discrimination,  exclusion,  or  preference  of  nationalities 
or  persons,  on  payment  of  the  dues  and  the  observance  of  the  rules 
established  by  the  company  for  the  use  of  the  canal  and  its  depend- 
encies. Exception  is  to  be  made  of  foreign  troops,  which  shall  not 
have  the  right  to  pass  without  permission  from  Congress,  and  of  the 
vessels  of  nations  which,  being  at  war  with  the  United  States  of  Colom- 
bia, may  not  have  obtained  the  right  to  pass  through  the  canal  at 
all  times,  by  public  treaties  wherein  is  guaranteed  the  sovereignty  of 
Colombia  over  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  over  the  territory  whereon 
the  canal  is  to  be  cut,  besides  immunity  and  neutrality  of  the  said 
canal,  its  ports,  bays,  and  dependencies  and  the  adjacent  seas. 

Article  VI.  The  United  States  of  Colombia  reserves  to  them- 
selves the  right  to  pass  their  vessels,  troops,  ammunitions  of  war 
at  all  times  and  without  paying  any  dues  whatever.  The  passage  of 
the  canal  is  strictly  closed  to  war  vessels  of  nations  at  war,  and  which 
may  not  have  acquired,  by  public  treat}'  with  the  Colombian  Govern- 
ment, the  right  to  pass  by  the  canal  at  all  times. 

Article  VII.  The  grantees  will  enjoy  the  right  during  the  whole 
time  of  the  privilege  to  use  the  ports  at  the  termini  of  the  canal,  as 
well  as  at  intermediate  points,  for  the  anchorage  and  repair  of  ships 
and  the  loading,  depositing,  transshipping,  or  landing  of  merchandise. 
The  ports  of  the  canal  shall  be  open  and  free  to  the  commerce  of  all 
nations,  and  no  import  duties  shall  be  exacted  except  on  merchandise 
destined  to  be  introduced  for  the  consumption  of  the  rest  of  the  Repub- 
lic. The  said  ports  shall  therefore  be  open  to  importations  from  the 
commencement  of  the  work,  and  the  custom-houses  and  the  revenue 
service  which  the  Government  may  deem  convenient  for  the  collection 
of  duties  on  merchandise  destined  for  other  portions  of  the  Republic 
shall  be  established,  in  order  to  prevent  introduction  of  smuggled 
goods. 

Article  VIII.  The  executive  power  shall  dictate,  for  the  protection 
of  the  financial  interests  of  the  Republic,  the  regulations  conducive  to 
the  prevention  of  smuggling,  and  shall  have  the  power  to  station,  at 
the  cost  of  the  nation,  the  number  of  men  which  they  may  deem  neces- 
sary for  that  service. 

Out  of  the  indispensable  officials  for  that  service,  ten  shall  be  paid 
by  the  company,  and  their  salaries  shall  not  exceed  those  enjoyed  by 
employees  of  the  same  rank  in  the  Baranquilla  custom-house. 

The  company  shall  carry  gratis  through  the  canal,  or  on  the  auxil- 
iary railway,  the  men  destined  for  the  service  of  the  nation,  for  the 
service  of  the  State  through  whose  territory  the  canal  may  pass,  or 
for  the  service  of  the  police,  with  the  object  of  guarding  against  foreign 
enemies,  or  for  the  preservation  of  public  order,  and  shall  also  trans- 
port gratis  the  baggage  of  such  men,  their  war  materials,  armament, 
and  clothing  which  they  may  need  for  the  service  assigned  to  them. 

The  subsistence  of  the  public  force  which  may  be  deemed  necessary 
for  the  safety  of  the  interoceanic  transit  shall  likewise  be  at  the  expense 
of  the  company. 

Article  IX.  The  grantee  shall  have  the  right  to  introduce,  free  of 
import  or  other  duties  of  whatever  class,  all  the  instruments,  machin- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  241 

ery,  tools,  fixtures,  provisions,  clothing  for  laborers  which  they  may 
need  during  all  the  time  allowed  to  them  for  the  construction  and  use 
of  the  canal.  The  ships  carrying  cargoes,  for  the  use  of  the  enter- 
prise shall  enjoy  free  entry  into  whatever  point  shall  afford  them  easy 
access  to  the  line  of  the  canal. 

Article  X.  No  taxes,  either  national,  municipal,  of  the  State,  or' 
of  any  other  class,  shall  be  levied  upon  the  canal,  the  ships  that  navi- 
gate it,  the  tugs  and  vessels  at  the  service  of  the  grantees,  their  ware- 
houses, workshops,  and  offices,  factories  of  whatever  class,  storehouses, 
wharves,  machinery,  or  other  works  or  property  of  whatever  character 
belonging  to  them,  and  which  they  may  need  for  the  service  of  the 
canal  and  its  dependencies  during  the  time  conceded  for  its  construc- 
tion and  operation.  The  grantees  shall  also  have  the  right  to  take 
from  unoccupied  lands  the  materials  of  any  kind  which  they  may 
require  without  paying  any  compensation  for  the  same. 

Article  XL  The  passengers,  money,  precious  metals,  merchandise, 
and  articles  and  effects  of  all  kinds  which  may  be  transported  over  the 
canal,  shall  also  be  exempt  from  all  duties,  national,  municipal,  transit, 
and  others.  The  same  exemption  is  extended  to  all  articles  and  mer- 
chandise for  interior  or  exterior  commerce  which  may  remain  in 
deposit,  according  to  the  conditions  which  may  be  stipulated,  with  the 
company  in  the  storehouses  and  stations  belonging  to  them. 

Article  XII.  Ships  desiring  to  cross  the  canal  shall  present  at  the 
port  of  the  terminus  of  the  canal  at  which  they  may  arrive  their 
respective  registers  and  other  sailing  papers,  prescribed  by  the  laws 
and  public  treaties,  so  that  the  vessels  may  navigate  without  interrup- 
tion. Vessels  not  having  said  papers,  or  which  should  refuse  to  pre- 
sent them,  may  be  detained  and  proceeded  against  according  to  law. 

Article  XIII.  The  Government  allows  the  immigration  and  free 
access  to  the  lands  and  shops  of  the  grantees  of  all  the  employees  and 
workingmen  of  whatever  nationality,  who  may  be  contracted  for  the 
work,  or  who  may  come  to  engage  themselves  to  work  on  the  canal,  on 
condition  that  such  employees  or  laborers  shall  submit  to  the  existing 
laws,  and  to  the  regulations  established  by  the  company.  The  Gov- 
ernment promises  them  support  and  protection,  and  the  enjojmient  of 
their  rights  and  guaranties,  in  conformity  with  the  national  constitu- 
tion and  laws  during  the  time  they  may  sojourn  on  the  Colombian 
territory. 

The  national  peons  and  laborers  employed  on  the  work  of  the  canal 
shall  be  exempt  from  all  requisition  of  militaiy  service,  national  as 
well  as  of  the  State. 

Article  XIV.  In  order  to  indemnif}^  the  grantees  of  the  construc- 
tion, maintenance,  and  working  expenses  incurred  by  them,  they  shall 
have,  during  the  whole  period  of  the  privilege,  the  exclusive  right  to 
establish  and  collect  for  the  passage  of  the  canal  and  its  ports,  the  dues 
for  light-houses,  anchorage,  transit,  navigation,  repairs,  pilotage,  tow- 
age, hauling,  storage,  and  of  station  according  to  the  tariff  which  they 
may  issue,  and  which  they  may  modify  at  any  time  under  the  follow- 
ing express  conditions: 

First.  They  shall  collect  these  dues,  without  any  exceptional  favor, 
from  all  vessels  in  like  circumstances. 

Second.  The  tariffs  shall  be  published  four  months  before  their 
enforcement  in  the  Diario  Oticial  of  the  Government,  as  well  as  in  the 
capitals  and  the  principal  commercial  ports  of  the  countries  interested. 
S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 16 


242  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Third.  The  principal  navigation  dues  to  be  collected  shall  not  exceed 
the  sum  of  10  francs  for  each  cubic  meter  resulting  from  the  multipli- 
cation of  the  principal  dimensions  of  the  submerged  part  of  the  ship 
in  transit  (length,  breadth,  and  draft). 

Fourth.  The  principal  dimensions  of  the  ship  in  transit — that  is  to 
say,  the  maximum  exterior  length  and  breadth  at  the  water  line,  as 
well  as  the  greatest  draft — shall  be  the  metrical  dimension  inserted  in 
the  official  clearance  papers,  excepting  any  modifications  supervening 
during  the  voyage.  The  ship's  captains  and  the  company's  agents  may 
demand  a  new  measurement,  which  operations  shall  be  carried  out  at  the 
expense  of  the  petitioner;  and, 

Fifth.  The  same  measurement — that  is  to  say,  the  number  of  cubic 
meters  contained  in  the  parallelopipedon  circumscribing  the  submerged 
part  of  the  ship — shall  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  determination  of  the 
other  accessory  dues. 

Article  XV.  By  way  of  compensation  for  the  rights  and  exemp- 
tions which  are  allowed  to  the  grantees  in  this  contract,  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Republic  shall  be  entitled  to  a  share  amounting  to  5  per 
cent  on  all  collections  made  by  the  company,  by  virtue  of  the  dues 
which  may  be  imposed  in  conforming  with  Article  XIV,  during  the 
first  twenty -five  years  after  the  opening  of  the  canal  to  the  public 
service.  From  the  twenty-sixth  up  to  the  fiftieth  year,  inclusive,  it 
shall  be  entitled  to  a  share  of  C  per  cent;  from  the  fifty-first  to  the 
seventy-fifth  to  7  per  cent,  and  from  the  seventy-sixth  to  the  termina- 
tion of  the  privilege  to  8  per  cent.  It  is  understood  that  these  shares 
shall  be  reckoned,  as  has  been  said,  on  the  gross  income  from  all 
sources,  without  any  deduction  whatever  for  expenses,  interest  on 
shares  or  on  loans  or  debts  against  the  company.  The  Government 
of  the  Republic  shall  have  the  right  to  appoint  a  commissioner  or 
agent,  who  shall  intervene  in  the  collections  and  examine  the  accounts, 
and  the  distribution  or  payment  of  the  shares  coming  to  the  Govern 
ment  shall  be  made  in  due  half-yearly  installments.  The  product  of 
the  5,  6,  7,  and  8  per  cent  shall  be  distributed  as  follows: 

Four-fifths  of  it  shall  go  to  the  Government  of  the  Republic,  and 
the  remaining  one-fifth  to  the  government  of  the  State  through  whose 
territory  the  canal  may  pass. 

The  company  guarantees  to  the  Government  of  Colombia  that  the 
share  of  the  latter  shall  in  no  case  be  less  than  the  sum  of  $250,000  a 
year,  which  is  the  same  as  that  received  as  its  share  in  the  earnings  of 
the  Panama  Railroad,  so  that  if  in  any  year  the  5  per  cent  share  should 
not  reach  said  sum,  it  shall  be  completed  out  of  the  common  funds  of 
the  company. 

Article  XVI.  The  grantees  arc  authorized  to  require  payment  in 
advance  of  any  charges  which  they  may  establish;  nine-tenths  of  these 
charges  shall  be  made  payable  in  gold,  and  only  the  remaining  one- 
tenth  part  shall  be  payable  in  silver  of  25  grams,  of  a  fineness  of  900. 

Article  XVII.  The  ships  which  shall  infringe  upon  the  rules  estab- 
lished by  the  company  shall  be  subject  to  the  payment  of  a  fine  which 
said  company  shall  fix  in  its  regulations,  of  which  due  notice  shall  be 
given  to  the  public  at  the  time  of  the  issue  of  the  tariff.  Should  they 
refuse  to  pay  said  fine,  nor  furnish  sufficient  security,  they  may  be 
detained  and  prosecuted  according  to  the  laws.  The  same  proceedings 
may  be  observed  for  the  damages  they  may  have  caused. 

Article  XVIII.  If  the  opening  of  the  canal  shall  be  deemed  finan- 
cially possible,  the  grantees  are  authorized  to  form,  under  the  imme- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  243 

diate  protection  of  the  Colombian  Government,  a  universal  joint-stock 
company,  which  shall  undertake  the  execution  of  the  work,  taking 
charge  of  all  financial  transactions  which  may  be  needed.  As  this 
enterprise  is  essentially  international  and  for  public  utility,  it  is  under- 
stood that  it  shall  always  be  kept  free  from  political  influences. 

The  company  shall  take  the  name  of  The  Universal  Interoceanic 
Canal  Association;  its  residence  shall  be  fixed  in  Bogota,  New  York, 
London,  or  Paris,  as  the  grantees  may  choose;  branch  offices  may  be 
established  wherever  necessary.  Its  contracts,  shares,  bonds,  and  titles 
of  its  property  shall  never  be  subjected  by  the  Government  of  Colom- 
bia to  any  charges  for  registry,  emission,  stamps,  or  any  similar 
imposts  upon  the  sale  or  transfer  of  these  shares  of  bonds,  as  well  as 
on  the  profits  produced  by  these  values. 

Article  XIX.  The  company  is  authorized  to  reserve  as  much  as  10 
per  cent  of  the  shares  emitted,  to  form  a  fund  of  shares,  to  the  benefit 
of  the  founders  and  promoters  of  the  enterprise.  Of  the  products  of 
the  concern,  the  company  take,  in  the  first  place,  what  is  necessary  to 
cover  all  expenses  of  repairs,  operations,  and  administration,  and  the 
share  which  belongs  to  the  Government,  as  well  as  the  sums  necessary 
for  the  payment  of  the  interest  and  the  amortization  of  the  bonds, 
and,  if  possible,  the  fixed  interest  or  dividend  of  the  shares;  that 
which  remains  will  be  considered  as  net  profit,  out  of  which  80  per 
cent  at  least  will  be  divided  among  the  shareholders. 

Article  XX.  The  Colombian  Government  may  appoint  a  special 
delegate  in  the  board  of  directors  of  the  company  whenever  it  may 
consider  it  useful  to  do  so.  This  delegate  shall  enjoy  the  same  advan- 
tages as  are  granted  to  the  other  directors  by  the  by-laws  of  the 
company. 

The  grantees  pledge  themselves  to  appoint  in  the  capital  of  the  Union, 
near  the  national  Government,  a  duly  authorized  agent  for  the  pur- 
pose of  clearing  up  all  doubts  and  presenting-  any  claims  to  which  this 
contract  may  give  rise.  Reciprocally  and  in  the  same  sense,  the  Gov- 
ernment shall  appoint  an  agent  who  shall  reside  in  the  principal  estab- 
lishment of  the  company  situated  on  the  line  of  the  canal;  and, 
according  to  the  national  constitution,  the  difficalties  which  may  arise 
between  the  contracting  parties  shall  be  submitted  to  the  decision  of 
the  federal  supreme  court. 

Article  XXI.  The  grantees,  or  those  who  in  the  future  may  suc- 
ceed them  in  their  rights,  may  transfer  these  rights  to  other  capital- 
ists or  financial  companies,  but  it  is  absolutely  prohibited  to  cede  or 
mortgage  them  under  any  consideration  whatever  to  any  nation  or 
foreign  government. 

Article  XXII.  The  grantees,  or  their  representatives,  shall  lose 
the  right  hereby  acquired  in  the  following  cases: 

First.  If  they  do  not  deposit,  on  the  terms  agreed  upon,  the  sum 
which  by  wa}^  of  security  must  insure  the  execution  of  the  work. 

Second.  If,  in  the  first  year  of  the  twelve  that  are  allowed  for  the 
construction  of  the  canal,  the  works  are  not  already  commenced,  in  this 
case  the  company  shall  lose  the  sum  deposited  by  way  of  security, 
together  with  the  interest  that  ma}'  have  accrued,  all  of  which  will 
remain  for  the  benefit  of  the  Republic. 

Third.  If,  at  the  end  of  the  second  period  fixed  in  paragraph  5  of 
Article  I,  the  canal  is  not  transitable,  in  this  case  also  the  company 
shall  lose  the  sum  deposited  as  security,  which,  with  the  interests 
accrued,  shall  remain  for  the  benefit  of  the  Republic. 


244  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Fourth.  If  they  violate  the  prescr  ptions  of  Article  XXI;  and, 

Fifth.  If  the  service  of  the  canal  should  be  interrupted  for  a  longer 
period  than  six  months  without  its  being  occasioned  by  the  acts  of 
God,  etc. 

In  cases  2,  3, 4,  and  5,  the  federal  supreme  court  shall  have  the  right 
to  decide  whether  the  privilege  has  become  annulled  or  not. 

Article  XXIII.  In  all  cases  of  decisions  of  nullity,  the  public  lands 
mentioned  in  clauses  7  and  8  of  Article  I,  and  such  lands  as  are  not 
settled  or  inhabited  from  among  those  granted  by  Article  IV,  shall 
revert  to  the  possession  of  the  Republic  in  the  condition  they  may  be 
found  in,  and  without  any  indemnity  whatever,  as  well  as  the  buildings, 
materials,  works,  and  improvements  which  the  grantees  ma}r  possess 
along  the  canal  and  its  accessories.  The  grantees  shall  only  retain 
their  capital,  vessels,  provisions,  and  in  general  all  movable  property. 

Article  XXIV.  Five  years  previous  to  the  expiration  of  the  ninety- 
nine  years  of  the  privilege,  the  executive  power  shall  appoint  a  commis- 
sioner to  examine  the  condition  of  the  canal  and  annexes,  and,  with 
the  knowledge  of  the  companj7  or  its  agents  on  the  isthmus,  to  make 
an  official  report,  describing  in  every  detail  the  condition  of  the  same 
and  pointing  out  what  repairs  may  be  necessary.  This  report  will 
serve  to  establish  in  what  condition  the  canal  and  its  dependencies  shall 
be  delivered  to  the  National  Government  on  the  day  of  expiration  of 
the  privilege  now  granted. 

Article  XXV.  The  enterprise  of  the  canal  is  reputed  to  be  of 
public  utility. 

Article  XXVI.  This  contract,  which  will  serve  as  a  substitute  for 
the  provisions  of  law  33,  of  May  26,  1876,  and  the  clauses  of  the  con- 
tract celebrated  on  the  28th  of  May  of  the  same  year,  shall  be  sub- 
mitted for  the  approval  of  the  President  of  the  Union  and  the  definite 
acceptance  by  the  Congress  of  the  nation. 

In  witness  whereof  they  sign  the  present  in  Bogota,  on  the  20th 
March,  1878. 

ElJSTORGIO    SALGAR, 

Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse. 

Bogota,  March  23,  1878. 

Approved: 

Aquileo  Parro, 

Preside?)  t  of  the  (hi  ion . 

KUSTORGIO    SALGAR, 

Secretanj  of  the  Interior  <tnd  of  Foreign  Relations. 

(By  decree  of  Congress,  May  17,  1878,  approved  May  IS,  1878,  the 
foregoing  contract,  with  certain  modifications  in  the  original  draft,  was 
duly  approved.  In  the  foregoing  translation  of  the  contract  the  modi- 
fications introduced  by  this  decree  have  been  incorporated  for  conveni- 
ence with  the  contract  as  originally  signed,  so  that  the  translation 
represents  the  actual  form  of  the  contract  as  modified  and  finally 
approved  by  Congress.) 

Note  from  Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse,  wherein  he  declares  he  accepts  all 
the  modifications  made  by  law  28  to  the  contract  for  the  construction 
of  the  interoceanic  canal. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  245 

To  the  honorable  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  Foreign  Relations: 

I  have  the  honor  to  inform  yon  that  I  accept  each  and  all  of  the  modifications 
introduced  by  Congress  to  the  contract  which  1  celebrated  with  Sefior  Eustorgio 
Salgar,  yonr  worthy  predecessor  in  the  department  of  the  interior  and  foreign  rela- 
tions, for  the  construction  of  the  interoceanic  canal,  which  contract  was  approved  by 
the  executive  power  under  date  of  March  23  last. 

The  modifications  to  which  I  have  alluded  are  those  recorded  in  law  No.  28  of  the 
18th  instant. 

I  hasten  to  lay  this  declaration  before  the  Government  of  Colombia,  so  that  it  may 
be  taken  in  consideration,  in  order  that  said  law  may  be  effective  in  all  its  parts. 

Bogota,  May  18,  1878. 

Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse, 
Chief  of  the  International  Scientific  <  'ommission  for  the  Survey  of  the  Isthmus, 

Member  and  Delegate  from  the  Board  of  Directors  of the  Interoceanic  Canal  Association. 


Appendix  H  H. 

ADDITIONAL  CONTRACT  MODIFYING  THAT  OF  MARCH  23,  1878, 
APPROVED  BY  LAW  28  OF  THE  SAME  YEAR— LAW  107  OF 
1890.     (DECEMBER  26.) 


EXTENSION   OP    TEN   YEARS   FOR   THE    OPENING   OF    THE    INTEROCEANIC 
CANAL   ACROSS   COLOMBIAN   TERRITORY. 

The  Congress  of  Colombia  decrees: 

Only  Article.  The  contract  modifying  that  of  March  23,  1878,  for 
the  opening  of  an  interoceanic  canal  across  Colombian  territory,  con- 
cluded between  his  excellency  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  Mr. 
Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse,  special  representative  of  the  receiver  of  the  Com- 
pagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  de  Panama,  is  approved  in  all  its  parts, 
which  contract  is  literally  as  follows: 

Antonio  Roldan,  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  duly  authorized  by  His 
Excellency  the  President  of  the  Republic,  hereinafter  called  the  "Gov- 
ernment," of  the  one  part,  and  Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse,  naval  commander, 
engineer,  original  concessionary  of  the  interoceanic  canal,  and  special 
delegate  of  the  receiver  of  the  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  de 
Panama,  under  powers  of  attorney  executed  at  Paris  May  16,  1890, 
hereinafter  called  the  "  concessionary,"  of  the  other  part,  have  agreed 
to  modify  the  contract  of  March  28,  1878,  for  the  opening  of  an  inter- 
oceanic canal  across  Colombian  territory,  approved  by  law  28  of  the 
same  year,  in  accordance  with  the  following  stipulations: 

Article  I.  The  Government  grants  to  the  receiver  of  the  Com- 
pagnie Universelle  du  Canal  de  Panama  an  extension  of  ten  years, 
within  which  the  canal  is  to  be  finished  and  put  in  public  operation. 
The  said  extension  is  consented  to  subject  to  the  following  conditions: 

First.  The  concessionary  agrees  to  transfer  all  the  plant  of  the 
company  in  liquidation  to  a  new  company,  which  shall  undertake  the 
completion  of  the  work  of  the  interoceanic  canal. 

Second.  The  new  company  shall  be  formally  organized  with  a  capital 
sufficient  for  this  purpose,  and  shall  resume  the  work  of  excavation  in 
a  serious  and  permanent  manner  not  later  than  February  28,  1893. 

Third.  The  concessionary,  or  his  successors,  shall  furnish  monthly 
to  the  National  Government  at  Panama  the  sum  of  10,000  piasters,  in 
Colombian  coin  of  0.835,  for  the  maintenance  of  250  men  of  the  mili- 
tary garrison  of  the  department  of  Panama,  whom  the  Government 
undertakes  to  assign  for  the  preservation  of  order  and  for  the  security 
of  the  line  of  the  canal  during  the  work  of  excavation,  and  upon  its 
termination  for  the  protection  of  interoceanic  transit. 

In  case  the  company  should  have  need  of  a  greater  number  of  men 
of  the  public  forces,  the  Government  will  assign  them  to  said  service, 

247 


248  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

taking-  them  from  the  military  garrison  of  the  department,  but  the 
additional  expense  occasioned  by  this  increase,  reckoned  upon  the  basis 
already  established,  shall  also  be  borne  by  the  company. 

The  company  binds  itself  to  furnish  places  set  apart  for  the  occu- 
pancy of  the  troops  upon  points  on  the  line  at  which  the  Government 
has  none  of  its  own.  The  last  part  of  article  8  of  the  original  contract 
for  the  privilege  is  modified  in  these  respects. 

Fourth.  The  navigation  of  the  lakes  which  may  form  part  of  the 
canal  shall  be  free  to  small  vessels,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations 
which  the  company  may  prescribe  for  this  purpose.  The  latter  shall 
not  be  responsible  for  the  inherent  risks  of  this  navigation.  The 
internal  regulation  of  the  lakes  shall  be  settled  by  the  Government  at 
the  proper  time,  taking  into  account  the  general  interests  of  the  enter- 
prise. 

Fifth.  The  company  binds  itself  to  reestablish  public  transit  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  by  means  of  bridges  or  boats,  as  it  shall  con- 
sider most  practicable;  and  if,  in  consequence  of  the  number  of  ves- 
sels, passage  should  become  hereafter  too  difficult,  the  company  shall 
reestablish  it  between  Emperador  and  Arraijan  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  Government. 

Article  II.  Besides  the  public  lands  granted  gratis  by  the  contract 
of  1878,  the  expropriation  of  lands,  buildings,  and  plantations  which 
shall  prove  necessary  to  the  canal  and  its  dependencies  shall  be  made 
by  the  Government,  on  account  of  the  company,  in  conformity  with 
the  ninth  condition  of  Article  1  of  the  aforesaid  contract,  approved  by 
law  28  of  18T8. 

Such  expropriations  shall  be  made  with  all  speed  which  the  legisla- 
tion of  the  country  upon  the  subject  permits.  The  expropriated  real 
estate  shall  be  immediately  delivered  over  to  the  concessionary,  or  his 
successors. 

Article  III.  The  Government  also  undertakes  to  take  the  necessary 
steps  for  restoring  to  the  new  company  the  complete  enjoyment  of 
the  lands  belonging  to  the  company  in  liquidation  unlawfully  occupied 
by  private  persons,  and  to  procure  a  judicial  decree  that  all  persons 
who,  without  previous  consent,  shall  have  built  or  planted  upon  the 
lands  bought  by  the  company  in  liquidation  for  the  purpose  01  works 
of  excavation,  installation,  and  unloading  shall  have  no  right  to  any 
indemnity. 

Article  IV.  As  compensation  for  the  services  which  the  Govern- 
ment agrees  to  render,  in  accordance  with  the  two  preceding  articles,  the 
concessionary,  or  his  successors,  shall  pay  to  the  Government  10,000,000 
francs  in  gold,  and  shall  issue  to  it  gratis  in  addition  5,000,000  francs 
in  10,000  dividend-bearing  shares  of  the  new  company  of  500  francs 
each,  full  paid,  having  the  right  to  no  other  dividends  than  those  which 
are  declared  on  ordinary  shares.  The  said  L0,000  shares  shall  remain 
attached  to  their  respective  stubs  until  the  other  shares  shall  be  full 
paid,  but,  upon  notice  to  the  company,  the  Government  shall  have  the 
power,  when  it  shall  see  fit,  to  assign  or  pledge  them. 

The  10,000,000  francs  to  which  this  article  refers  shall  be  paid  by  the 
concessionary,  or  by  his  successors,  in  live  equal  annual  installments,  the 
first  being  paid  three  months  after  the  new  company  for  the  comple- 
tion of  the  canal  shall  be  fully  organized,  in  conformity  with  the  sec- 
ond condition  of  Article  I.  From  this  sum  shall  be  deducted  2,500,000 
francs,  as  well  as  the  interest  accrued  up  to  the  date  of  the  present 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  249 

contract,  which  the  Government  owes  to  the  company  in  liquidation 
for  the  loan  of  L883,  the  deduction  being  made,  in  the  first  place,  for 
the  purpose  of  fixing  the  amount  of  the  five  installments  just  mentioned. 
By  this  payment  the  said  loan  shall  be  finally  discharged. 

Article  V.  A  special  member,  whom  the  Government  has  the  right 
to  appoint  in  the  company's  board  of  directors,  in  conformity  with 
article  20  of  the  contract  in  force,  shall  enjo^y  in  the  new  company  to 
be  organized  for  the  completion  of  the  canal,  t lie  same  advantages 
and  compensation  granted  to  the  other  directors  by  the  charter  of  the 
company,  but  neither  the  said  appointee  nor  the  official  agent  of  the 
Government  residing  in  the  isthmus,  shall  make  any  publication  rela- 
tive to  the  company  without  the  express  authorization  of  the  Govern- 
ment. 

Article  VI.  If  the  new  company  for  the  completion  of  the  canal 
shall  not  be  organized,  and  if  the  work  of  excavation  on  the  canal 
shall  not  be  resumed  within  the  period  fixed  by  the  second  condition  of 
Article  I,  the  contract  in  force  shall  lapse  and  the  Republic  shall  enter 
into  the  possession  and  enjoyment,  without  the  necessity  of  a  previous 
judicial  decree,  and  without  indemnity,  of  the  works  of  the  canal  and 
its  annexes,  which  revert  to  it  in  accordance  with  article  3  of  the  con- 
tract of  1878. 

Section  1.  It  is  understood  that  the  contract  shall  also  lapse,  and 
the  provisions  of  this  article  shall  become  applicable  if,  the  company 
for  the  completion  of  the  canal  not  being  organized  before  February 
28,  1893,  the  legal  representative  of  the  Compagnie  Universelle  du 
Canal  Interoceanique  or  its  successors  abandon  the  maintenance  of 
the  works,  plant,  and  buildings  now  existing  upon  the  isthmus,  and 
belonging  to  the  company. 

Sec.  2.  The  maintenance  of  the  property  enumerated  in  the  preced- 
ing paragraph  shall  be  considered  abandoned  when  the  legal  repre- 
sentative of  the  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Interoceanique  in 
liquidation,  or  his  successors,  shall  discharge  the  force  of  employees 
which  he  now  has  on  the  isthmus,  or  shall  cease  to  make  the  necessary 
expenditure  for  preventing  the  loss  or  deterioration  of  the  said  prop- 
erty. 

Sec.  3.  It  is,  moreover,  understood  that  the  buildings,  plants,  works, 
and  improvements  which  are  to  become  the  property  of  the  Republic 
under  the  circumstances  provided  in  this  article,  and  in  conformity 
with  article  23  of  the  contract  of  1878,  shall  be  inalienable,  and  are  to 
be  in  good  condition,  subject  to  deterioration  arising  from  use,  from 
unavoidable  causes,  or  from  accident. 

Article  VII.  As  soon  as  the  company  for  the  completion  of  the 
canal  shall  be  legally  organized,  and  shall  have  resumed  the  work,  in 
conformity  with  the  provisions  of  the  second  condition  of  Article  I  of 
this  contract,  the  Government  shall  assign  to  it  in  the  department  of 
Panama  the  250,000  hectares  of  public  lands  to  which  it  has  been 
already  declared  by  decisions  of  the  executive  power  to  be  entitled, 
and  shall  issue  to  it  the  respective  patents,  provided  that  the  legal 
formalities  in  the  premises  be  accomplished  on  the  part  of  the  company. 

Article  VIII.  The  security  of  750,000  francs  deposited  by  the  canal 
company  in  accordance  with  article  2  of  the  contract  in  force  shall  be 
maintained  as  a  guaranty  for  the  fulfillment  of  the  obligations  arising 
from  the  said  contract  and  of  those  assumed  by  the  concessionary 
under  the  provisions  of  the  present  contract. 


250  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Article  IX.  All  rights  and  obligations  created  by  the  contract  of 
March  23,  1878,  for  the  opening  of  an  interoceanic  canal  across  Colom- 
bian territory,  approved  by  law  28  of  the  same  year,  shall  continue  in 
full  force  and  vigor  without  other  restrictions  and  modifications  than 
those  contained  in  the  present  contract. 

Article  X.  In  order  that  the  present  contract  may  have  full  force 
and  effect,  it  shall  be  submitted  to  the  approval  of  His  Excellency  the 
President  of  the  Republic,  and  to  that  of  Congress. 

Done  in  duplicate,  at  Bogota,  the  10th  day  of  December,  1890. 

Antonio  Roldan. 
Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse. 


Appendix  I  I. 
CONTRACT  OF  EXTENSION.8 


CONTRACT   GRANTING    EXTENSION   TO   THE    PANAMA    CANAL   COMPANY,  IN 

LIQUIDATION. 

Between  Marco  F.  Saurez,  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  duly  author- 
ized by  His  Excellency  the  Vice-President  of  the  Republic,  and  in 
accordance  with  the  powers  granted  to  the  executive  power  by  law  91 
of  1892,  hereinafter  called  "the  Government,"  of  the  one  part,  and 
Francois  Mange,  engineer,  director  of  the  operations  of  the  liquidation 
on  the  Isthmus,  special  representative  of  the  receiver  of  the  Compagnie 
Universelle  du  Canal  de  Panama,  under  powers  of  attorney  granted 
him  at  Paris,  January  24,  1893,  hereinafter  called  ''the  concessionary," 
of  the  other  part;  it  has  been  agreed  to  modify  the  contracts  of  March 
23,  1878,  and  December  10,  1890,  for  the  opening  of  an  interoceanic 
canal  across  Colombian  territory,  in  conformity  with  the  following 
stipulations: 

Article  1.  The  extension  of  ten  years  granted  in  article  1  of  the 
contract  of  1890  to  the  receiver  of  the  Compagnie  Universelle  du 
Canal  de  Panama  remains  in  force,  subject  to  the  conditions  then  pro- 
vided, except  the  second,  which  is  modified  by  the  extension  until 
October  31,  1894,  of  the  period  within  which  the  new  company  is  to  be 
formed  and  work  on  the  canal  is  to  be  resumed  in  a  serious  and  per- 
manent manner. 

The  term  of  ten  years  shall  begin  to  run  from  the  date  of  the  formal 
organization  of  the  new  company. 

Article  2.  The  concessionary  or  his  successor  acknowledges  the 
validity  of  the  former  contracts  and  of  the  present  contract,  and  binds 
himself  to  do,  in  France,  all  acts  necessary  to  insure  its  validity. 
These  proceedings  are  to  be  concluded  not  later  than  August  31  next. 

Article  3.  As  compensation  for  the  extension  which  the  Govern- 
ment grants  by  article  1,  and  to  indemnify  it  for  the  advantages 
which  it  relinquishes  accordingly,  the  concessionary  or  his  successor 
acknowledges  an  indebtedness  in  favor  of  the  Republic  amounting  to 
the  sum  of  2,000,000  francs  in  gold,  which  added  to  the  10,000,000 
provided  in  article  4  of  the  contract  of  1890,  constitutes  a  total 
indebtedness  of  12,000,000  francs  in  favor  of  Colombia,  exclusive  of 
5,000,000  francs  in  10,000  shares,  also  mentioned  in  the  article  afore- 
said. 

Article  4.  The  contracting  parties  further  agree  that  from  the 
12,000,000  which  have  just  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article 
shall  be  deducted  the  sum  of  4,000,000  francs  which  the  Colombian 

a  Translation  from  Diario  Oficial  of  Bogota,  April  5,  1893,  No.  9125. 

251 


252  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Government  and  the  treasury  of  the  department  of  Panama  owe  to  the 
company  in  liquidation  for  the  loan  of  1883  and  its  interest,  and  for 
services  and  material  furnished  to  the  administration  of  this  depart- 
ment from  1881  to  1892.  Accordingly,  this  debt  becomes  finally 
extinguished,  leaving-  the  Republic  free  from  all  obligation  with  regard 
to  this  matter,  and  reducing  to  8,000,000  francs  in  gold,  the  sum  which 
the  new  company  is  to  pay  to  the  Government. 

Article  5.  The  8,000,000  francs  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article 
shall  be  paid  by  the  concessionary  or  his  successor  in  the  following 
manner:  150,000  francs  August  31,  1893;  150,000  francs  October  31, 
1893;  200,000  francs  December  31, 1893.  The  remainder  shall  be  paid 
in  four  installments,  the  first  to  be  paid  three  months  after  the  new 
company  for  the  completion  of  the  canal  shall  be  formally  organized. 
The  first  of  these  installments  shall  be  1,500,000  francs  and  the  three 
others  2,000,000  francs  each. 

Article  6.  The  Republic  shall  enter  into  possession  and  ownership, 
without  need  of  previous  judicial  decision  and  without  any  indemnity, 
of  the  canal  itself  and  the  annexes  dependent  thereon,  in  conformity 
with  the  contracts  of  1878  and  1890,  in  each  of  the  following  cases: 

If  the  new  company  shall  not  be  organized  within  the  period  fixed 
by  article  1. 

If  the  work  shall  not  be  resumed  within  the  period  fixed  by  the  same 
article. 

If  the  receiver  sells  the  property  which  is  to  belong  to  the  Republic 
in  case  of  lapse,  or  abandons  its  maintenance,  all  in  conformity  with 
the  provisions  of  the  previous  contracts,  saving  and  excepting  deteri- 
oration arising  from  use,  unavoidable  causes,  or  from  accident. 

If  the  inventory  mentioned  in  article  7  of  the  present  contract  shall 
not  be  made 

If  the  conditions  of  article  2  of  the  same  contract  shall  not  be  ful- 
filled. 

Article  7.  A  general  inventory  of  the  property  of  the  company  in 
liquidation,  which  shall  comprise  as  well  the  property  which  is  to 
belong  to  the  Government  in  case  of  lapse  as  that  which  is  to  belong 
to  the  company  in  liquidation,  shall  be  prepared  upon  the  Isthmus. 
It  is  understood  that  rolling  stock  and  floating  plant  shall  be  comprised 
in  this  inventory,  which  is  to  be  made  in  conjunction  with  the  agent  of 
the  Government  at  Panama,  and  is  to  be  completed  not  later  than 
August  31,  1893. 

Article  8.  The  security  of  750,000  francs  deposited  in  conformity 
with  the  contract  of  1878  by  the  canal  company  and  confirmed  by  the 
contract  of  1890  shall  be  maintained  as  a  guaranty  for  the  fulfillment 
of  the  obligations  arising  from  the  said  contracts  and  those  to  which 
the  concessionary  agrees  by  the  present  contract. 

Article  9.  Disputes  which  may  arise  between  the  contracting  par- 
ties with  regard  to  the  present  contract  or  the  former  contract  shall 
be  submitted  to  the  supreme  court  of  justice  of  Colombia. 

In  conformity  with  the  provisions  of  article  7  of  law  115  of  1888, 
the  concessionary  waives  the  right  to  diplomatic  intervention  concern- 
ing the  duties  and  rights  arising  from  the  three  contracts,  except  in 
case  of  denial  of  justice. 

Article  10.  All  rights  and  obligations  arising  from  contract  of 
March  23,  1878,  and  contract  of  December  10.  1890,  for  the  excava- 
tion of  an  interoceanic  canal  across  Colombian  territory,  approved  by 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  253 

law  28  of  1878,  and  by  law  107  of  1890,  shall  continue  in  full  force 
and  vigor,  without  other  modifications  than  those  provided  in  the 
present  contract. 

Article  11.  The  concessionary  declares  that  he  accepts  all  the  pro- 
visions of  the  present  contract  which  impose  special  obligations  upor 
the  receiver,  as  well  as  those  which  affect  the  company  which  may  be 
formed. 

Article  12.  The  present  contract  must,  in  order  to  be  valid,  be 
approved  by  His  Excellency  the  Vice-President  of  the  Republic. 

Done  in  duplicate  at  Bogota  the  4th  day  of  April,  1893. 

Marco  F.  Suarez. 
Francois  Mange. 

Executive  Government,  Bogota,  April  4,  18!)->. 
Approved. 

[seal.]     M.  A.  Caro. 

The  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

Marco  F.  Suarez. 


Appendix  J  J. 

CONTRACT   RELATIVE   TO    THE   GRANTING   OF    AN   EXTENSION 
OF  TIME  TO  THE  NEW  COMPANY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL.a 

Whereas  the  national  executive  power  has  dictated  the  following 
decree  No.  721  of  1900  (April  23),  by  which  provision  is  made  for  the 
granting  of  an  extension  of  time  to  the  new  company  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  the  President  of  the  Republic  having  seen  the  memorial  by 
which  the  new  compan}r  of  the  Panama  Canal  has  solicited  of  the  Gov- 
ernment an  extension  of  six  years  for  the  completion  of  the  work  and 
putting  it  into  public  service;  and  having  seen  the  communications  in 
which  the  special  agent,  Dr.  Nicolas  Esquerra,  expounds  to  the  Gov- 
ernment the  public  expediency  of  granting  the  extension  herein  con- 
sidered, decrees: 

Article  1.  The  Government  ma}T  grant  to  the  new  company  of  the 
Panama  Canal  an  extension  for  the  fixed  term  of  six  years  to  complete 
the  work  and  put  it  into  public  use:  Provided,  That  it  shall  deposit  at 
the  disposition  of  the  national  treasury,  within  one  hundred  and 
twenty  days,  computed  from  the  date  on  which  this  instrument  shall 
be  notified  to  the  said  company,  in  such  bank  or  establishment  as  may 
be  designated  by  the  Government,  5,000,000  francs  in  French  gold. 

Article  2.  The  said  extension  will  begin  to  run  on  the  31st  day  of 
October,  1901;  consequently  the  canal  must  be  completed  and  put  into 
public  use  on  the  31st  day  of  October,  1910,  at  the  latest. 
Let  it  be  communicated  and  published. 

Given  at  Pena,  department  of  Cundinamarca,  this  23d  day  of  April, 
1900. 

Manuel  A.  Sanclemente. 
Rafael  M.  Palacio, 

Min  ister  of  State. 
Carlos  Cuervo  Marquez, 

Min  ister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 
Carlos  Calderon, 

Minister  of  Finan<; . 
Jose  Santos, 

Minister  of  War. 
Morco  F.  Suarez, 

Minister  of  Public  Instruction. 
Marceliano  Vargas, 

Min  ister  of  the  Treasury. 

Now,  therefore,  we,  to  wit,  Carlos  Calderon,  minister  of  finance  of 
the  Republic,  duly  authorized  by  the  executive  power,  on  the  one  part, 
and,  on  the  other  part,  Alejandro  N.  Mancini,  in  his  capacity  of  agent 

aTranslation  from  Diario  Oficial,  Bogota,  May  7,  1900,  No.  11278  (ministry  of 
finance). 

255 


256  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  the  new  company  of  the  Panama  Canal  and  as  representative  of  the 
same,  by  virtue  of  the  power  of  attorney  which  he  has  laid  before  the 
ministry  of  finance,  have  executed  the  following-  contract: 

Article  1.  The  Government  of  the  Republic  grants  to  the  new  com- 
pany of  the  Panama  Canal  a  delay  of  six  years,  from  the  31st  of  Octo- 
ber, 1904,  in  which  to  complete  the  work  on  the  canal  and  deliver  it  to 
the  public  service,  under  the  terms  of  the  existing  contracts.  In  con- 
sequence the  said  work  shall  have  to  be  completed  and  put  into  the 
public  service  on  the  31st  day  of  October,  1910. 

Article  2.  In  consideration  of  the  extension  referred  to  in  the  fore- 
going article,  the  new  company  of  the  Panama  Canal  will  pa}r  to  the 
Republic  the  sum  of  5,000,000  francs  in  French  coin,  in  the  city  of 
Paris,  ninety  days  from  the  date  on  which  this  contract  shall  have  been 
approved  by  the  Most  Excellent  President  of  the  Republic.  Said  pay- 
ment shall  be  made  by  the  company  to  the  firm  or  bank  in  the  cit}^  of 
Paris  in  whose  favor  the  minister  of  the  treasury  of  the  Republic  may 
draw. 

Article  3.  This  contract  requires  the  approval  of  the  council  of 
ministers  and  that  of  the  Most  Excellent  President  of  the  Republic. 

In  witness  whereof  we  have  signed  three  copies  of  even  tenor,  at 
Bogota,  this  25th  day  of  April,  1900. 

Carlos  Calderon. 
Alejandro  N.  Mancini. 

Presidency  of  the  Council  of  Ministers. 

Bogota,  April  ..'■'>.  WOO. 
In  the  session  of  this  day  the  foregoing  contract  was  examined  and 
unanimously  approved. 

Carlos  Cuervo  Marquez, 

President. 
Alejandro  M.  Olivares, 

S<  oretary  ad  hoc. 

National  Executive  Power, 
Pena,  Department  of  Cundmamarca,   April  86,  1900. 
Approved. 

Manuel  A.  Sanclemente. 
Carlos  Calderon, 

Minister  of  FinanCi . 


Appendix  K  K. 

Memorandum  of  legal  status  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company, 
including  translations  of  French  laws  and  judicial  decrees  affecting  its 
organization,  and  the  charter  of  the  company. 


The  general  incorporation  law  of  France  of  July  24,  1867,  under 
which  the  old  Panama  Canal  Company  was  organized,  is  found  in 
the  French  Code  of  Commerce,  by  Leopold  Garrand,  London,  1880, 
page  703. 

The  amendatory  act  of  August  1,  1893,  which  modified  the  law  prior 
to  the  organization  of  the  new  company,  is  found  in  Bulletin  Des  Lois 
de  la  Republique  Francaise,  twelfth  series,  volume  47,  page  491, 
published  in  Paris,  1894. 

Extract  from  the  judgment  of  the  civil  tribunal  of  the  Seine, 
rendered  february  4,  1889,  pronouncing  the  dissolution  of  the 
Compagnie  Univ'erselle  du  Canal  Tnteroceanique  de  Panama 
and  appointing  a  receiver. 

The  court,  in  consideration  that  the  civil  or  commercial  character  of 
a  company  is  recognized,  not  by  the  particular  form  which  it  takes, 
but  by  the  nature  of  the  enterprise  which  constitutes  its  principal 
object;  that  it  therefore  matters  little  that  the  Compagnie  du  Canal 
Interoceanique  de  Panama  is  a  societe  anonyme,  this  circumstance  not 
being  enough  to  impress  upon  it  a  commercial  character; 

In  consideration,  that  as  to  its  object,  according  to  article  2  of  its 
articles,  it  comprises  the  construction  of  a  maritime  canal  for  deep- 
water  navigation  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
across  the  part  of  the  American  isthmus  which  belongs  to  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  as  well  as  the  operation  of  said  canal  and  of  the 
various  enterprises  which  are  connected  therewith;  that  in  reality 
the  company  is  formed  for  the  operation  of  the  canal  and  in  view 
of  the  profits  which  it  may  obtain  and  that  the  construction  itself  is 
not  the  principal  aim  of  the  enterprise,  but  only  a  necessary  means  for 
carrying  it  out; 

That  the  operation  can  not  be  assimilated  to  a  transportation  business, 
the  company  limiting  itself  to  the  opening  of  a  new  way  for  navigation 
upon  payment  of  fixed  tolls; 

In  consideration,  that  therefore,  the  company  has  for  its  principal 
object  the  development  of  real  estate  under  conditions  under  which  the 
State  of  Colombia  might  have  developed  it  itself  if  it  had  not  granted 
the  concession  to  third  parties;  that  it  is  therefore  purely  civil,  and 
that  on  this  account,  its  duration  being  moreover  limited,  any  one  of 
the  associates  may  apply  for  its  dissolution  in  conformity  with  article 
1871  of  the  civil  code; 

S.  Doc,  54,  pt  2 17  257 


258  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

In  consideration  that  the  objection  would  be  unavailing,  that  the 
present  application  has  been  made  in  violation  of  article  74  of  the 
articles  of  incorporation,  according  to  which  no  proceeding  at  law  can 
be  taken  b}^  one  or  more  shareholders  against  the  company,  its  board 
of  directors,  or  one  of  the  members  of  the  board,  until  it  has  been 
submitted  to  the  examination  of  the  shareholders'  meeting,  whose 
opinion  is  to  be  submitted  to  the  court  at  the  same  time  with  the  action; 
that  on  the  one  hand  this  provision,  which  implies  a  simple  opinion  to 
be  stated  by  the  shareholders'  meeting  and  not  at  all  a  preliminary 
consent  to  be  given  by  it,  is  not  of  such  a  character  as  to  be  binding 
upon  the  court  when  it  is  not  set  up  by  the  defendant;  that  it  could 
not,  moreover,  prevail  against  the  right  which  eveiy  member  acquires 
by  article  1871  of  the  civil  code,  the  protection  of  which  concerns  con- 
siderations of  public  policy;  that,  on  the  other  hand,  it  appears  from 
the  papers  in  the  case  that  if  the  special  shareholders'  meeting  of 
January  26  last  could  not  be  legally  organized,  in  spite  of  the  reiterated 
notices  sent  to  the  shareholders,  there  is  no  reason  to  hope  that  a  new 
call  would  have  a  more  efficacious  result;  that  thus  the  plaintiffs  would 
be  deprived,  by  the  mere  force  of  circumstances  and  without  possible 
recourse,  of  a  right  which  article  1871  of  the  civil  code  intended  to 
assure  them;  that,  finally,  the  calling  of  a  new  meeting  would  involve, 
according  to  the  articles,  such  delays  that  the  corporate  interests 
which  are  now  at  stake  might  suffer  irreparable  injury; 

In  consideration  that  the  further  objection  can  not  prevail  that,  in 
accordance  with  article  68  of  the  articles  of  incorporation,  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  company  before  its  expiration  must  be  voted  by  a  meeting 
of  shareholders  held  under  special  conditions  fixed  in  article  69;  that 
none  of  the  terms  of  these  articles  implies  the  idea  that  the  right  in 
question  belongs  exclusively  to  the  shareholders'  meeting  and  that  the 
courts  are  deprived  of  it;  that  such  a  provision  would  be  in  contradic- 
tion with  the  principle  laid  down  in  article  1871  of  the  civil  code,  and 
would  obviously  nullify  its  object; 

That,  furthermore,  what  was  said  above  relative  to  the  shareholders'' 
meeting  of  January  26  last,  and  the  impossibility  of  calling  to  any  use- 
ful purpose  a  new  meeting  within  the  period  fixed  by  the  articles,  is 
pertinent  here  again,  and  that  from  every  point  of  view  the  applica- 
tion should  be  received; 

In  consideration  that  on  the  merits  article  1871  of  the  civil  code 
confers  upon  the  court  the  power  of  deciding  finally  whether  the  com- 
pany, under  the  circumstances  contemplated,  can  still  continue  its 
normal  course  or  whether  its  dissolution  is  rendered  necessary  by  the 
very  situation  in  which  it  is  placed;  that  it  is  now  established  that 
the  Coinpagnie  du  Canal  de  Panama  has  ceased  to  act  in  a  regular  way; 
that  it  has  suspended  payment  upon  its  securities  and  that  the  con- 
tinuation of  work  on  the  canal  is  insured  only  for  a  very  limited  time; 
that  since  December  14  last  it  has  been  necessary  to  confide  its  manage- 
ment provisionally  to  appointees  of  the  court,  who  have  taken  the 
necessary  measures  to  protect  temporarily  the  important  interests 
connected  with  its  existence,  that  these  wholly  provisional  measures 
are  now  insufficient  or  will  shortly  become  so,  and  that  it  is  important 
to  take  action  to  ward  off  dangers,  the  consequences  of  which  would 
be  irreparable; 

In  consideration,  therefore,  that  there  is  occasion  for  pronouncing 
the  dissolution  of  the  company  and  providing  for  its  winding  up;  that 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  259 

there  is  occasion  also  for  ordering-  a  provisional  execution  of  the  pres- 
ent judgment,  notwithstanding  appeal,  and  without  security,  applying 
article  135  of  the  code  of  civil  procedure; 

For  these  reasons,  pronounces  the  dissolution  of  the  Compagnie 
Universelle  du  Canal  Interoceanique  de  Panama  and  orders  that  it  be 
wound  up; 

Appoints  Mr.  Joseph  Brunet  receiver  of  said  company  with  the 
broadest  powers,  especially  to  grantor  contribute  to  any  new  company 
all  or  a  part  of  the  corporate  assets,  to  enter  into  or  ratify  with  the 
contractors  for  the  Panama  Canal  all  agreements  having  for  their  pur- 
pose the  insurance  of  the  continuance  of  the  works,  and  to  this  end  to 
contract  all  loans  and  form  all  sinking  funds; 

Declares  that  in  case  the  receiver  appointed  can  not  act,  provision 
will  be  made  for  replacing  him  in  the  ordinary  way; 

Authorizes  him  henceforth  to  apply  in  the  same  way  for  all  special 
powers  which  may  be  necessary  for  the  performance  of  his  duties,  and, 
if  he  thinks  tit,  for  the  addition  of  one  or  more  receivers; 

Orders  provisional  execution  of  the  present  judgment,  notwithstand- 
ing appeal  and  without  security; 

Condemns  the  defendant  company  to  the  expenses. 


ACT    OF    JULY    1,    1893,    RELATIVE    TO    THE    LIQUIDATION    OF   THE    UNI- 
VERSAL  COMPANY    OF   THE    PANAMA    INTEROCEANIC   CANAL. 

The  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  have  adopted  and  enacted, 
and  the  President  of  the  Republic  promulgates,  the  following  law: 

Article  1.  From  the  date  of  the  promulgation  of  the  present  law, 
all  actions  now  in  course  of  procedure  that  have  been  brought  by 
holders  of  bonds  or  obligations  emitted  by  the  Universal  Company  of 
the  Panama  Interoceanic  Canal,  or  that  have  been  brought  by  any 
creditors  of  the  said  company,  whether  against  the  receiver  in  his 
official  capacit}^  or  against  the  directors  to  enforce  their  responsibility, 
or  against  third  parties  for  restitution,  or  arising  in  any  other  manner 
whatsoever,  are  hereby  declared  discontinued  and  suspended. 

The  plaintiff  may  follow  up  and  prosecute  said  actions  only  by  com- 
plying with  the  requirements  of  articles  2  and  3  hereof. 

All  proceedings  concerning  attachments  and  execution,  even  those 
now  in  course  of  enforcement  and  procedure,  against  the  personal  or 
real  estate  or  property  of  the  said  company,  are  likewise  discontinued 
and  suspended. 

1. — Bond  or  obligation  holders'  attorney. 

Article  2.  All  rights  of  action,  of  any  character  whatever,  accru- 
ing to  owners  of  obligations  emitted  by  the  Universal  Company  of  the 
Panama  Interoceanic  Canal  whether  against  the  receiver  in  his  official 
capacity,  or  against  the  directors  to  enforce  their  responsibility,  or  for 
a  right  to  restitution  arising  from  anjr  other  cause,  shall  be  enforced 
and  sued  on  by  an  attorney  or  representative  appointed  for  the  pur- 
pose, on  request  of  the  commonwealth's  attorney  for  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  civil  tribunal  of  the  Seine,  by  a  decree  in  chambers. 

In  case  there  should  arise  a  divergence  or  opposition  of  interests 


260  REPORT   OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

between  the  different  classes  of  bondholders,  one  or  more  special  attor- 
neys may  be  appointed  in  the  manner  and  form  just  above  provided 
for.  The  powers  of  the  attorneys  aforesaid  may  be  revoked  at  the 
same  request  and  in  the  same  manner.  There  shall  be  no  appeal  from 
said  orders  or  decrees. 

However,  any  obligation  holder  shall  have  the  right  to  enter  an 
action  for  damages  in  connection  with  a  criminal  matter  or  to  inter- 
vene in  proceedings  instituted  by  the  attorney  or  representative  afore- 
said, doing  so  at  his  own  expense  and  cost  without  in  any  way  dekying 
the  proceedings  or  judgment. 

Moreover,  every  obligation  holder  shall  have  the  power  to  bring  any 
action,  in  his  individual  right  and  at  his  own  risk  and  peril,  which  the 
attorney  shall  have  refused  or  failed  to  enter  within  one  month  after 
he  shall  have  been  notified  and  requested  to  enter  the  same. 

Suits  brought  by  the  attorneys  or  representatives  shall  not  block 
the  right  of  action  on  the  part  of  the  company  belonging  to  the  receiver. 
The  attorneys  shall  have  power  to  call  on  the  receiver  for  communica- 
tion of  all  documents  tending  to  shed  light  on  the  truth;  their  legal 
residence  shall  be  the  jurisdiction  within  which  shall  be  carried  on  the 
winding  up  or  liquidation  of  the  company's  affairs;  the  tax  costs  arising 
from  the  exercise  of  their  official  duties  shall  be  defrayed  from  the 
credits  of  the  receivership,  so  far  as  this  may  be  done  without  impair- 
ing the  reimbursement  to  the  latter  of  the  sums  which  it  shall  have 
advanced. 

Article  3.  All  actions  emanating  from  the  receiver  or  from  the 
attorneys,  or  from  interested  parties  individually,  shall  be  brought 
before  the  civil  tribunal  of  the  Seine.  Such  proceedings  as  may  arise 
from  the  distribution  of  the  credits  or  balance  remaining  in  favor  of 
the  company  shall  be  brought  likewise  before  this  tribunal.  Suits 
instituted  by  parties  intervening  in  damages  shall  remain  in  the  juris- 
diction where  already  the  prosecution  has  been  inaugurated. 

Article  1.  The  attorney  shall  have  full  and  complete  enjoyment  of 
the  "judicial  assistance  privilege'1  (consisting  in  the  exemption  from 
payment  of  the  usual  costs  attending  a  judicial  proceeding)  in  the  car- 
rying on  of  actions  and  in  the  executing  of  verdicts  or  decisions  which 
he  shall  have  obtained.  Likewise  he  shall  enjoy  the  same  in  all  inter- 
ventions sounding  in  damages,  and  in  the  case  of  all  recording  taxes 
which  might  be  otherwise  exacted.  On  his  request  presented  to  the 
commonwealth's  attorney,  pleaders,  advocates,  and  sheriffs  shall  be 
appointed  in  the  manner  and  form  prescribed  by  article  13  of  the  law 
dated  January  22,  1851. 

However,  the  "judicial  assistance  privilege1'  shall  not  extend  to 
costs  of  transportation  for  judges,  for  Government  officials,  or  for 
experts,  nor  to  the  hitter's  fees,  nor  to  witness  taxes.  As  to  stamp 
duties,  costs  of  recording,  and  court  costs  in  general,  the  treasury 
shall  exact  them  from  the  debtor  only,  after  the  payment  of  such 
judgment  as  shall  have  been  obtained  by  the  plaintiffs  attorney. 

Article  5.  The  attorney  shall  have  power  to  compromise  or  to 
desist  from  further  action,  though  he  may  do  so  only  after  consult  Jul; 
with  three  jurists  appointed  by  the  commonwealth's  attorney;  and  all 
compromises  or  withdrawals  of  actions  shall  have  to  be  ratified  and 
approved  by  judicial  decree  rendered  in  chambers. 

lie  alone  shall  be  empowered  to  levy  execution  on  judgments  pro- 
nounced by  the  court,  or  to  receive  the  sums  obtained  on  compromise, 


RKPORT    Ol1    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  2C)1 

whether  «uch  compromise  have  been  obtained  on  his  own  demand  or 
on  that  of  obligation  holders  acting  in  an  individual  capacity;  all  sums 

thus  received  shall  ho  deposited  by  him  at  the  deposit  bureau,  and  the 
receiver  shall  give  him  due  quittance  therefor. 

II. — The  recewer. 

Article  6.  Before  proceeding  at  all  to  distribute  the  credits  of  the 
company,  the  receiver  shall  publish  in  the  Journal  Officiel  and  in  the 
Journal  Otticiel  (Commune  edition)  a  notice  calling  on  all  parties  inter- 
ested to  produce  their  claims  against  the  company  and  the  proofs  thereof 
within  the  space  of  six  months,  under  pain  of  becoming  barred  from 
bringing  any  action  on  the  said  claims. 

The  production  of  the  claims  and  the  transmission  of  proofs  in  sup- 
port thereof  may  be  made  by  simple  registered  letter. 

Article  7.  The  receiver  shall  proceed  to  verify  and  to  admit  said 
claims  in  the  manner  and  form  prescribed  by  articles  495  and  497,  first 
paragraph,  of  the  Code  of  Commerce. 

Article  8.  Should  the  claim  be  contested,  notice  of  this  fact  shall 
be  sent  by  registered  mail  to  the  claimant  in  question,  and  the  latter 
shall  have  a  term  of  three  months  within  which  he  must  institute  pro- 
ceedings before  the  civil  tribunal  of  the  Seine,  in  order  to  have  his 
claim  adjudicated. 

Judgment  must  be  pronounced  hereon  within  the  space  of  one  month, 
as  in  the  case  of  matters  demanding  immediate  and  summary  adjudica- 
tion. An  appeal  from  such  decision  must  be  entered  within  ten  days 
from  the  notification  of  said  judgment  either  to  the  party  in  person  or 
at  his  domicile. 

Article  9.  The  distribution  of  all  dividends  arising  from  an  action 
brought  by  the  company  or  from  actions  brought  by  the  attorney  or 
representative  of  obligation  holders,  or  from  any  other  source  what- 
ever, shall  be  made  by  the  receiver,  who  alone  shall  have  competency 
to  receive  opposition  or  objections  to  the  same. 

Article  10.  All  acts  tending  to  alienate  any  assets  of  the  company, 
all  contracts  entailing  a  transfer  or  contribution  of  the  whole  or  of  a 
part  of  the  assets  of  the  concern,  emanating  from  the  receiver  of  the 
Universal  Company  of  the  Panama  Interoceanic  Canal,  shall  be  subject 
to  the  approval  or  ratification  of  the  civil  tribunal  of  the  Seine,  who 
shall,  on  the  report  of  one  of  the  justices,  pass  on  the  question  in 
open  court. 

Article  11.  All  decrees  of  approval  or  ratification  rendered  in 
accordance  with  the  preceding  article  shall  be  published,  within  a  term 
of  ten  days,  in  the  Journal  Officiel  and  in  the  Journal  Officiel  (Com- 
mune edition). 

This  decree  may  be  attacked  by  a  third  party,  by  the  shareholders, 
by  the  attorney  of  obligation  holders,  and  by  other  creditors  of  the 
company  within  a  delay  not  exceeding  one  month  from  the  date  of 
publication  aforesaid.  The  civil  tribunal  shall  adjudicate  the  question 
within  the  space  of  one  month,  as  in  the  case  of  matters  demanding  an 
immediate  and  summary  adjudication.  The  appeal  from  such  decision 
must  be  entered  within  ten  days  from  the  time  of  notification  of  said 
judgment  to  the  party  in  person  or  at  his  domicile. 

Article  12.  The  Universal  Company  of  the  Panama  Interoceanic 
Canal,  the  civil,  i.  e.  non-trading,  company  formed  for  the  purpose  of 


262  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

redeeming  the  obligations  or  bonds  of  the  Panama  Canal  (issue  of 
March,  1888),  and  the  civil  or  non-trading  company  for  the  redemption 
of  the  lottery  bonds  of  the  Panama  Canal,  are  herein  exempted  from 
the  payment  of  all  stamp  duties,  and  of  all  transfer  or  transmission 
taxes  now  due  or  about  to  become  due  on  any  shares,  obligations,  or 
bonds  of  the  said  companies. 

Article  13.  Beginning  with  the  date  of  the  promulgation  of  the 
present  law,  no  limitation  in  bar  of  actions  in  damages  shall  begin  to 
run  against  the  creditors  of  the  Panama  Canal  Universal  Company 
until  the  balance  remaining  to  the  credit  of  the  company  shall  have 
been  realized  on  and  entirely  distributed. 

Article  14.  Shareholders,  subscribers,  or  buyers  of  stock  having 
acquired  title  to  the  same  before  the  company  was  placed  into  the 
hands  of  a  receiver,  provided  they  represent  at  least  one-twentieth  of 
the  capital  stock,  may  join  a  common  interest  and  entrust  one  or  more 
attorneys  or  representatives  with  maintaining  any  action  and  with 
representing  them  in  court. 

The  present  law,  deliberated  upon  and  adopted  by  the  Senate  and 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  shall  be  enforced  as  a  law  of  the  State. 

Done  at  Marlj'-le-Roi  on  the  1st  day  of  July,  1893. 

Carnot. 

By  the  President  of  the  Republic: 

E.  Guerin, 
Keejxf  of  the  Seals,  Minister  of  Just  i<< . 
P.  Peytral, 
Minister  of  Finance. 

The  following  is  the  charter  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company, 
organized  under  general  corporation  laws  of  France,  October,  1894: 

Title  I. — Formation  and  object  of  tin   company — Name — Principal 

office —  Duration. 

Article  1.  There  is  formed  between  the  present  founder  and  the 
subscribers  to  the  shares  hereinafter  created  a  commercial  joint-stock 
company  under  the  name  of  the  Compagnie  Nouvelle  du  Canal  de 
Panama,  in  conformity  with  the  acts  of  July  21,  1807,  and  August  1, 
1893. 

Article  2.  This  company  has  for  its  objects: 

1.  The  completion  of  the  Maritime  Ship  Canal  between  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans. 

2.  The  exploitation  of  the  said  canal  and  of  the  various  enterprises 
connected  therewith. 

3.  The  construction  and  exploitation  of  all  lines  of  railway  within 
the  vicinity  of  the  canal  and  the  management  of  all  interests  which  the 
company  may  possess  and  acquire  in  lines  already  constructed. 

1.  The  exploitation  of  lands  granted  and  mines  therein  contained. 

All  under  the  clauses  and  conditions  of  the  concession  as  fixed  by 
the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  dated  May 
18,  1878  (law  28  of  L878),  and  of  the  extensions  of  the  concession  dated 
December  2(>,  1890  (law  L07  of  L890),  and  April  1,  1893. 

Article  3.  The  principal  office  of  the  company  is  at  Paris,  provi- 
sionally fixed  at  No.  <'>:>  his  Rue  de  la  Victoire,  and  hereafter  at  such 
place  as  the  board  of  directors  shall  designate. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  263 

Article  4.  The  company  shall  begin  from  the  date  of  its  formal 
organization.  Its  duration  shall  he  the  same  as  that  of  its  concession; 
that  is  to  say.  ninety-nine  years  from  the  date  when  the  canal  shall  be 
open  in  whole  or  in  part  for  public  service  or  when  the  company  shall 
begin  the  collection  of  dues  for  transit  and  navigation. 

Title  II.  — ■  Con  tributions —  ( 'a/pital —  Ska/res —  /  *aymenf8. 

Article  5.  A  party  to  these  presents  is  M.  Jean  Pierre  Gautron, 
judicial  administrator  of  the  civil  tribunal  of  the  Seine,  residing  at 
No.  13  Rue  Tronchet,  Paris. 

"Acting  as  and  in  the  capacity  of  sole  receiver  of  the  Compagnie 
Universelle  du  Canal  Interoeeanique  de  Panama,  by  virtue  of  the  pow- 
ers conferred  by  judgment  of  the  civil  tribunal  of  the  Seine,  dated 
February  4, 1889,"  M.  Gautron,  appointed  to  said  office  of  receiver  by 
a  judgment  of  the  chambre  du  conseil  of  the  civil  tribunal  of  the  Seine, 
dated  July  21,  1893,  in  his  said  capacity  contributes  to  the  compan}^: 

First.  All  rights  accruing  to  the  company  in  liquidation  from  the 
laws  of  the  government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  dated 
May  18, 1878,  and  December  26, 1890,  as  well  as  from  any  decrees,  acts, 
or  things  whatever  which  have  occurred  in  the  execution  of  these  laws, 
with  all  the  advantages  provided  by  these  laws,  together  with  all  lands 
and  real  estate  granted  to  the  company  in  liquidation  or  acquired  by  it. 

All  subject  to  the  fulfillment  of  the  conditions  of  the  laws  and  exten- 
sions of  the  concessions  and  to  the  payment  of  all  sums  remaining  due 
from  the  receiver  to  the  Colombian  Government. 

Second.  The  works  executed  and  under  execution,  workshops,  build- 
ings, hospitals,  plant,  erected  and  not  erected,  materials  and  supplies, 
etc.,  belonging  to  the  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Interoeeanique 
in  liquidation,  as  well  as  all  deposits  as  security  made  by  said  company 
in  liquidation. 

Third.  The  plans,  estimates,  studies,  documents  of  every  nature  col- 
lected by  the  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Interoeeanique,  relating 
in  any  manner  to  the  study,  execution,  or  exploitation  of  the  canal  or 
its  dependencies,  as  well  as  the  benefit  of  all  agreements  with  all  third 
persons. 

Fourth.  The  rights  of  every  nature,  part  interests,  and  generally 
any  others  whatsoever  which  may  belong  to  the  Compagnie  Univer- 
selle du  Canal  Interoeeanique,  in  liquidation,  in  the  railroad  from 
Panama  to  Colon,  operated  by  an  American  company  called  the 
Panama  Railroad  Company,  whose  principal  office  is  at  New  York,  as 
said  rights  are  enjoyed  and  exist;  M.  Gautron,  as  receiver,  binding 
himself  to  transfer  the  same  to  the  present  company  in  the  form  re- 
quired b}T  the  laws  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

In  such  manner,  moreover,  as  the  said  rights  and  properties  are 
enjoyed  and  exist  and  in  the  condition  in  which  they  are. 

The  present  company  shall  be  the  owner  of  the  property  and  rights 
granted  and  contributed  from  the  date  of  its  formal  organization, 
except  as  hereinafter  provided  with  respect  to  the  Panama  Railroad. 

This  grant  and  contribution  are  made  by  M.  Gautron  with  the  reser- 
vations and  subject  to  the  conditions  hereinafter  expressed,  to  wit: 

First.  There  shall  be  appropriated  to  the  receiver  60  per  cent  of  the 
net  protits  of  the  enterprise,  as  these  profits  shall  be  determined  under 
articles  51  and  52  hereof. 

Second.  There  shall  be  appropriated  50,000  shares,  full  paid,  on 
account  of  those  now  issued  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States  of 
Colombia,  in  accordance  with  the  extension  law  of  December  26,  1890. 


264  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANA.L    COMMISSION. 

Third.  The  rights  of  every  nature  in  the  Panama  Railroad  belong- 
ing to  the  estate  in  liquidation  and  contributed  by  M.  Gautron  under 
section  1  of  this  article  shall  become  the  property  of  the  present  com- 
pany from  and  after  the  stockholders'  meeting  provided  for  by  article 
75  hereof  without  any  pecuniary  compensation,  but  upon  the  express 
condition  that  the  canal  be  constructed  within  the  time  fixed  by  the 
agreement  of  concession.  Upon  default  in  completion  within  such 
time  said  rights  shall  revert  to  the  estate  in  liquidation. 

If,  contrary  to  all  expectation,  the  meeting  in  question  should  not  take 
the  necessary  action  for  the  completion  of  the  canal,  or  if  the  course  of 
action  adopted  b}T  the  meeting  can  not  be  carried  out,  the  said  rights  in 
the  railroad  shall  remain  the  property  of  the  present  company,  but 
it  shall  pay  into  the  estate  in  liquidation  the  sum  of  20,000,000  francs 
by  way  of  indemnity,  and  the  share  of  profits  set  apart  for  the  estate  in 
liquidation  shall  be  half  the  profits  of  the  present  company  without 
other  deductions  than  those  provided  in  sections  2  and  3  of  article  51 
hereof.    - 

Accordingly  said  rights  shall  remain  inalienable  in  the  hands  of  the 
new  company  until  either  the  payment  of  said  sum  of  20,000,000  francs 
or  the  entire  completion  of  the  canal. 

Fourth.  Until  the  entire  completion  of  the  canal,  M.  Gautron,  in 
his  official  capacity,  shall  have  the  right  to  appoint  a  commission  of 
control,  composed  of  three  members,  taken  as  far  as  possible  from  among 
the  engineers  of  the  department  of  bridges  and  roads  and  the  inspect- 
ors of  finances,  to  inspect  the  progress  of  the  works,  the  conditions 
and  maintenance  of  the  plant  and  buildings,  as  well  as  the  accounts 
relating  to  these  different  objects. 

The  expense  of  this  commission  shall  be  borne  by  the  new  company. 

Article  6.  The  capital  of  the  company  is  fixed  at  65,000,000  francs, 
divided  into  650,000  shares  of  100  francs  each. 

Of  these  650,000  shares  50,000  full  paid  are  set  apart  for  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  in  accordance  with  the 
extension  law  of  December  27,  1890,  as  provided  in  the  preceding 
article. 

As  for  the  balance  of  600,000  shares  they  are  to  be  issued  for  cash 
subscriptions. 

Capital  may  be  increased  once  or  several  times  by  vote  of  the  regu- 
lar stockholders'  meeting,  and,  upon  the  proposition  of  the  board  of 
directors,  by  the  issue  of  new  shares. 

Article  7.  The  50,000  shares  set  apart  for  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  though  full  paid,  shall  not  be  entitled  to 
interest  or  dividends  on  the  same  terms  as  the  shares  issued  on  sub- 
scription. 

These  50,000  shares  shall  remain  attached  to  their  respective  stubs, 
and  shall  be  negotiable  under  the  conditions  provided  by  article  2  of 
the  French  law  of  August  1,  1893,  and  by  the  concession  laws. 

Article  8.  A  preference  is  reserved  to  the  stockholders  and  bond- 
holders of  the  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Interoceanique,  in 
Liquidation,  in  subscribing  for  stock  of  the  present  company,  to  the 
extent  of  one-half  the  present  capital  and  the  total  amount  of  all 
future  issues. 

Article  9.  The  amount  of  each  share  is  payable  in  cash  into  the 
company's  treasury  or  to  the  representatives  who  shall  be  appointed 
for  subscriptions  by  the  new  company. 

It  shall  be  payable  as  follows:  Twenty-five  francs  immediately  on 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  265 

subscription,  25  francs  on  October  15,  1894,  and  the  balance*  as  calls 
shall  be  made  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Payments  shall  become  due  in  accordance  with  calls  made  by  the 
board,  upon  notice  published  one  month  in  advance  in  one  of  the  Paris 
newspapers  designated  for  the  publication  of  legal  notices. 

Any  shareholder  may,  however,  pay  up  his  shares  in  advance  and  at 
any  time. 

Article  1<>.  The  first  payment  is  represented  by  a  receipt  in  the 
name  of  the  subscriber  which,  within  two  months  from  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  company,  shall  be  exchanged  for  a  provisional  certificate, 
also  in  his  name. 

All  further  payments,  except  the  last,  shall  be  indorsed  upon  this 
provisional  certificate. 

Upon  the  last  payment  being  made,  a  permanent  certificate  shall  be 
issued  to  the  shareholder,  which  shall  be  either  to  bearer  or  in  his 
name,  at  his  option. 

Article  11.  The  board  of  directors  shall  fix  the  form  and  style  of 
the  certificates  of  stock. 

Provisional  and  temporary  certificates  shall  be  taken  from  a  book 
with  stubs;  they  shall  be  numbered  in  order  and  stamped  with  the  seal 
of  the  company;  they  shall  be  signed  by  two  directors,  or  by  one 
director  and  a  person  appointed  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Article  12.  All  payments  in  arrears  upon  calls  shall  bear  interest 
at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent  per  annum  from  the  day  when  the}7  shall  be 
payable,  for  the  benefit  of  the  company. 

In  default  of  payment  within  the  month  wherein  the  same  shall 
become  payable  the  board  of  directors  may,  at  its  option,  bring  action 
at  law,  or  sell  the  certificates  on  which  payment  shall  not  have  been 
made. 

Such  sale  may  take  place  fifteen  days  after  notice  published  in  the 
Journal  Officiel  or  one  of  the  other  papers  in  the  department  of  the 
Seine  designated  for  the  publication  of  legal  notices.  It  shall  take 
place  at  the  risk  of  the  person  in  defaidt  through  an  agent  de  change 
of  the  Paris  Bourse  or  through  a  notary,  at  the  option  of  the  board  of 
directors. 

The  certificates  for  the  shares  sold  will  become  void  and  will  be 
replaced  by  a  new  certificate,  in  the  name  of  the  purchaser,  of  the  same 
number. 

The  price  of  the  sale  will  be  deducted  from  the  sums  due  the  com- 
pany from  the  subscriber  for  the  share  and  his  assigns,  who  will  all 
remain  jointly  and  severally  liable  for  the  difference  and  entitled  to 
any  surplus. 

Article  13.  Shares  shall  stand  in  the  names  of  subscribers  until 
fully  paid,  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  August  1,  1893. 

Moreover,  no  share  can  be  sold,  and  the  board  of  directors  can  not 
authorize  its  transfer,  until  it  shall  have  been  fully  paid. 

This  prohibition,  however,  will  not  apply  to  shares  belonging  to 
future  issues. 

Every  owner  of  shares  to  bearer  shall  alwa3Ts  have  the  right  to 
require  the  conversion  of  shares  to  bearer  into  shares  registered  in  his 
name. 

Article  14.  The  shares  confer  a  right  to  a  proportional  part  in  the 
corporate  assets,  in  profits  to  be  distributed  as  interest  or  dividends, 
and  in  reserve  funds. 


266  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Interest  and  dividends  are  paid  to  bearer  either  upon  presentation 
of  the  certificate  to  be  stamped  for  registered  certificates,  or  upon 
presentation  of  the  coupon  for  certificates  to  bearer,  at  the  company's 
office  at  the  times  which  shall  be  fixed  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Article  15.  The  transfer  of  shares  to  bearer  is  effected  by  simple 
delivery. 

That  of  registered  certificates  shall  take  place  by  a  declaration  of 
transfer  entered  on  the  books  of  the  company  and  signed  by  the  trans- 
ferer and  transferee  or  their  attorneys. 

The  expenses  of  transfers,  changes,  and  conversions  shall  be  borne 
by  the  new  assignees. 

Article  16.  The  board  of  directors  may  authorize  the  keeping  and 
deposit  of  certificates  to  bearer  in  the  company's  treasury.  In  that 
case,  it  shall  determine  the  form  of  the  registered  certificates  of 
deposit,  the  conditions  of  their  delivery,  and  the  precautions  with 
which  the  execution  of  this  measure  should  be  surrounded  in  the 
interest  of  the  company  and  of  the  shareholders. 

Article  17.  Shareholders  shall  not  be  liable  upon  the  contracts  of 
the  company  beyond  the  amount  of  the  shares  which  they  own. 

In  no  event  can  any  call  be  made  for  funds  beyond  the  amount  of 
the  shares. 

Article  18.  The  shares  are  indivisible  as  regards  the  company, 
which  recognizes  only  a  single  owner  for  each  share. 

All  owners  of  undivided  parts  of  a  share  must  be  represented  in 
dealing  with  the  company  by  one  and  the  same  person. 

Article  19.  The  rights  and  obligations  attached  to  the  share  follow 
the  certificate  into  whatever  hands  it  comes. 

The  possession  of  a  share  imports  full  consent  to  the  statutes  of  the 
company  as  well  as  to  all  acts  of  a  stockholders'  meeting. 

The  heirs,  creditors,  or  assigns  of  a  shareholder  can  not,  on  any 
pretext,  require  a  partition  or  sale  of  the  corporate  property,  obtain 
an  attachment,  require  the  sealing  of  the  company's  books,  registers, 
papers,  and  securities,  nor  interfere  with  its  administration. 

They  must,  for  the  exercise  of  their  rights,  rely  exclusively  upon 
the  corporate  statements,  the  action  of  the  stockholders'  meetings,  and 
the  decision  of  the  board  of  directors. 

Title  III.  —  Hoard  of  directors. 

Article  20.  The  company  is  administered  by  a  board  composed  of 
not  less  than  nine  nor  more  than  fifteen  members,  chosen  from  among 
the  shareholders. 

Article  21.  The  directors  do  not,  in  consequence  of  their  duties, 
contract  any  personal  or  joint  and  several  obligations.  They  are 
responsible  only  tor  the  performance  of  their  duties. 

Article  22.  Directors  are  appointed  by  the  stockholders' meeting 
for  not  more  than  six  years. 

If  the  board  is  composed  of  nine,  twelve,  or  fifteen  members,  one- 
third  shall  be  elected  every  two  years,  the  outgoing  members  to  be 
determined  during  the  first  period  of  six  years  by  lot,  and  thereafter 
by  seniority. 

If  the  number  of  directors  be  any  other  than  those  above  specified, 
the  stockholders' meeting  shall  determine  the  mode  of  choosing  new 
members  and  the  duration  of  their  terms. 

Outgoing  directors  may  always  be  reelected. 


REPORT   OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  267 

The  second  meeting-  of  stockholders  for  organization  shall  fix  the 
number  of  members  of  the  first  board  and  shall  proceed  to  choose  them. 

This  first  board  may,  if  it  think  fit,  add  to  itself  new  members  within 
the  limits  hereinbefore  fixed,  and  must  cause  appointments  so  made 
to  be  ratified  by  the  first  regular  stockholders'  meeting. 

Article  23.  In  case  of  vacancy  arising  from  resignation  or  death, 
the  board  of  directors  may  till  the  same  until  the  next  meeting  of 
stockholders. 

Directors  thus  appointed  continue  in  office  only  until  the  expiration 
of  the  terms  of  their  predecessors. 

Article  24.  Every  director  must  be  the  owner  of  250  shares,  which 
are  registered  in  his  name  and  inalienable.  They  shall  be  stamped  to 
indicate  this  inalienability,  and  remain  deposited  in  the  company's 
treasury  during  the  whole  term  of  office  of  the  owner. 

These  shares  constitute  a  guaranty  for  all  acts  of  management. 

Article  25.  The  board  of  directors  shall  appoint  each  }-ear  from 
among  its  members  a  president  and,  if  there  be  occasion,  one  or  more 
vice-presidents. 

The  president  and  vice-president  may  always  be  reelected.  In  case 
of  the  absence  of  the  president  and  of  the  vice-president  or  vice- 
presidents,  the  board  may  appoint,  at  each  session,  one  of  its  members 
to  fulfill  the  duties  of  the  office. 

Article  26.  The  board  of  directors  shall  meet  at  least  once  a 
month.  It  shall  meet,  also,  at  the  call  of  the  president,  as  often  as  the 
interests  of  the  company  require. 

Questions  shall  be  decided  by  a  majority  of  the  members  present. 

In  case  of  equal  division,  the  vote  of  the  president  shall  prepon- 
derate. 

Five  directors  at  least  must  be  present  to  form  a  quorum. 

When  only  five  or  six  directors  are  present  all  action,  to  be  valid, 
must  be  taken  by  a  majority  of  4  votes. 

No  member  of  the  board  can  vote  by  prox}\ 

Article  27.  The  proceedings  of  the  board  of  directors  shall  be 
recorded  by  minutes  signed  by  the  president  and  one  of  the  members 
present  at  the  meeting. 

Copies  or  extracts  from  these  minutes  must,  to  be  produced  in  evi- 
dence elsewhere,  be  certified  by  the  president  or  by  two  directors. 

Article  28.  The  board  of  directors  is  vested  with  the  broadest 
powers  for  the  management  and  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the 
company,  for  the  selection  and  exploitation  of  the  public  lands  granted 
by  paragraphs  7  and  8  of  article  1  and  by  article  -i  of  the  concession 
law. 

The  board  of  directors  ma3T  ask  an}r  new  concessions,  consent  to  all 
agreements  with  third  parties  for  the  purchase  of  enterprises  or  of 
concessions  connected  with  any  of  the  objects  of  the  company. 

It  shall  appoint  and  dismiss  employees,  determine  their  functions 
and  powers,  fix  their  salaries  and  pay. 

It  shall  order  and  regulate  expenditures. 

It  shall  sign  correspondence  as  well  as  all  notes,  indorsements,  drafts, 
checks,  transfers,  and  conversions  of  public  stocks  and  securities 
belonging  to  the  company,  and  it  shall  contract  and  consent  to  all 
advances. 

It  shall  take  all  financial  measures  necessary  to  the  progress  of  the 
company,  and  make  all  loans  other  than  those  which  must  be  author- 
ized by  the  stockholders1  meeting. 


268  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

It  shall  lay  before  the  stockholders'  meeting-  all  propositions  con- 
cerning loans  on  mortgage  and  the  issue  of  obligations. 

It  shall  administer  the  rights  in  the  Panama  Railroad  Company 
contributed  to  the  company  under  the  terms  of  article  5. 

It  shall  arrange  the  order  of  business  for  stockholders'  meetings 
and  the  accounts  which  are  to  be  submitted  to  them.  It  shall  make  a 
report  to  each  stockholders'  meeting  upon  the  accounts  and  the  condi- 
tion of  the  corporate  affairs. 

It  shall  tix  provisionally  the  dividend  and  determine,  if  occasion 
arises,  the  installment  to  be  paid  on  July  1  on  the  receipts  and  dis- 
bursements closed  by  the  inventory  June  30  preceding. 

It  shall  decide  upon  the  following  subjects,  to  wit: 

1.  Calls  for  money  upon  the  shares. 

2.  Temporary  investment  of  funds  in  hand. 

3.  Studies  and  projects,  plans  and  estimates  for  the  execution  of  the 
works. 

4.  Agreements  and  bargains  for  works  of  various  characters,  bargains 
with  penalty,  and  contracts  not  concerning  the  works. 

5.  Hiring,  selling,  letting,  and  exchanging  real  and  personal  property, 
purchasing  and  hiring  vessels  or  machines  necessary  for  the  execution 
of  the  works  and  the  exploitation  of  the  enterprise. 

6.  Annual  budgets. 

7.  Fixing  and  modifying  dues  of  every  nature  to  be  collected  by 
virtue  of  the  concession,  conditions  and  manner  of  collecting  tolls. 

8.  Disposition  of  reserve  funds. 

9.  Regulation  of  deposit  of  stock  and  obligation  of  the  company. 
It  shall  sue  for  the  collection  of  dues,  the  recovery  of  all  debts, 

give  all  acquittances  and  discharges,  consent  to  all  replevies  of  mort- 
gaged property,  distresses,  attachments,  and  other  impediments,  with 
all  releases  of  preference,  mortgage,  and  suit  for  cancellation,  all  lie- 
fore  or  after  payment.     It  may  ratify  all  previous  acts. 

It  shall  authorize  all  judicial  actions,  whether  as  plaintiff  or  as 
defendant,  treat,  adjust,  and  compromise  the  said  actions,  as  well  as 
all  affairs  of  the  company. 

In  general,  it  shall  do,  in  the  corporate  interest,  all  acts  which  it 
thinks  accessary  and  useful,  the  powers  above  recited  being  purely 
declaratory  and  not  in  limitation  of  the  rights  of  the  board  of 
directors. 

ARTICLE  29.  The  board  of  directors  may,  for  the  general  adminis- 
tration of  the  company,  delegate  all  or  a  part  of  its  powers  either  to 
one  or  more  of  its  members,  with  the  title  of  director-delegate,  on  to 
one  or  more  managers  or  submanagers  taken  from  outside  the  board. 

Il  may,  moreover,  delegate  either  to  one  or  more  directors,  or  to 
one  of  the  employees  of  the  company,  or  to  one  or  more  third  per- 
sons, all  or  a  part  of  its  powers,  by  special  authorization,  and  for  one 
or  more  definite  affairs  or  objects. 

Article  30.  The  directors  shall  be  compensated,  over  and  above  the 
share  of  profits  fixed  in  article  52,  by  tokens  of  attendance,  the 
amount  of  which  shall  be  determined  by  the  stockholders'  meeting, 
and  which  if  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board  of  directors  to  distribute 
to  its  members. 


Title  IV.— -Technical  t 


■inniniKsion. 


Article  31.  The  board  of  directors  is  authorized  to  associate  with 
itself  a  technical  commission  chosen  from  among  persons  competent  in 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  269 

matters  of  public  works  and  especially  from  the  retired  inspectors 
general  of  the  departments  of  bridges  and  roads  and  finance. 

This  commission,  upon  communications  made  to  it  by  the  board  of 
directors,  shall  give  its  opinion  on  questions  relative  to  the  execution 
of  the  works. 

The  number  of  members  of  the  technical  commission,  as  well  as 
their  remuneration,  shall  be  fixed  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Title  V.  —  <  bm  m  ission  ers. 

Article  32.  The  stockholders'  meeting-  shall  appoint  one  or  more 
commissioners,  members  or  not,  invested  with  the  functions  committed 
to  them  by  law. 

If  any  of  the  commissioners  can  not  act,  the  one  or  more  who  remain 
shall  act  without  them. 

A  compensation  is  allowed  them  to  be  fixed  by  the  stockholders' 
meeting. 

Title  VI. — Stockholders'1  meeting. 

Article  33.  A  regularly  constituted  stockholders1  meeting  shall 
represent  all  the  stockholders. 

Article  34.  The  stockholders'  meeting  shall  be  composed  of  all 
holders  of  at  least  ten  shares. 

All  holders  of  less  than  ten  shares  may  unite  to  form  the  necessary 
number  and  cause  themselves  to  be  represented  by  one  of  their  num- 
ber, as  provided  by  the  law  of  August  1,  1893. 

The  meeting  shall  be  regularly  constituted  when  the  shareholders 
who  compose  it  represent  a  quarter  of  the  capital  of  the  company. 

Article  35.  When,  upon  first  assembling,  the  stockholders  present 
do  not  comply  with  the  conditions  above  specified,  in  order  to  make 
the  proceedings  of  the  meeting  valid  it  may  be  adjourned  for  not  less 
than  twenty  days. 

A  second  call  shall  be  made  in  the  form  prescribed  by  article  37 
hereof. 

The  deliberations  of  this  second  meeting  can  only  relate  to  the  order 
of  business  provided  for  the  first  meeting.  Its  acts  shall  be  valid, 
whatever  may  be  the  amount  of  capital  represented  by  the  stockholders. 

Article  36.  A  stockholders'  meeting  shall  be  held  every  year  at  a 
day  and  place  fixed  by  the  board  of  directors  before  December  31. 

Extraordinary  meetings  also  shall  be  held  whenever  the  board  of 
directors  may  consider  it  useful. 

Article  37.  Ordinary  and  extraordinary  meetings  may  be  called 
by  means  of  a  notice  inserted  at  least  twenty  days  previously  in  one 
of  the  Paris  papers  designated  for  the  publication  of  legal  notices. 

Article  38.  Shareholders  in  order  to  have  the  right  to  take  part  in 
or  to  have  themselves  represented  at  stockholders'  meetings  must 
prove,  at  the  domicile  of  the  company,  at  least  five  days  before  the 
meeting,  by  the  deposit  of  their  certificates  in  the  company's  treasury 
or  in  that  of  one  of  the  establishments  designated  for  this  purpose  by 
the  board  of  directors. 

Deposits  made  under  these  conditions  give  a  right  to  the  issue  of 
cards  of  admission  in  the  name  of  the  depositor. 

Registered  holders  of  registered  shares  or  of  certificates  of  deposit 
have  also  the  right  to  be  represented  at  meetings  b}^  proxies  furnished 


270  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

with  regular  powers,  the  form  of  which  shall  be  determined  by  the 
board  of  directors. 

Holders  of  powers  must  deposit  their  proxies  at  the  domicile  of  the 
company  within  the  time  fixed  b}7  the  board  of  directors  for  each 
meeting. 

No  one  can  represent  a  shareholder  at  the  meeting  unless  he  is  him- 
self a  member  of  the  meeting. 

Married  women,  however,  may  be  represented  by  their  husbands  if 
they  have  the  management  of  their  rights  and  shares,  and  in  like  man- 
ner minors  or  incompetents  may  be  represented  by  their  guaruian. 

Usufructuaries  and  naked  owners  must  be  represented  by  one  of 
them,  furnished  with  a  power  from  the  other,  or  by  a  common  proxy 
who  is  a  member  of  the  meeting. 

Companies  which  are  stockholders,  as  well  as  the  Government  of 
Colombia,  may  each  be  represented  by  a  delegate  who  is  not  himself 
a  shareholder. 

Article  39.  The  stockholders'  meeting  shall  be  presided  over  by 
the  president  or  one  of  the  vice-presidents,  and,  in  default  of  these, 
by  a  director  appointed  by  the  board. 

The  two  largest  shareholders  present  at  the  opening  of  the  meeting, 
who  accept,  shall  be  appointed  tellers. 

The  board  shall  appoint  the  secretary. 

Article  40.  Action  by  the  stockholders'  meeting  shall  be  deter- 
mined by  a  majority  of  votes  of  the  members  present  or  regularly 
represented. 

In  case  of  equal  division  the  vote  of  the  president  shall  preponderate. 

Article  41.  Ten  shares  shall  give  the  right  to  one  vote.  The  same 
shareholder  can  not  cast  in  all  more  than  two  hundred  votes,  whether 
as  shareholder  or  as  proxy. 

Article  42.  A  secret  vote  may  be  required  by  ten  members  repre- 
senting together  at  least  twro  hundred  votes. 

Article  43.  The  action  of  the  stockholders'  meeting  is  recorded 
in  minutes  signed  by  the  president,  the  tellers,  and  the  secretary. 

Copies  or  extracts  from  these  minutes  to  be  used  in  proceedings  at 
law  or  otherwise  must  be  certified  by  the  president  or  by  two  directors. 

Article  44.  At  each  stockholders'  meeting  a  list  shall  be  kept 
of  members  present.  It  shall  contain  the  names  and  residences  of  the 
shareholders  and  the  number  of  shares  held  by  each.  This  list  shall 
be  certified  by  the  officers  of  the  meeting  and  deposited  with  the  com- 
pany's records. 

Article  45.  The  order  of  business  for  the  stockholders'  meeting 
shall  be  fixed  by  the  board  of  directors. 

No  other  questions  than  those  contained  in  this  order  of  business  can 
be  brought  before  the  meeting. 

Article  4b\  The  stockholders1  meeting  shall  hear  the  report  of  the 
board  of  directors  on  the  corporate  affairs. 

It  shall  also  hear  the  report  of  the  commissioner  or  commissioners 
upon  the  condition  of  the  company,  on  the  balance  sheet,  and  on  the 
accounts  presented  by  the  board  of  directors. 

It  shall  discuss  and,  if  need  be,  approve  the  accounts. 

It  shall  authorize,  on  proposal  of  the  board,  the  creation  of  special 
supplemental  reserve  and  sinking  funds  which  may  be  found  useful. 

It  shall  Hx  the  dividend  to  be  paid. 

It  shall  elect  directors  in  place  of  those  retiring  and  the  commis- 
sioners. 


BEPOBT    OF   THE    [STHMIAN    (ANAL    COMMISSION.  271 

It  shall  vote  all  loans  hy  means  of  the  issue  of  obligations  or  by 
mortgage. 

It  shall  audit  the  first  accounts  after  the  execution  of  the  works. 

It  shall  pass  upon  the  propositions  of  the  hoard  of  directors. 

It  shall  vote  upon  the  increases  of  capital  proposed  by  the  board  of 
directors. 

It  shall  consider  and  finally  decide  upon  all  the  interests  of  the  com- 
pany, and  confer  upon  the  hoard  of  directors  all  the  supplementary 
powers  which  shall  appear  useful. 

It  shall  have  extraordinary  power  of  decision  upon  the  course  to  be 
taken  in  accordance  with  article  75  hereof. 

Article  47.  The  action  of  the  stockholders'  meeting,  taken  in  con- 
formity with  the  statutes,  shall  bind  all  shareholders,  even  although 
absent  or  dissenting. 

Title  VII. — Statennntx  of  condition   -Inventories. 

Article  -18.  The  corporate  year  shall  begin  July  1  and  end  June  30. 

The  first  period  shall  comprise  the  time  between  the  formal  organi- 
zation of  the  company  and  June  30,  1895. 

Article  49.  The  board  of  directors  shall  prepare  every  six  months 
a  summary  statement  of  the  condition  of  the  company  as  to  assets  and 
liabilities. 

This  statement  shall  be  submitted  to  the  commissioner  or  commis- 
sioners. 

Article  50.  There  also  shall  be  made  up  at  the  end  of  each  corpo- 
rate year  an  inventory  showing  the  real  and  personal  property  of  the 
company  and  all  indebtedness  due  to  or  by  it. 

This  inventory  shall  be  presented  to  the  stockholders'  meeting. 

Title    VIII.—  Ann ual    accounts-^ Sinking  funds— Interests-Reserve 

fun  ds — D  iv  iden  ds. 

Article  51. — The  annual  income  from  the  enterprise  shall  be  first 
applied  to  the  payment  of — 

1.  The  share  for  which  the  United  States  of  Colombia  has  stipulated 
for  its  own  benefit,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  concession  law. 

2.  The  expenses  of  maintenance  and  exploitation,  the  cost  of  admin- 
istration, and  all  corporate  charges  in  general,  interest  and  sinking 
funds  on  loans  which  may  have  been  contracted. 

3.  The  previous  deduction  of  one-twentieth  of  the  net  profits,  after 
payment  of  all  the  charges  hereinbefore  mentioned,  for  the  formation 
of  a  legal  reserve  fund. 

4.  Five  per  cent  upon  the  corporate  capital,  the  income  of  which 
shall  be  applied  by  the  stockholders'  meeting,  in  accordance  with  the 
propositions  of  the  board  of  directors,  not  only  to  form  the  sinking 
fund  to  be  established  in  accordance  with  article  55  hereof,  but  also  to 
provide  dividend  on  the  shares  not  extinguished. 

_  Article  52.  The  excess  of  annual  income  after  the  various  deduc- 
tions provided  in  the  preceding  article  constitutes  the  net  income  or 
profits  of  the  enterprise. 

From  these  profits  shall  be  deducted  5  per  cent  for  the  benefit  of  the 
board  of  directors. 

The  surplus  shall  belong  to  the  amount  of  40  per  cent  to  the  shares 
issued  and  to  the  amount  of  60  per  cent  to  the  Compagnie  Universale 
du  Canal  Interoceanique  in  liquidation. 


272  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Article  53.  The  payment  of  interest  and  dividends  shall  be  made  at 
the  company's  office  or  at  the  offices  of  the  representatives  designated 
by  the  board  of  directors. 

The  payment  of  interest  shall  be  made  at  two- periods,  January  1 
and  July  1  in  each  year. 

Dividends  shall  be  pa}Table  on  January  1  next  after  the  vote  of  the 
annual  stockholders'  meeting. 

The  board  may.  nevertheless,  if  it  thinks  lit,  authorize  a  payment  on 
account  of  dividends  on  the  preceding  1st  of  July. 

Article  5-1.  Interest  and  dividends  remaining  unclaimed  at  the 
expiration  of  rive  years  from  the  time  when  payable  shall  become  the 
property  of  the  company. 

Article  55.  The  extinguishment  of  the  shares  shall  be  accomplished 
in  ninety-nine  years  from  the  putting  of  the  canal  in  operation. 

Provision  shall  be  made  for  this  extinguishment  by  means  of  the 
deduction  hereinbefore  provided  for  in  article  51 ,  the  amount  of  which 
shall  be  fixed  by  the  stockholders'  meeting  on  recommendation  of  the 
board  of  directors. 

The  shares  to  be  paid  off  shall  be  designated  by  drawing  lots,  which 
shall  be  publicly  done  at  the  times  and  in  the  manner  fixed  by  the 
board  of  directors. 

Article  56.  The  numbers  of  shares  drawn  for  payment  shall  be 
posted  in  the  company's  principal  office. 

Article  57.  Shares  drawn  for  payment  shall  be  paid  at  the  places 
designated  for  the  payment  of  dividends  and  interest. 

Holders  of  extinguished  shares  have  the  same  rights  as  holders  of 
shares  not  extinguished,  except  as  to  the  dividend  which  may  be  paid 
in  accordance  with  article  51  hereof. 

Article  58.  The  share  of  60  per  cent  set  apart  for  the  Oompagnie 
Universelle  du Canal  Interoceanique in  liquidation,  may,  if  the  receiver 
so  requests,  be  represented  by  certificates,  to  such  number  as  he  shall 
fix,  leaving  it  to  him  to  make  a  proper  distribution  thereof  among  the 
parties  in  interest. 

This  right  to  <i  shari  in  th>  profits  shall  not  <jir<  to  any  ofthosi  who 
enjoy  if  any  right  to  tah  part  in  an;/  way  in  fin  acts  <>/•  administration 
of  fin  company. 

In  all  cases  the  provisions  of  articles  is  and  l!>  hereof  concerning 
shares  are  equally  applicable  to  the  certificates  of  interest. 

All  expenses  and  formalities  connected  with  these  certificates  must 
he  borne  by  the  holders. 

Before  distributing  these  certificates  the  receiver  must  make  arrange- 
ments for  their  being  represented  in  dealings  with  the  new  company; 
these  arrangements  must  be  satisfactory  to  the  hoard  of  directors  of 
the  present  company. 

Article  59.  Tin1  reserve  fund  is  composed  of  the  accumulation  of 
the  sums  deducted  from  the  annual  profits  in  accordance  with  article 
51  hereof. 

When  this  reserve  fund  reaches  one-tenth  of  the  capital  of  the  com 
pany,  its  creation  may  he  suspended.      It  must   be  resumed  when  the 
amount  of  the  reserve  has  sunk  below  one-tenth  of  the  capital  of  the 
company. 

Title  IX.     Modification  of  the  statutes     Dissolution. 

AirriCLE  60.  If  experience  shows  the  desirability  of  making  modifi- 
cations in  or  additions  to  the  present  statutes,  the  stockholders'  meet- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  273 

ing  shall  provide  for  the  same  in  the  manner  fixed  in  articles  (51  and 
62  hereof. 

It  may  especially  determine  upon  a  reduction  of  the  capital  of  the 
company,  a  reduction  in  the  duration,  the  prolongation,  the  earlier 
dissolution  of  the  company,  or  its  consolidation  with  other  companies. 
It  may  even  introduce  modifications  in  the  objects  of  the  company, 
without,  however,  changing  their  essential  character. 

Article  61.  Meetings  which  are  to  consider  the  different  subjects 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  article  will  not  be  regularly  constituted, 
nor  will  their  action  be  valid,  unless  they  are  composed  of  a  number 
of  shareholders  representing  at  least  one-half  of  the  capital  of  the  com- 
pany; but  in  such  case  the  board  of  directors  shall  have  the  right  in 
its  calls  to  reduce,  as  far  as  it  shall  think  desirable,  the  number  of 
shares  which  must  be  held  in  order  to  take  part  in  the  meeting,  and  in 
such  ease  the  holder  of  the  minimum  number  of  shares  necessary  to 
take  part  in  the  meeting  shall  have  one  vote,  the  holder  of  ten  shares 
shall  have  two  votes,  the  number  of  votes  increasing  at  the  rate  of  two 
votes  for  ten  shares,  provided  that  the  total  number  of  votes  of  any 
member  shall  not  exceed  two  hundred. 

Moreover,  all  owners  of  a  number  of  shares  less  than  that  fixed  for 
admission  to  the  meeting  may  unite  to  form  the  requisite  number  of 
shares  and  may  cause  themselves  to  be  represented  by  one  of  their 
number  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  August  1,  1893. 

Article  62.  It  is  here  explained  that  it  is  in  order  to  conform  to 
the  French  law  now  in  force  that  the  present  statutes  require  the  rep- 
resentation of  one-half  the  capital  of  the  company  at  the  stockholders' 
meetings  called  to  consider  the  subjects  specified  in  article  61  hereof, 
and  a  representation  of  one-quarter  of  the  capital  in  the  other  meet 
ings;  but  it  is  expressly  understood  that  the  company  may  take  the 
benefit  of  any  new  laws  which  lmvy  decrease  the  amount  of  capital  neces- 
sarily represented  in  stockholders'  meetings,  and  that  new  lsgislative 
provisions  concerning  this  question  will  become  applicable  to  the  corn- 
pan)'  hereby  created  upon  a  resolution  to  that  effect  of  a  meeting  of 
stockholders  called  in  accordance  with  the  rules  laid  down  in  articles 
34  and  35  hereof. 

Article  63.  In  case  of  dissolution  of  the  compan}7,  the  meeting 
of  stockholders  on  recommendation  of  the  board  of  directors  shall 
determine  the  method  to  be  adopted  either  for  the  liquidation  or  reor- 
ganization of  the  company  as  a  new  company.  It  may  appoint  one  or 
more  liquidators,  and  may  confer  upon  them  the  broadest  powers. 

Article  64.  During  liquidation  the  powers  of  the  meetings  of 
stockholders  shall  continue  as  during  the  existence  of  the  company. 

It  shall  have,  especially,  the  right  to  approve  the  accounts  of  the 
liquidation  and  to  give  acquittance  therefor. 

The  appointment  of  Liquidators ' shall  terminate  the  powers  of  the 
directors  and  of  all  mandatories. 

Title  X. — Conferring  of  jurisdiction — Suits. 

Article  65.  In  accordance  with  article  20  of  the  concession  law  of 
May  18,  1878,  differences  which  may  arise  between  the  Government 
of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  and  the  company  shall  be  submitted 
to  the  Federal  supreme  court  (Colombia). 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 18 


274  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

But  for  till  other  litigation  the  company  .shall  have  its  domicile  at 
Paris. 

Article  06.  The  company  shall  be  considered  commercial  in  its 
essence  as  in  its  form,  and  shall  accordingly  be  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  tribunal  of  commerce  of  the  Seine. 

Article  67.  Suits  concerning  the  general  and  collective  interests  of 
the  company  can  not  be  brought  either  against  the  board  of  directors 
or  against  one  of  its  members,  except  in  the  names  of  shareholders 
representing  one-twentieth  of  the  capital  of  the  company.  Actions 
concerning  the  rights  of  members  can  not  be  brought  by  a  shareholder, 
or  group  of  shareholders,  representing  less  than  a  twentieth  of  the 
company's  capital. 

And  no  action  at  law  brought  by  one  or  more  shareholders  against 
the  company,  its  board  of  directors,  or  one  of  its  members  can  be 
brought  into  court  until  after  having  been  submitted  to  the  examina- 
tion of  a  meeting  of  shareholders,  whose  opinion  shall  be  submitted  to 
the  magistrates  at  the  same  time  with  the  complaint  itself. 

Article  68.  Every  shareholder  in  case  of  litigation  must  make  elec- 
tion of  a  domicile  at  Paris,  and  all  notices  and  summonses  to  him  may 
be  lawfully  served  at  the  domicile  by  him  elected,  without  regard  to 
the  distance  of  the  real  domicile. 

In  default  of  election  of  a  domicile,  he  shall  be  deemed  to  have 
elected  for  notices,  judicial  and  extra  judicial,  the  office  of  the  attorney 
of  the  Republic  at  the  civil  tribunal  of  first  instance  of  the  Seine. 

The  domicile  elected,  actually  or  impliedly,  as  has  just  been  stated, 
shall  carry  with  it  the  conferring  of  jurisdiction  on  the  competent 
tribunals  of  the  Seine. 

Article  69.  In  all  litigations  which  may  arise  between  the  company 
and  third  persons,  notice  of  all  judicial  or  extra  judicial  documents 
must  necessarily  be  given  by  service  of  a  copy  personally  upon  the 
president  of  the  board  of  directors  at  the  principal  office  of  the 
company. 

Title  XI. — Temporary  provisions. 

Article  7<>.  The  subscription  of  the  entire  capital  of  the  company, 
and  the  payment  of  at  least  one-fourth  the  capital  in  cash,  shall  be 
evidenced  by  a  declaration  of  the  founder  acknowledged  before  a 
notary. 

To  this  declaration  shall  be  annexed  a  list  of  the  subscribers  and  the 
state  of  the  payments  made. 

Article  71.  This  declaration,  with  vouchers,  shall  be  submitted  to 
the  first  stockholders'  meeting}  which  shall  verity  its  accuracy. 

The  same  meeting  shall  cause  the  value  of  the  contribution  herein- 
before mentioned,  and  the  consideration  for  the  advantages  agreed  to 
be  given,  to  be  appraised. 

Article  72.  A  second  meeting  shall  be  called  to  approve,  if  proper, 
the  contribution  and  advantages  in  question. 

The  same  meeting  shall  elect  the  directors  and  the  commissioners 
created  by  article  32. 

The  minutes  of  the  meeting  shall  show  the  acceptance  of  the  direct- 
ors and  of  the  commissioners. 

The  company  shall  be  organized  upon  their  acceptance. 

Article  73.  Stockholders'  meetings  called  for  the  organization  of 


REPORT    OF    THK    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  275 

the  company  shall  be  composed  of  all  the  shareholders,  who  have  each 
a  vote,  provided  that  the  holders  of  several  shares  shall  have  one  vote 
for  every  ten  shares;  but  no  person  shall  have  more  than  ten  votes. 

The  meetings  for  organization  must  be  composed  of  a  number  of 
shareholders  representing  half  the  capital  of  the  company.  The  cap- 
ital, one-half  of  which  must  be  represented  for  verification  of  the  eon-. 
tribution,  shall  be  composed  only  of  the  payments  not  subject  to 
verification. 

If  the  meeting  does  not  include  a  number  of  shareholders  repre- 
senting half  the  capital,  it  nan  act  only  provisionally;  in  such  case  a 
new  meeting  shall  be  called. 

Two  notices,  published  eight  days  apart,  at  least  one  month  in 
advance,  in  one  of  the  papers  in  which  legal  notices  are  published  in 
Paris  shall  give  notice  to  the  shareholders  of  the  provisional  action 
taken  by  the  first  meeting,  and  this  action  shall  become  final  if  approved 
by  a  new  meeting  composed  of  a  number  of  shareholders  representing 
at  least  one-fifth  of  the  capital  of  the  company. 

Article  74.  All  general  provisions  of  Title  VI,  relative  to  stock- 
holders' meetings,  not  inconsistent  with  those  contained  in  this  title, 
shall  be  applicable  to  meetings  of  stockholders  for  organization;  except 
that  meetings  foi  organization  may  be  called  by  a  notice  inserted  in  a 
newspaper  in  which  legal  notices  are  published  in  Paris,  as  follows: 
For  the  first  meeting,  two  days  beforehand,  and  for  the  second  meet- 
ing at  least  ten  days  beforehand. 

Article  75.  When  the  amounts  expended  as  well  for  the  work  done 
upon  the  canal  as  for  the  discharge  of  the  burdens  resulting  from  the 
contribution  of  Mr.  Gautron  shall  reach  about  one-half  of  the  cash 
capital  of  the  company  at  the  minimum,  a  special  technical  commission, 
theretofore  appointed  at  a  proper  time,  shall  pronounce  upon  the 
results  obtained  from  the  work  already  done  and  upon  the  conclusions 
to  be  drawn  therefrom  as  to  the  remainder  of  the  enterprise. 

This  commission  shall  be  composed  of  two  members  appointed  by 
the  board  of  directors  of  the  present  company  and  of  two  persons 
appointed  by  the  liquidation  of  the  old  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal 
Interoceanique.  These  four  members  shall  appoint  a  fifth,  who  shall 
be  president  of  the  commission,  and  if  they  can  not  agree  this  presi- 
dent shall  be  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  tribunal  of  commerce 
of  the  department  of  the  Seine. 

The  board  of  directors  shall  be  required  to  make  public  the  opinion 
of  this  commission  and  to  call  a  special  meeting  of  stockholders  in 
the  manner  provided  in  articles  61  and  02  hereof. 

This  meeting  shall  consider  the  ways  and  means  tending  to  insure 
the  completion  of  the  work  and  the  stipulations  contained  in  article  5, 
section  4,  No.  3,  hereof. 

Title  XII. — Publications. 

Article  76.  Within  the  month  of  the  organization  of  the  company 
the  directors  shall  file  in  the  registry  of  the  tribunal  of  commerce  of 
the  Seine  and  of  the  justice  of  the  peace  of  the  ninth  arrondissement 
of  Paris — 

1.  A  copy  of  the  articles  of  association. 

2.  A  copy  of  the  document  showing  the  subscription  of  the  capital 
and  the  payment  of  one-fourth. 


276  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

3.  A  copy  or  a  certified  copy  of  the  action  of  the  stockholders'  meet- 
ing in  accordance  with  articles  71  and  72  hereof. 

4.  A  cop}^  or  a  certified  copy  of  the  list  of  the  names  of  the  sub- 
scribers. 

Article  77.  Within  the  same  time  an  extract  from  the  documents 
and  proceedings  specified  in  the  preceding  article  shall  be  inserted  in 
one  of  the  newspapers  publishing  legal  notices  in  Paris  in  pursuance  of 
law. 

Article  78.  Full  powers  are  granted  the  holders  of  the  documents 
for  the  filing  and  publication  in  question. 

Article  79.  Finally,  it  is  noted  that  all  the  provisions  contained  in 
the  two  last  preceding  titles  relative  to  the  organization  and  publica- 
tions of  the  present  company  have  been  dictated  only  by  the  require- 
ments of  the  French  law  as  to  joint-stock  companies  now  in  force. 

Express  reservation  is  made  of  the  benefit  of  all  new  provisions 
which  the  legislature  may  introduce  into  the  law. 


EXTRACT  FROM  THE  MINUTES  OF  THE  CIVIL  TRIBUNAL,  LOWER  COURT, 
FOR  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  SEINE,  SITTING  IN  THE  PALACE  OF 
JUSTICE,  PARIS,  JUNE  29,  1894,  APPROVING  AND  RATIFYING  THE 
CHARTER   OF   THE   NEW   PANAMA   CANAL    COMPANY. 

The  civil  tribunal,  lower  court,  for  the  department  of  the  Seine, 
sitting  in  the  palace  of  justice,  Paris,  has  rendered,  in  open  and  public 
sessions  of  its  first  division,  the  following  judgment: 

Done  at  the  sitting  of  the  29th  day  of  June,  L894. 

The  tribunal  having  examined  and  considered  the  petition  ]>resented 
by  Gautron  as  receiver  of  the  court  for  the  Universal  Company  of  the 
Panama  [nteroceanic  Canal,  which  petition  is  signed  by  De  BieVille, 
his  counselor,  and  the  tribunal  having  also  examined  and  considered 
the  documents  produced,  and  the  petition  aforesaid  being  conceived 
as  follows: 

To  the  honorable  the  president  and  justices  of  the  first  division  of 
the  civil  tribunal  of  the  Seine,  the  petitioner,  Air.  Jean  Pierre  Gautron, 
receiver  of  the  court,  residing  in  Paris,  No.  18  Tronchet  street,  repre- 
sents as  follows: 

That  he  is  acting  in  his  capacity  as  receiver  for  the  Universal  Com- 
pany of  the  Panama  [nteroceanic  (anal,  whose  legal  residence  is  in 
Paris.  No.  63  Rue  de  la  Victoire;  that  he  was  named  receiver  as  afore- 
said by  a  decree  rendered  in  chambers  by  the  civil  tribunal  of  the 
Seine  on  the  21st  day  of  July.  1893. 

That  he.  through  his  attorney  and  counselor, .  Mr.  de  BieVille, 
respectfully  states  that  on  the  4th  day  of  February,  L889,  Mr.  Joseph 
Brunet  was  named,  by  recorded  decree  of  the  first  division  of  this 
tribunal,  receiver  for  the  Universal  Company  of  the  Panama  Inter- 
oceanic  (anal,  and  was  given  most  extensive  powers,  notably  that  of 
granting  or  making  a  cont  ribution  of  either  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the 
assets  of  the  company  to  a  new  company  or  association. 

That  by  a  recorded  decree  of  this  tribunal  rendered  in  chambers  on 
the  13th  day  of  February,  L890,  Mr.  Achille  Monchicourt  was  named 
coreeeiver  for  the  said  company  with  Mr.  Joseph  Brunet,  and  was 
given  the  same  powers,  to  use  individually  or  in  conjunction  with  the 
latter.  ■ 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  277 

That  owing-  to  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Brunet,  Mr.  Aehille  Monchi- 
I'ourt  has  been  confirmed  by  a  chamber's  decree  dated  the  8th  day  of 
March,  L890,  as  sole  receiver  for  the  said  company,  with  the  broadest 
powers,  notably  that  of  giving  or  making  a  contribution  to  a  new 
company  or  association  of  cither  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  assets  of 
the  company  aforesaid,  of  entering  into  and  rectifying  with  contractors- 
all  contracts  and  agreements  aiming  to  the  continuation  or  preserving 
of  the  work,  and  of  prolonging  and  renewing  all  agreements,  of  giving 
all  guarantees  necessary  for  this  purpose. 

Finally,  that  by  a  decree  rendered  in  chambers  on  the  21st  day  of 
July.  1893,  Mr.  dean  Pierre  Gautron  was  appointed  coreceiver  with 
Mr!  Aehille  Monchicourt,  with  the  same  and  equal  powers,  to  use  indi- 
vidually or  jointly  with  the  said  Mr.  Monchicourt. 

That  owing  to  the  decease  of  Mr.  Aehille  Monchicourt,  which 
occurred  on  the  11th  day  of  March,  1891,  Mr.  Gautron  remains  sole 
receiver  of  the  Panama  interoceanic  Canal  Company. 

That  a  new  company  is  in  process  of  formation  at  the  present  time 
for  the  purpose  of  resuming  the  work  and  completing  the  canal. 

That  the  constitution  and  by-laws  of  this  company,  called  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company,  have  been  drawn  up  and  deposited  for  record 
by  Mr.  Gustave  Ramet,  formerly  president  of  the  tribunal  of  com- 
merce at  Rennes,  and  have  been  tiled  also  in  the  records  and  minutes 
of  Mr.  Lefebvre,  notary,  in  Paris. 

That  your  petitioner,  by  virtue  of  the  powers  conferred  by  the  orders 
and  decrees  aforesaid  jn  the  receiver  for  the  Panama  Interoceanic  Canal 
Company,  is  preparing  to  make  contribution  to  the  new  company  now 
being  constituted: 

First.  Of  all  rights  whatsoever  accruing  to  the  old  company  from  the 
laws  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  dated  May 
18,  1878,  and  December  20,  1890,  as  well  as  from  all  decrees,  acts,  or 
facts  whatever  having  followed  upon  these  laws  in  the  course  of  their 
execution,  and  all  advantages  and  benefits  accruing  therefrom  and 
stipulated  by  these  laws  and  decrees,  together  with  all  territory  and 
real  estate  having  been  granted  and  ceded  to  the  interoceanic  company 
now  in  process  of  liquidation,  or  acquired  by  the  same;  all  this  pro- 
vided the  new  company  fulfill  the  conditions  prescribed  and  imposed 
by  the  laws  and  acts  passed  in  granting  or  extending  the  concession, 
and  provided  it  pay  and  discharge  all  sums  and  indebtedness  remaining 
due  to  the  Colombian  Government  by  the  old  company. 

Second.  Of  the  work  already  done  and  accomplished,  of  the  yards, 
workshops,  buildings,  hospitals,  plant  mounted  and  unmounted,  and 
of  the  stores,  etc.,  belonging  to  the  receivership,  as  well  as  of  all 
deposits. 

Third.  Of  the  plans,  estimates,  surveys,  and  specifications,  and  of 
all  documents  whatsoever  gathered  and  collected  by  the  Universal 
Company  of  the  Interoceanic  Canal  bearing  in  any  manner  on  the 
study,  construction,  or  improvement,  and  operation  of  the  canal  or  of 
its  appurtenants,  as  well  as  the  privileges  attached  to  the  same  and  all 
contracts  or  agreements  with  third  parties. 

Fourth.  Of  all  rights  of  any  nature  and  description,  part  owner- 
ship or  any  othei  rights  whatsoever  which  may  belong  or  accrue  to 
the  Interoceanic  Canal  Universal  Company  now  being  liquidated,  in 
the  Panama  Railroad  at  Colon,  now  worked  and  operated  by  an  American 
company  known  as  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  whose  legal  resi- 


278  REPORl    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

dence  is  in  Now  York.  The  said  rights  shall  be  transferred  such  as 
they  are,  carrying  with  them  all  privileges  entailed  by  them;  and  Mr. 
Gautron  binds  himself  in  his  official  capacity  to  invest  with  them  the 
present  company  in  the  form  and  in  compliance  with  all  formalities 
required  for  such  transfer  by  the  laws  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

The  said  rights  shall  be  transferred,  as  well  as  the  said  property,  in 
full,  such  as  they  exist  and  with  all  that  they  entail. 

Your  petitioner  further  respectfully  shows  as  follows: 

That  the  said  grant  and  contribution  are  made,  or  are  to  be  made, 
by  him  with  the  following  reservations  and  under  the  following  con- 
ditions, to  wit: 

First.  The  receivership  shall  have  and  receive  a  part  in  the  net 
profits  and  gains  of  the  enterprise,  amounting  to  00  per  cent  of  the 
said  profits  and  gains,  such  as  the  same  shall  be  determined  and  com- 
puted under  articles  51  and  52  of  the  by-laws. 

Second.  Fifty  thousand  shares  of  entirely  paid-up  stock  shall  be 
given  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  as  pre- 
scribed by  the  extension  act  of  December  20,  1890. 

Third.  The  rights  of  every  nature  and  description  accruing  to  the 
receivership  from  the  Panama  Railroad,  and  ceded  by  Mr.  Gautron, 
as  set  forth  in  paragraph  4-  above,  shall  become  the  property  of  the 
new  company  from  the  date  of  the  meeting  provided  for  by  article  75 
of  the  constitution  and  by-laws.  No  pecuniary  compensation  is  required 
of  the  new  company  for  the  cession  of  said  rights,  hut  they  are  trans- 
ferred on  the  condition  and  with  the  full  understanding  that  said 
transfer  shall  be  void  if  the  canal  be  not  completed  within  the  time 
appointed  by  the  giant.  Should  the  work  not  be  completed  within 
the  .said  period  of  time,  the  said  rights  shall  revert  to  the  receivership. 

If,  contrary  to  all  expectations,  the  meeting  in  question  should  fail 
to  take  the  necessary  measures  to  complete  the  canal,  or  if  the  measures 
thus  taken  by  said  meeting  should  fail  of  execution  by  reason  of 
impossibility  to  carry  them  out,  the  present  company  would  still  retain 
the  said  rights  accruing  from  the  railroad  aforesaid;  but  it  would  have 
to  pay  to  the  receivership  a  sum  of  20,000,000  francs  as  an  indemnity, 
while  the  receivership's  share  in  the  gains  and  profits  of  the  new  com- 
pany would  then  be  equal  to  one-half  of  said  gains  and  profits  without 
further  previous  deduction  than  such  as  is  provided  for  by  paragraphs 
2  and  8  of  article  51. 

Fourth.  Until  the  full  completion  of  the  canal  Mi'.  Gautron  shall 
have  power,  in  his  capacity  as  receiver,  to  appoint  a  controlling  or 
supervising  committee,  composed  of  three  members  selected  as  much 
as  possible  from  among  civil  engineers  and  finance  inspectors,  in  order 
to  inspect  the  progress  of  the  work,  the  condition  and  maintenance  of 
the  plant  and  of  the  real  property,  as  well  as  the  accounts  kept  in 
relation  to  these  various  objects. 

The  compensating  of  this  committee  shall  be  at  the  expense  of  the 
new  company. 

Your  petitioner  further  shows  that  it  is  proper  for  him  to  submit  to 
the  civil  tribunal  of  the  Seine,  for  ratification  and  approval,  the  con- 
ditions of  the  said  giants  and  contributions  and  the  constitution  and 
by-laws  of  the  company  formed  for  the  completion  of  the  canal. 

Wherefore  your  said  petitioner,  acting  in  his  official  capacity,  respect- 
fully requests  and  prays  the  honorable  president  and  associate  justices 
of  this  court  purely  and  simply  to  ratify  and  approve  the  purport  and 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  279 

conditions  of  the  grants  or  contributions  intended  to  bo  made  by  the 
receiver  for  the  Universal  Company  of  the  Panama  Interoceanic  Canal 
to  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  now  in  process  of  formation,  as 
well  as  the  constitution  and  by-laws  of  the  last-mentioned  company. 
All  proper  reservations  being  made,  justice  will  be  done. 

A.  de  Bieville. 

Having-  considered  the  order  issued  b}r  the  president  of  the  court, 
dated  the  27th  day  of  June,  1894,  appended  to  the  said  petition  and 
directing: 

That  this  be  communicated  to  the  commonwealth  attorne3r,  and  that 
Mr.  de  Boislisle,  vice-president,  is  hereby  appointed  to  make  a  report. 
Done  at  the  palace  of  justice,  Paris,  on  the  27th  day  of  June,  1894,  and 
signed  "Baudouin." 

Having  considered  the  written  opinion  of  the  commonwealth  attor- 
ney, likewise  appended  to  the  said  petition,  which  opinion  is  thus  con- 
ceived: 

The  attorney  for  the  commonwealth  refers  the  matter  to  the  tri- 
bunal of  justice. 

Cabat. 

Having  considered  articles  10  and  11  of  the  act  of  July  1,  1893, 
which  articles  are  thus  framed: 

Article  10.  All  acts  tending  to  alienate  any  assets  of  the  company,  all  contracts 
entailing  a  transfer  or  contribution  of  the  whole  or  of  part  of  the  assets  of  the  con- 
cern, emanating  from  the  receiver  of  the  Universal  Company  of  the  Panama  Inter- 
oceanic Canal,  shall  be  subject  to  the  approval  or  ratification  of  the  civil  tribunal  of 
the  Seine,  who  shall,  on  the  report  of  one  of  the  justices,  paes  on  the  question  in 
open  court.  * 

Article  11.  All  decrees  of  approval  and  ratification  rendered  in  accordance  with 
the  preceding  article  shall  be  published,  within  a  term  of  ten  days,  in  the  Journal 
Officiel  and  in  the' Journal  Officiel  (Commune  edition). 

This  decree  may  be  attacked  by  a  third  party,  by  the  shareholders,  by  the  attorney 
of  obligation  holders,  and  by  other  creditors  of  the  company,  within  a  delay  not 
exceeding  one  month  from  the  date  of  the  publication  aforesaid.  The  civil  tribunal 
shall  adjudicate  the  question  within  the  space  of  one  month,  as  in  the  case  of  matters 
demanding  immediate  and  summary  adjudication.  The  appeal  from  such  decision 
must  be  entered,  within  ten  days  from  the  time  of  notification  of  said  judgment,  to 
the  party  in  person  or  at  his  domicile. 

Having  heard  at  the  sitting  of  the  court  Mr.  de  Boislisle,  vice- 
president,  in  his  report,  and  Mr.  Cabat,  assistant  attorney  for  the 
commonwealth,  in  his  opinion,  and  having  deliberated  upon  the  same 
in  accordance  with  law. 

Whereas  it  appeal's  from  the  terms  of  article  5  of  the  constitution 
and  by-laws  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  which  constitu- 
tion and  b}T-laws  have  been  duly  acknowledged  before  Lefebvre  and 
his  colleague,  notaries  in  Paris,  under  an  act  of  June  26,  1894,  that 
Gautron,  acting  in  his  official  capacity  as  receiver  for  the  Universal 
Company  of  the  Panama  Interoceanic  Canal,  has  declared  himself 
as  ceding  or  contributing  to  the  said  company  newly  formed: 

First.  All  rights  whatsoever  accruing  to  the  old  company  by  virtue 
of  the  laws  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  dated 
May  18,  1878,  and  December  26,  1890,  as  well  as  those  accruing  from 
all  decrees,  acts,  or  facts  having  followed  upon  these  laws  in  the  course 
of  their  execution,  and  all  advantages  accruing  therefrom  and  stipu- 
lated by  these  laws  and  decrees,  together  with  all  territory  and  real 
estate  granted  and  ceded  unto  the  interoceanic  company  now  in  process 


'280  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  liquidation  or  acquired  by  the  «ame — all  this  provided  the  new  com- 
pany fulfill  the  conditions  prescribed  and  imposed  by  the  laws  and  acts 
passed  in  prolongation  or  extension  of  the  grant,  and  provided  it  dis- 
charge and  pay  all  sums  and  indebtedness  remaining  clue  to  the  Colom- 
bian Government  by  the  old  company. 

Second.  The  work  already  done  and  accomplished,  the  yards,  work- 
shops, buildings,  hospitals,  plant,  mounted  and  unmounted,  and  the 
stores,  etc.,  belonging  to  the  receivership  of  the  Universal  Company 
of  the  Panama  Interoceanic  Canal,  as  well  as  all  deposits  which  may 
have  been  made  by  the  said  company  now  in  process  of  liquidation. 

Third.  The  plans,  estimates,  surveys,  and  specifications,  and  all 
documents  whatsoever  gathered  and  collected  by  the  Universal  Com- 
pany of  the  Panama  Interoceanic  Canal  bearing  in  any  manner  on  the 
study,  construction,  or  improvement  and  operation  of  the  canal  and 
its  appurtenants,  as  well  as  the  privileges  attached  to  the  same,  and  all 
contracts  or  agreements  with  third  parties. 

Fourth.  All  rights  of  any  nature  and  description,  part  ownership, 
or  any  other  rights  whatsoever  which  may  belong  or  accrue  to  the 
Interoceanic  Canal  Universal  Company,  now  being  liquidated,  in  the 
Panama  Railroad  at  Colon,  now  worked  and  operated  by  an  American 
company,  known  as  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  whose  legal  resi- 
dence is  in  New  York,  the  said  rights  being  transferred  such  as  they 
are  and  exist,  carrying  with  them  all  the  privileges  which  they  entail; 
and  Mr.  Gautron  binding  himself,  in  his  official  capacity,  to  invest 
with  them  the  present  company  in  the  form,  and  in  compliance  with 
all  the  formalities,  required  for  such  due  and  valid  transfer  by  the 
laws  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

Whereas,  moreover,  the  said  rights  are  to  be  transferred,  as  well  as 
the  said  property,  such  as  they  exist  and  with  all  that  they  entail,  and 
whereas  these  cessions  or  grant  and  contribution  have  been  made  by 
Gautron,  in  his  official  capacity,  with  the  following  reservations  and 
under  the  following  conditions,  to  wit: 

First.  The  receivership  shall  have  and  receive  a  share  in  the  net 
profits  and  gains  of  the  enterprise  amounting  to  60  per  cent  of  the 
said  profits  and  gains,  such  as  the  same  shall  be  determined  and  com- 
puted under  articles  51  and 52  of  the  constitution  and  by-laws. 

Second.  Fifty  thousand  shares  of  entirely  paid-up  stock  shall  be 
given  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  as  pre- 
scribed by  the  extension  act  of  December  26,  1890. 

Third.  The  rights  of  every  nature  and  description  accruing  to  the 
receivership  from  the  Panama  Railroad,  and  ceded  by  Mr.  Gautron, 
as  set  forth  in  paragraph  4  above,  shall  become  the  property  of  the 
new  company  from  I  he  dale  of  the  meeting  provided  for  by  article  75 

of  the  constitution  and  by-laws.  No  pecuniary  compensation  is 
required  of  the  new  company  for  the  cession  of  these  rights,  but  they 
are  transferred  on  the  condition  and  with  the  full  understanding  that 
said  transfer  shall  be  void  if  the  canal  be  not  completed  within  the  time 
appointed  by  the  grant.  Should  the  work  not  be  completed  within 
the  said  period  of  time,  the  said  lights  shall  revert  to  the  receivership. 
If,  contrary  to  all  expectations,  the  meeting  in  question  should  fail  to 
take  the  necessary  measures  t<»  complete  the  canal,  or  if  the  measures 
thus  taken  by  the  said  meeting  should  prove  impossible  of  execution, 
the  present  company  would  still  retain  the  said  rights  accruing  from 
the  railroad  aforesaid;  but  it  would  be  bound  to  pay  to  the  receiver- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  281 

ship  a  sum  of  20,000,000  francs  as  indemnity,  while  the  receivership's 
share  in  the  gains  and  profits  of  the  now  company  would  then  be  equal 
to  one-half  of  the  said  gains  and  profits  without  further  previous 
reduction  than  such  as  is  provided  for  by  paragraphs  2  and  3  of 
article  51.  Consequently,  the  said  rights  shall  remain  inalienable  in 
the  hands  of  the  new  company  aforesaid,  either  until  the  payment  of" 
the  said  20,000,000  francs  or  until  the  full  completion  of  the  canal. 

Fourth.  Until  the  full  completion  of  the  canal  Mr.  Gautron  shall 
have  power,  in  his  official  capacity,  to  appoint  a  controlling  or  super- 
vising committee  composed  of  three  members,  to  he  selected,  as  far 
as  possible,  from  among-  civil  engineers  and  finance  inspectors,  in  order 
to  inspect  the  progress  of  the  work,  the  condition  and  maintenance  of 
the  plant  and  real  property,  as  well  as  the  accounts  kept  in  relation  to 
these  various  subjects.  The  compensation  of  this  committee  shall  be 
at  the  expense  of  the  new  compan}T. 

Whereas,  according  to  the  terms  of  article  51  of  the  constitution  and 
by-laws  of  the  said  new  company,  the  annual  proceeds  of  the  enter- 
prise shall  be  used  to  pay  and  discharge: 

First.  The  share  in  the  gains  and  profits  stipulated  and  reserved  to 
itself  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  according 
to  the  terms  of  the  grant. 

Second.  The  costs  of  maintenance  and  the  operating  expenses,  the 
expenditures  entailed  in  the  management  of  the  concern,  and,  generally 
speaking,  all  charges  incurred  by  the  company,  as  well  as  the  payment 
of  interest  and  the  redemption  of  all  loans  which  may  have  been  con- 
tracted. 

Third.  The  deduction  of  one-twentieth,  levied  on  the  net  profits 
after  the  settlement  and  cancellation  of  all  items  of  indebtedness  above 
enumerated,  the  said  deduction  to  be  applied  to  the  formation  of  the 
legal  reserve  fund. 

Fourth.  Five  per  cent  of  the  capital  stock,  the  same  to  be  applied 
by  the  general  meeting,  as  the  board  of  directors  may  advise,  both  to 
the  formation  of  the  redemption  fund  which  is  to  be  established  under 
article  55  and  to  the  payment  of  interest  on  unredeemed  shares. 

Whereas,  according  to  the  terms  of  article  52,  the  net  gains  and 
profits  of  the  enterprise  will  consist  in  whatever  will  be  left  of  the 
annual  proceeds  after  deduction  of  the  various  items  enumerated  in  the 
preceding  article  hereof,  while  5  per  cent  of  these  net  profits  will  be 
set  apart  for  the  benefit  of  the  board  of  directors,  and  the  surplus  shall 
go  40  per  cent  to  the  shares  created  and  60  per  cent  to  the  Interoceanic 
Canal  Universal  Company  now  in  process  of  liquidation. 

Whereas,  finally,  by  the  terms  of  article  75,  when  the  expenses 
incurred  for  the  work  done  on  the  canal  and  for  the  settlement  of 
obligations  resulting  from  the  contribution  made  by  Gautron  in  his 
official  capacity  as  receiver  shall  have  reached  a  sum  equal  to  at  least 
one-half  of  the  capital  stock  (excluding  nonspecies  portion  of  the  same), 
the  results  then  achieved  from  the  work  already  done  and  the  conse- 
quent decisions  to  be  taken  for  the  future  of  the  enterprise  shall  be 
passed  upon  by  a  special  technical  commission  brought  together  at 
some  previous  and  opportune  time,  the  said  commission  to  consist  of 
two  members  designated  by  the  board  of  directors  of  the  present  com- 
pany and  of  two  persons  named  by  the  receivership  of  the  former 
universal  company  for  an  interoceanic  canal,  together  with  a  fifth 
member  whom  the  other  four  shall  designate  and  who  shall  be  president 
of  the  said  commission,  but  who  in  case  the  other  four  members  shouid 


282  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

fail  to  agree,  shall  be  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  tribunal  of 
commerce  for  the  department  of  the  Seine. 

Whereas  the  board  of  directors  shall  be  bound  to  make  public  the 
report  made  b}T  this  commission  and  to  summon  an  extraordinary  or 
special  general  meeting. 

Whereas  this  meeting  shall  have  to  deliberate  on  ways  and  means  to 
insure  the  completion  of  the  work  and  on  the  stipulation  herein  above 
set  forth,  article  5,  paragraph  1,  No.  3;  whereas  the  constitution  and 
by-laws  in  question  must  be  submitted,  by  the  terms  of  article  10 
above  mentioned,  of  the  law  dated  July  1,  1893,  to  the  tribunal  for 
ratification  touching  the  contributions  intended  to  be  made  to  the  New 
Pananni  Canal  Company  by  Gautron  in  his  official  capacity,  and 
whereas  this  ratification  is  prayed  for  b}T  Gautron. 

Whereas  the  said  contributions  are  within  the  competency  of  the 
receiver,  according  to  decrees  which  appointed  him  with  the  broadest 
powers,  notably  with  that  of  ceding  or  contributing  to  a  now  com- 
pany all  or  a  part  of  the  company's  assets;  whereas  the  conditions 
stipulated  for  the  benefit  of  the  Universal  Company  of  the  Panama 
Interoceanic  Canal  seem  to  be  in  accord  with  its  own  interests,  and 
therefore  it  is  proper  to  ratify  and  approve  the  agreement  declaring 
these  contributions  and  conditions: 

For  these  reasons  the  court,  leaving  unimpaired  the  right  of  share- 
holders, of  the  attorney  or  representative  of  obligation  holders,  and  of 
other  creditors  of  the  company  to  intervene  and  make  objection  under 
article  11  of  the  law  dated  July  1,  181*3,  does  hereby  approve  and  ratify, 
purely  and  simply,  the  constitution  and  by-laws  of  the  New  Panama 
Canal  Company  as  received  by  Lefebvre  and  his  colleague,  notaries, 
in  Paris,  on  the  20th  day  of  June,  1894,  touching  the  contributions 
made  by  Gautron  in  his  capacity  as  receiver  of  the  Universal  Company 
of  the  Panama  Interoceanic  Canal,  and  the  court  hereby  orders  that 
the  present  decree  be  published  within  the  space  of  ten  days,  in  the 
Journal  Officiel  and  in  the  Journal  Officiel  (Commune  edition),  accord- 
ing to  article  11  of  the  law  of  July  1,  1893. 

Baudouin. 
De  Boislisle. 
Lasniek. 

Done  and  adjudged  by  Messrs.  Baudouin,  president;  De  Boislisle, 
vice-president;  Laporte,  judge;  Tassart,  supernumerary  judge;  LeBer- 
quier,  supernumerary  judge,  in  the  presence  of  M.  Cabat,  assistant 
attorney  for  the  commonwealth,  attended  by  Lasnier,  clerk,  June  29, 
1894. 

The  order  was  signed  by  the  honorable  president  of  the  court,  by 
the  reporting  judge,  and  by  the  clerk. 

Recorded  in  Paris,  July  11,  1894,  folio  50,  thir    subdivision. 

Received  9  francs  and  38  centimes,  decimes  included. 


[Translation.— Paris,  June  8,  1888.] 

LAW  AUTHORIZING  THE  COMPAGNIE  UNIVERSELLE  DTJ  CANAL  INTER- 
OCKAMOUIO  DE  PANAMA  TO  [SSI  K  IN  FRANCE  SECURITIES  REPAYABLE 
WITH   PRIZES. 

The  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  have  adopted,  the  President 
of  the  Republic  promulgates  the  law  of  the  following  tenor: 

Article  1.  The  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  tnteroceanique  de 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  283 

Panama  is  authorized  to  create,  up  to  600,000,000  francs,  an  .ssue  of 
securities,  payable  with  prizes  by  lot,  upon  the  following  conditions: 

First.  The  securities  issued  shall  hear  annual  interest,  the  rate  of 
which  can  not  be  less  than  3  per  cent  on  their  par  value. 

Second.  The  total  annual  sum  distributed  in  the  form  of  prizes 
can  not,  in  any  case,  exceed  1  per  cent  of  the  par  value. 

Third.  The  par  value  of  the  securities  issued  can  not  be  less  than 
300  francs;  subsequent  division  of  the  securities  issued  is  forbidden. 

Fourth.  The  payment  of  this  loan  in  a  period  of  ninety-nine  years, 
at  furthest,  shall  be  secured  by  a  sufficient  deposit,  for  this  especial 
purpose,  of  French  Government  bonds,  or  of  securities  guaranteed  by 
the  French  Government.  The  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Inter- 
oceanique  de  Panama,  to  meet  the  obligation  imposed  upon  it,  is 
authorized  to  increase,  under  the  same  conditions,  the  said  loan  of  six 
hundred  millions,  by  the  sum  necessary  for  the  formation  of  this  guar- 
anty fund,  this  increase  of  loan  not  to  exceed  20  per  cent  of  the  par 
of  the  issue. 

Article  2.  If  the  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Interoceanique 
de  Panama  should  hereafter  convert  all  or  any  of  its  former  obliga- 
tions, the  provisions  of  article  1  shall  be  applicable  to  the  new  secur- 
ities created  by  means  of  this  conversion. 

Article  3.  All  material  necessary  for  the  completion  of  the  works 
shall  be  manufactured  in  France.  The  raw  material  must  be  of  French 
origin. 

Article  4.  All  prospectuses,  posters,  publications,  and  other  docu- 
ments intended  for  advertising  must  bear,  in  type  of  the  same  size  as 
that  used  for  announcing  the  loan,  and  below  the  amount  of  the  loan, 
the  notice: 

Loan  authorized  in  conformity  with  the  provisions  of  the  law  of  May  21,  1836,  by 
the  law  of  June  8,  1888,  but  without  any  guaranty  or  responsibility  of  the  State. 

The  same  notice  shall  be  put  at  the  top  of  the  temporary  or  perma- 
nent certificates  issued  to  subscribers. 

Any  violation  of  the  above  provision  will  entail  the  withdrawal  of 
authorization  by  simple  order  of  the  minister  of  finance. 

The  present  law,  considered  and  adopted  by  the  Senate  and  Ivy  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  shall  be  executed  as  a  law  of  the  State. 
Done  at  Paris  June  8,  1888. 

Carnot. 
By  the  President  of  the  Republic: 

P.  Peytral, 
Minister  of  Finance. 


law  of  JULY   15,  1889,   authorizing   sale   of  lottery  bonds   at 

REDUCED   RATES. 

Article  1.  The  receiver  of  the  Universal  Company  of  the  Inter- 
oceanic  Canal  of  Panama  is  authorized  to  negotiate,  at  any  price  and 
without  interest,  such  of  the  lottery  bonds  authorized  by  the  law  of 
el  une  8,  1888,  as  had  not  been  placed  or  sold  up  to  the  4th  day  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1889,  when  the  said  company  was  dissolved  and  was  turned 
over  into  the  hands  of  a  receiver. 

The  sums  resulting  from  the  negotiation  or  sale  of  the  said  bonds 


284  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

shall  be  free  from  attachment  or  execution  up  to  the  amount  of 
34,000,000  francs. 

In  case  the  receiver  should  contribute  or  give  to  a  company  formed 
for  the  purp<  se  of  completing  the  canal  all  or  a  part  of  the  assets  of 
the  receivership,  the  new  company  shall  only  have  power  to  emit  and 
issue  bonds  as  yet  unplaced  or  unsold  by  complying-  with  the  terms  of 
the  law  of  June  8,1888,  touching  the  minimum  price  of  sale  and  the 
distribution  of  interest. 

Article  2.  As  the  sale  shall  proceed  of  those  bonds  on  which  full 
payment  has  not  been  made  of  the  sum  required  to  constitute  the 
guaranty  fund  or  capital  prescribed  and  provided  for  by  the  first 
article  of  the  law  of  June  8,  1X88,  the  receiver  must  turn  over  the  com- 
plement of  this  sum  to  the  civil,  i.  c,  nontrading,  company  created 
with  a  view  to  the  formation  of  the  said  fund  or  capital. 

The  deposits  made  by  the  civil  or  nontrading  company  by  virtue  of 
the  law  of  June  8,  1888,  and  also  of  the  present  law,  shall  not  be  with- 
drawn, but  shall  preserve  their  special  character  and  shall  remain 
specially  pledged  until  complete  discharge  of  the  lot  guaranty  and  of 
the  capital  reimbursement. 


Appendix  M  M. 

CONTRACT  BETWEEN  NICARAGUA  AND  THE  AMERICAN  ATLANTIC 
AND  PACIFIC  SHIP-CANAL  COMPANY,  SIGNED  AT  LEON  AUGUST 
27,  1849. 


The  supreme  director  of  the  State  of  Nicaragua  and  The  American 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship-Canal  Company,  composed  of  Cornelius  Van- 
derbilt,  Joseph  L.  White,  Nathaniel  H.  Wolfe,  and  their  associates, 
being  always  citizens  of  the  United  States,  desiring-  to  settle  the  terms 
of  a  contract  for  facilitating  the  transit  across  the  Isthmus  of  Nicaragua 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  oceans,  by  means  of  a  ship  canal  or 
railroad,  have  appointed  as  commissioners  on  the  part  of  the  supreme 
director  of  the  State  of  Nicaragua,  Messrs.  Hermenegilda  Zepeda  and 
Gregorio  Juares,  and  on  the  part  of  the  said  company  Mr.  David  L. 
White,  with  full  powers  to  arrange  and  conclude  a  contract  for  the 
above-named  purposes,  which  commissioners,  having  exchanged  their 
respective  powers,  have  agreed  upon  and  concluded  the  following 
jirtic'es: 

Article  I.  The  State  of  Nicaragua  grants  to  the  said  company  the 
exclusive  right  and  privilege  of  constructing  a  ship  canal  across  its 
territory,  by  a  single  route  and  at  its  own  expense,  from  the  port  of 
St.  Johns,  of  Nicaragua,  or  any  other  more  feasible  point  on  the 
Atlantic,  to  the  port  of  liealejo.  Gulf  of  Amapala,  or  Fonseca,  Tamo 
rinda,  St.  Johns  of  the  South,  or  any  other  point  on  the  Pacific  Ocean 
which  the  engineers  of  the  company  may  decide  upon,  by  means  of 
the  St.  Johns  River,  Lake  Nicaragua,  River  Tipitapa,  Lake  of  Leon, 
or  any  other  rivers,  lakes,  waters,  and  lands  situated  within  its  terri- 
tory, with  the  object  of  connecting  the  two  oceans,  and  to  make  use 
of,  for  its  construction  and  navigation,  said  rivers,  lakes,  waters,  and 
lands,  both  public  and  private.  And  the  State  also  grants  to  the 
company  the  exclusive  right  to  the  administration,  management,  and 
control  of  the  said  canal,  according  to  the  following  articles: 

II.  The  dimensions  of  the  canal  shall  be  such  as  may  be  necessary 
for  the  passage  of  vessels  of  all  sizes,  and  the  point  at  which  it  shall 
terminate  on  the  Pacific,  in  the  event  that  the  engineers  of  the  com- 
pany shall  decide  upon  two  or  more  points  as  equally  practicable,  shall 
be  that  one  most  consistent  with  the  mutual  interests  both  of  the  State 
and  the  compan}'. 

HI.  The  com] >any  binds  itself  to  construct,  at  its  own  expense,  in 
the  harbors  at  the  extremities  of  the  route  of  said  canal,  custom-house 
buildings  of  the  necessary  capacity  for  the  use  of  the  State  and 
company. 

IV.  The  exclusive  rights  and  privileges  herein  granted  to  the  said 
company  by  the  said  State  shall  be  enjoyed  b}r  the  same  for  the  fixed 

285 


286  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

period  of  eighty-five  years,  counted  from  the  day  in  which  the  canal 
shall  be  completed  and  put  in  use. 

V.  The  company  hereby  agrees  to  pay  to  the  said  State  for  the  said 
grant  the  following-  sums  of  money,  namely: 

First.  Ten  thousand  dollars  by  draft  on  the  said  company  in  the 
city  of  New  York  as  soon  as  this  contract  shall  be  ratified  b}r  the 
Legislature  of  the  State. 

Second.  Ten  thousand  dollars  at  the  expiration  of  one  }Tear  from 
this  same  date,  and  $10,000  each  year  thereafter  until  the  completion 
of  the  said  canal,  the  above  sums  to  be  paid  to  the  State  in  the  city  of 
Leon,  or  in  the  city  of  New  York,  as  the  State  may  elect.  Also  the 
said  company  makes  a  free  donation  to  the  said  State  of  $200,000  of 
stock  in  the  enterprise,  which  shall  be  delivered  to  the  State  as  soon 
as  the  certificates  of  stock  shall  be  distributed  by  the  company. 

VI.  Said  State  shall  receive  for  its  proportion  of  the  income  of  said 
canal,  after  the  same  shall  be  put  in  use,  the  following  interests, 
namely:  For  the  first  twent}7  years,  20  per  cent  annually  out  of  the  net 
profits  after  deducting  therefrom  the  interest  of  the  capital  employed 
in  its  construction  at  the  rate  of  7  per  cent  per  annum,  and  25  per  cent 
each  year  thereafter  out  of  said  net  profits,  after  deducting  the  said  7 
per  cent,  until  the  expiration  of  the  full  period  of  the  term  hereinabove 
granted.  And  the  State  shall  also  receive  10  per  cent  out  of  the  net 
profits,  without  any  deduction  of  interest,  of  any  route  which  the 
company  may  establish  between  the  two  oceans,  whether  it  be  by  rail- 
road or  carriage  road  or  by  any  other  means  of  communication,  during 
the  twelve  }rears  herein  granted  for  the  construction  of  said  canal. 

VII.  The  said  company  shall  be  bound  to  make  and  present  an  annual 
report  and  account  to  the  Government  of  Nicaragua,  setting  forth  the 
receipts  and  expenditures,  as  well  as  a  statement  of  the  condition  of 
the  works  of  the  canal,  which  report  shall  be  certified  by  the  proper 
officers  of  the  company.  The  State,  however,  shall  have  the  right, 
through  any  commissioners  which  it  may  appoint  for  that  purpose,  to 
inspect  and  examine  at  any  time  the  books  of  the  company  to  satisfy 
itself  of  the  correctness  of  the  said  receipts  and  expenditures. 

VII J.  It  is  hereby  stipulated  that  the  State  of  Nicaragua  shall  have 
the  privilege  of  taking  stock  in  the  said  canal,  to  the  amount  of 
$500,000,  within  one  year  from  the  date  of  the  ratification  of  this  con- 
tract, which  it  may  distribute,  as  it  ma}7  deem  proper,  among  any  of 
its  native  citizens  or  the  citizens  of  the  adjoining  States,  upon  giving 
notice  to  the  company  of  such  intention  through  the  United  States 
consul  in  the  city  of  Leon. 

IX.  It  is  further  stipulated  that  a  majority  of  the  stock  of  said  canal 
shall  always  be  owned  by  citizens  of  the  United  States;  in  evidence  of 
which  the  stock  hooks  of  said  company  shall  always  he  open  to  inspec- 
tion at  the  principal  office  of  the  company,  wherever  the  same  may  be 
located. 

X.  The  company  binds  itself  to  commence  the  preliminary  surveys 
for  said  works  within  the  period  of  twelve  months  from  the  date  of  the 
ratification  of  this  contract,  and  also  to  complete  the  said  canal  within 
twelve  years  from  the  same  date.  But  if  any  fortuitous  or  unforeseen 
events,  beyond  the  control  of  the  company — as,  for  example,  earth- 
quakes, epidemics,  wars,  or  any  other  events  of  this  nature — should 
appear  during  the  progress  of  the  work  to  suspend  its  execution,  the 
time  thus  lost  shall  not  be  reckoned  as  a  part  of  the  stipulated  time 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  287 

above  given  for  its  completion.  In  case  such  event  should  occur,  the 
company  shall  give  Immediate  notice  to  the  Government  of  the  .same, 
for  the  purpose  of  deciding,  in  connection  with  the  company,  upon 
the  nature  of  such  event. 

XI.  If  none  of  the  events  which  are  expressed  in  the  preceding 
article  should  occur,  and  the  work  shall  not  he  completed  within  the 
said  period  of  twelve  years,  then  whatever  may  have  been  done  by  the 
company  to  that  time  in  the  prosecution  of  the  work  shall  be  forfeited 
to  and  become  the  property  of  the  State  without  any  indemnity. 

XII.  The  State  gives  to  the  said  company  the  right  to  take,  free  of 
any  charge  or  indemnity,  any  of  the  public  lands  or  forests  within  the 
State.,  all  the  wood,  stone,  lime,  timber,  or  any  other  materials  which 
it  may  require  for  the  construction  and  use  of  said  canal  and  its 
dependencies.  And  the  said  State  hereby  further  gives  to  the  corn- 
pan}7  the  right  to  take  and  make  use  of  such  portions  of  the  public 
lands  as  it  may  require  for  the  establishment  or  erection  of  houses, 
stores,  docks,  w7harves,  stations,  and  all  other  useful  objects  connected 
with  the  works  of  said  canal. 

XIII.  In  case  the  company  shall  require  any  materials,  such  as  wood, 
lime,  stone,  etc.,  which  may  be  found  in  or  upon  the  lands  of  partic- 
ular individuals,  it  shall  be  obligated  to  pay  for  the  same  at  such  price 
as  may  be  agreed  upon  between  the  company  and  such  individuals; 
but  all  the  lands  which  may  be  required  for  the  passage  of  the  canal  in 
its  entire  route  shall  be  at  the  expense  of  the  State,  and  the  company 
shall  not  be  liable  to  pay  any  indemnity  for  the  same. 

XIV.  All  the  articles  that  the  company  may  require,  both  for  the 
surveys  and  explorations,  and  for  the  construction  and  use  of  the 
works  of  the  canal,  such  as  machines,  instruments,  tools,  etc.,  and  all 
other  necessary  materials,  shall  be  admitted  into  the  State  free  of 
duties  of  all  kinds,  and  may  be  discharged  in  any  of  its  harbors  or  at 
any  other  point  within  its  territory  that  the  company  may  select,  in 
this  last  case,  however,  giving  notice  of  such  intention  to  the  proper 
Government  officer.  But  the  company  shall  have  no  right  to  intro- 
duce within  the  territory  of  the  State  any  goods,  merchandise,  or  any 
other  articles  of  commerce  for  sale  or  exchange  without  paying  the 
duties  established  by  law.  And  they  are  also  prohibited  from  import- 
ing any  articles  or  materials  which  may  be  monopolized  or  prohibited 
by  the  State  for  any  purpose,  except  for  the  use  of  the  works  of  the 
canal. 

XV.  The  State  binds  itself  to  facilitate  and  aid  in  every  possible 
way  the  engineers,  contractors,  employees,  and  laborers  who  may  be 
employed  in  the  explorations  and  surveys  of  the  route,  and  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  works  of  the  canal,  and  to  this  end  stipulates  that  all 
citizens  of  the  country  who  may  be  so  employed  by  the  company  shall 
be  free  and  exempt  from  all  civil  or  military  service  of  the  State  what- 
soever; but  to  entitle  them,  however,  to  the  right  of  exemption  from 
such  military  service  they  shall  have  been  previously  in  the  employ 
of  the  company  for  at  least  the  period  of  one  month.  The  State  also 
guarantees  to  all  foreigners  who  may  be  employed  on  the  works  of  the 
canal  the  same  rights,  liberties,  and  privileges  as  are  enjoyed  by  inhab- 
itants of  the  country,  and  also  that  they  shall  not  be  molested  or  dis- 
turbed in  their  labors  wmile  thus  emplo}7ed  by  any  internal  commotions 
or  disorders  of  the  country,  and  at  the  same  time  that  they  shall  be 
free  and  exempt  from  all  taxes,  duties,  or  direct  contributions  what- 
soever during  the  time  they  may  be  in  the  company's  employ. 


288  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

XVI.  The  said  com  pan  j  agrees  to  receive  from  the  State  as  laborers 
upon  the  works  of  the  canal  any  convicts  who  may  be  capable  of  labor 
upon  such  terms  as  may  be  agreed  upon  between  the  company  and  the 
State. 

XVII.  The  said  company  agrees  to  transport  across  the  said  canal 
all  passengers,  goods,  merchandise,  and  materials  of  every  description 
which  may  be  intrusted  to  it;  and  also  stipulates  that  the  canal  shall 
be  open  to  the  transit  of  vessels  of  all  nations,  subject  to  tixed  and 
uniform  rates  of  tolls  that  may  be  established  by  the  company. 

XVIII.  The  company  shall  establish  a  tariff  of  fees  or  tolls  for  the 
transportation  of  all  passengers,  goods,  wares,  merchandise,  and  prop- 
erty of  every  description,  and  for  vessels  of  all  kinds  passing  through 
or  along  the  said  canal,  which  shall  have  the  force  of  law  from  the 
moment  in  which  it  shall  be  communicated  to  the  Government  of 
Nicaragua,  which  shall  be  obliged  to  sanction  the  same  within  eight 
days  after  its  reception;  and  at  the  same  time,  with  a  view  to  induce 
the  largest  and  most  extended  business  by  this  route,  the  said  com- 
pany agree  to  fix  the  said  tariff  of  fees  or  tolls  for  the  same  at  the 
lowest  possible  rate  consistent  with  the  mutual  interests  both  of  the 
State  and  the  company;  and  in  case  that  the  company  should  deter- 
mine at  any  time  to  alter  such  tariff,  it  shall  be  incumbent  upon  it  to 
give  six  months1  previous  notice  of  such  determination  in  the  State 
paper  of  Nicaragua  and  in  the  principal  seaport  towns  of  the  United 
States. 

XIX.  The  rate  of  tolls  and  charges  for  the  transit  of  the  products  and 
manufactures  of  the  State  of  Nicaragua  and  the  adjoining  States  shall 
be  regulated  by  a  particular  and  more  favorable  tariff,  which  shall  be 
agreed  upon  between  the  State  and  the  company. 

XX.  The  State  grants  to  all  steamers  and  vessels  of  the  company 
during  the  continuance  of  this  contract  the  right  of  ingress  and  egress 
to.  from,  and  through  all  its  harbors,  rivers,  and  waters,  both  on  the 
Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans  and  the  interior,  and  the  use  of  the  same 
free  of  all  duties  or  charges  of  any  kind  whatsoever,  as,  for  example, 
anchorage,  tonnage,  etc 

XXI.  The  State  hereby  stipulates  that  all  vessels  and  steamers  of  the 
company,  and  also  all  goods,  merchandise,  manufactured  articles,  or  any 
other  property  which  may  be  conveyed  therein  passing  through  the  said 
canal  from  one  sea  to  the  other  in  either  direction  to  any  foreign  coun- 
try, shall  be  free  and  exempt  from  all  kinds  of  Government  duties  or 
taxes  whatsoever,  and  shall  also  be  secure  and  protected  from  all  inter- 
ruption or  detention  in  their  course  on  the  part  of  the  State. 

XXII.  The  company  shall  furnish  to  the  State  annually  a  list  of  al 
its  vessels  employed  in  the  navigation  of  the  route,  containing  the 
names  and  descriptions  of  each  of  such  vessels,  which  shall  be  regis- 
tered in  the  archives  of  the  State,  and  thereupon  the  State  shall  give 
to  the  company  a  separate  certificate  of  the  register  of  each  one  of  the 
said  vessels,  signed  by  the  proper  officer  of  the  Government,  which 
certificate  shall  serve  always  as  a  passport  for  said  vessels  through  all 
the  harbors  of  the  State  upon  presenting  the  same  to  the  custom-house 
or  harbor  officer. 

XXIII.  The  exclusive  right  which  the  company  has  acquired  by 
this  contract  of  navigating  the  said  lakes,  rivers,  and  waters  of  the 
said  State  by  means  of  steam  vessels,  from  one  sea  to  the  other,  is 
understood  as  not  to  exclude  the  natives  of  the  country  from  free 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  289 

interior  navigation  by  means  of  sailing  or  any  other  vessels,  excepting 
steam  vessels. 

XXIV.  The  company  hinds  itself  to  transport  by  the  said  canal,  on 
board  of  any  of  its  vessels,  all  the  principal  officers  of  the  Government 
and  its  subalterns,  in  case  of  Government  necessity,  from  one  point  of 
said  route  to  any  other  one  at  which  said  vessels  may  stop,  without 
any  charge  to  the  State  therefor. 

XXV.  The  company  is  to  convey  by  any  of  its  steamers  or  vessels, 
free  of  cost  or  charge,  over  the  route  of  the  said  canal  all  the  official  cor- 
respondence of  the  State,  in  consideration  of  which  the  State  agrees 
not  to  collect  or  recover  any  postage  or  duties  of  any  kind  upon  any 
of  the  correspondence  of  the  said  company. 

XXVI.  The  company  binds  itself  to  construct,  at  its  own  expense, 
bridges  upon  that  part  of  the  canal  that  may  be  made  between  the 
lakes  and  the  Pacific,  upon  such  principal  highways  as  may  be  agreed 
upon  between  the  State  and  the  company.  The  said  State,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  company,  shall  establish  rates  of  toll  or  charges  upon  such 
persons  or  things  as  may  puss  over  said  bridges,  the  profits  from  which 
shall  be  appropriated  to  redeem  the  capital  invested  in  their  construc- 
tion, and  the  interest  thereon  at  the  rate  of  7  per  cent  per  annum;  and 
when  such  capital  and  interest  shall  have  been  reimbursed  to  the  com- 
pany then  the  profits  shall  be  divided  equally  between  the  State  and 
the  company  for  the  remaining  period  of  this  contract,  but  such 
bridges  shall  continue  under  the  control  and  management  of  said  com- 
pany. 

XXVII.  The  State  of  Nicaragua,  with  the  object  of  facilitating  the 
colonization  of  the  lands  contiguous  to  the  river  St.  John  and  the 
adjacent  rivers,  and  of  the  canal  which  in  or  along  it  may  be  con- 
structed, makes  a  free  donation  to  the  company  of  eight  stations  or 
sections  of  land  to  be  located  at  such  points  upon  either  one  or  both  of 
the  banks  of  the  said  river  or  canal  as  the  company  may  elect,  each 
one  of  which  stations  shall  be  of  6  English  miles  in  length,  fronting 
upon  the  river  or  canal,  and  6  miles  in  width,  measured  from  the  bank 
of  the  canal  or  river  toward  the  interior.  And  the  State  further 
grants  to  the  company  the  right  of  alienating  the  lands  which  compose 
said  sections  to  settlers,  or  any  other  person  or  persons  who  may  wish 
to  locate  themselves  upon  the  same.  Said  sections  of  land  are  granted 
upon  the  following  conditions: 

(1)  They  shall  be  located  by  the  company  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  shall  be  at  least  ?>  English  miles  distant  from  each  other. 

(2)  That  no  one  of  them  shall  be  located  within  the  distance  of  4£ 
English  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Johns  River. 

(3)  The  State  reserves  to  itself  the  right  to  such  points  as  shall  be 
necessary  for  its  military  fortifications  and  public  buildings. 

(4)  That  the  lands  granted  shall  not  be  alienated  to  settlers  until  six 
months  after  the  commencement  of  the  survey  of  the  route  of  the  said 
canal. 

(5)  The  State  reserves  to  itself  the  supreme  dominion  and  sover- 
eignty over  said  lands  and  their  inhabitants. 

(6)  That  said  lands  shall  not  be  alienated  b}^  the  company  to  any 
government  whatsoever. 

XXVIII.  The  colonics  which  the  company  may  establish  upon  said 
lands  shall  be  colonies  of  Nicaragua,  and  thereupon  the  settlers  shall  be 
subject  to  the  laws  of  the  State  the  same  as  the  natives  of  the  country, 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 19 


290  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

being,  however,  exempt  for  the  term  of  ten  years  from  all  taxes  and 
direct  contributions,  and  from  all  public  service,  as  soon  as  each  colony 
shall  contain  at  least  fifty  settlers. 

XXIX.  The  State  further  agrees  that  in  case  any  event  may  here- 
after occur,  as  named  in  the  preceding-  Article  X,  to  suspend  or  pre- 
vent the  construction  of  the  canal,  or  if  the  said  contract  shall  become 
forfeited  or  annulled  by  either  or  both  of  the  parties,  and  also  in  case 
the  said  contract  shall  continue  in  force  for  the  full  period  of  eighty- 
five  years,  mentioned  in  the  preceding  Article  IV,  the  said  State  shall 
always  acknowledge  as  private  property  the  lands  which  may  have 
been  alienated  or  ceded  by  the  company  to  settlers  or  other  persons  in 
virtue  of  the  legal  title  which  the  company  has  acquired  by  this  con- 
tract to  the  said  lands. 

XXX.  The  company  shall  have  the  exclusive  right  to  construct  rail 
or  carriage  roads  and  bridges,  and  to  establish  steamboats  and  steam 
vessels  on  the  said  rivers  and  lakes  as  necessary  accessories  to  and  in 
furtherance  of  the  execution  of  the  canal;  but  the  company  hereby 
stipulates  and  agrees  that,  in  case  the  construction  and  completion  of 
the  said  canal,  or  any  part  of  it,  becomes  impossible  by  any  unforeseen 
event  or  insurmountable  obstacle  of  nature,  to  construct  a  railroad  or 
rail  and  carriage  road  and  water  communication  between  the  two 
oceans,  provided  the  same  may  be  practicable,  within  the  same  period 
as  is  stipulated  for  the  building  of  the  said  canal,  and  subject  to  the 
same  terms,  conditions,  regulations,  and  restrictions  as  far  as  they  can 
be  made  applicable  to  the  same. 

XXXI.  The  State  hereby  binds  itself  not  to  sell  or  dispose  of  any 
of  its  public  lands  located  upon  or  near  the  river  St.  .Johns,  or  upon 
or  near  any  of  the  routes  or  points  designated  in  Article  I  of  this  con- 
tract, until  after  the  surveys  shall  have  been  made  and  the  route 
determined  of  the  said  canal. 

XXXII.  The  State  also  binds  itself  to  protect  and  defend  the  com- 
pany in  the  full  enjoyment  of  the  rights  and  privileges  granted  in  this 
contract,  and  also  binds  itself  not  to  contract  with  or  cede  to  any 
government,  individual,  or  companies  whatsoever  the  right  of  con- 
structing a  ship  canal,  railroad,  or  any  other  communication  across  its 
territory  Wet  ween  the  two  oceans,  or  the  right  of  navigating  by  means 
of  steam  vessels  any  of  its  rivers  or  lakes  which  may  be  occupied  by 
this  company  while  this  contract  continues  in  force.  But  should  this 
contract  become  forfeited  or  annulled,  then  the  State  shall  be  privileged 
and  fret'  to  contract  with  any  other  individuals  or  companies  as  it  may 
deem  proper. 

XXXIII.  Iii  case  any  dispute  or  controversy  shall  arise  during  the 
existence  of  this  contract  between  the  State  and  tin1  company,  the 
same  shall  be  determined  by  a  reference  to  five  commissioners,  to  be 
chosen  in  the  following  manner,  viz,  two  to  be  named  on  the  part  of 
the  State,  two  named  by  the  company,  and  the  fifth  to  be  selected  by 
the  four  thus  appointed,  who  shall  hear  and  determine  the  matters  in 
controversy,  and  decide  upon  the  same;  which  decision  of  the  said 
commissioners  shall  be  final  and  without  appeal,  and  binding  upon  both 
the  State  and  the  company. 

XXXIV.  It  is  further  provided  that  in  the  event  of  the  four  com- 
missioners thus  chosen  not  being  able  to  agree  upon  the  selection  of 
the  fifth,  the  State  and  the  company  shall  then  choose  three  individuals, 
out  of  which  number  they  shall  select  one  to  act  as  such  fifth  commis- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  291 

sioner;  but  should  they  disagree  in  such  selection,  then  the  choice  shall 
be  made  out  of  said  number  by  lot. 

XXXV.  After  the  period  of  the  eighty-five  years  herein  granted  to 
the  company  shall  have  expired,  the  company  shall  surrender  to  the 
State  the  canal  or  roads,  and  its  dependencies,  revenues,  and  privileges, 
free  from  all  indemnity,  tor  the  capital  which  may  have  been  invested 
in  the  said  work.  But  it  is  nevertheless  stipulated  that  the  company 
shall  receive  15  per  cent  annually  out  of  the  net  profits  of  the  canal 
for  the  period  of  ten  years  after  such  sin-render,  provided  the  cost  of 
the  same  shall  be  less  than  $20,000,000;  but  should  the  cost  be 
$20,000,000  or  more,  then  the  company  shall  receive  said  15  per  cent 
for  the  period  of  twenty  years  after  such  surrender. 

XXXVI.  It  is  expressly  stipulated  on  the  part  of  the  State  of  Nica- 
ragua that  the  vessels,  products,  manufactures,  and  citizens  of  all 
nations  shall  be  permitted  to  pass  upon  the  proposed  canal  through  the 
territory  of  the  State,  subject  to  no  other  or  higher  duties,  charges, 
or  taxes  than  shall  be  imposed  upon  those  of  the  United  States:  Pro- 
vided dl/ways,  That  such  nations  shall  first  enter  into  such  treaty  stipu- 
lations and  guarantees  respecting  said  canal  as  may  hereafter  be  entered 
into  between  the  State  of  Nicaragua  and  the  United  States. 

XXXVII.  It  is  finally  stipulated  that  this  contract  and  the  rights 
and  privileges  which  it  confers  shall  be  held  inalienable  by  the  indi- 
viduals composing  the  company  herein  named  and  their  associates,  and 
that  it  shall  never,  in  whole  or  part,  be  transferred  or  assigned  to  any 
other  company,  nor  in  any  way  become  dependent  upon  or  connected 
with  any  other  company,  whatever  may  be  the  objects  of  the  same. 

XXXVIII.  The  present  contract  shall  be  ratified  by  the  legislature 
of  the  State  in  the  shortest  possible  period;  and,  on  the  part  of  David 
L.  White,  shall  be  ratified  immediately  after,  as  agent  of  the  company 
which  he  represents,  in  virtue  of  the  powers  conferred  on  him  to  this 
effect. 

In  testimony  of  which  we,  the  respective  commissioners,  have  signed 
and  sealed  the  present  contract  in  triplicate,  in  the  city  of  Leon,  in  the 
State  of  Nicaragua,  the  27th  day  of  August,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
1849. 

[seal.]  Hermend  Zepeoa. 

[seal.]  Gregorio  Juares. 

[seal.]  David  L.  White. 


Appendix  N  N. 
REPORT    ON   INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  VALUE  OF  CANAL. 


By  Emory  R.  Johnson,  Ph.  D. 


CONTENTS. 
Chapter  I. — Scope  and  method  of  the  investigation. 

1.  The  purposes  of  the  investigation. 

2.  The  industrial  and  commercial  sides  of  the  investigation. 

3.  Scope  of  the  investigation. 

4.  Sources  of  information. 

5.  Character  of  the  conclusions. 

6.  Authorities  used  in  preparation  of  industrial  and  commercial  maps. 

Chapter  II. — The  isthmian  canal  and  (lie  industries  and  trade  of  the  Southern  States. 

1.  Geographical  relation  of  the  Southern  States  to  the  canal. 

2.  The  canal  and  the  cotton  industries. 

3.  The  iron  and  steel  industries  oi  the  South. 

4.  The  exportation  of  Southern  lumher  and  forest  products. 

5.  The  fertilizer  industries  of  the  Southern  States. 

6.  The  canal  and  the  commerce  of  the  Gulf  ports. 

Chapter  III. — The  canal  ami  the  industries  and  trade  of  the  northeastern  section  of  the 

United  States. 

1.  Geographical  limits  of  the  section. 

2.  Industrial  characteristics. 

3.  The  canal  and  the  textile  industries. 

4.  The  canal  and  the  commerce  of  the  North  Atlantic  ports  of  the  United  States. 

Chapter  IV. — The  caned  and  the  central  West. 

1.  Industrial  resources  of  the  central  West. 

2.  Present  routes  of  shipment  from  central  West. 
•'!.  The  canal  and  the  industries  of  Cleveland. 

4.  Cincinnati  and  the  canal. 

5.  The  canal  and  Indiana. 

0.  The  canal  and  Illinois  and  Wisconsin. 

7.  The  canal  and  St.  Louis. 

8.  The  effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  transportation  facilities  of  the  central  West. 

CnAPTER  V. — The  canal  and  the  Pacific  Coast  States. 

1.  Pacific  Coast  States  separated  from  their  best  markets. 

2.  The  canal  and  California. 

3.  The  canal  and  the  lumber  and  grain  industries  of  Oregon  and  Washington. 

4.  The  west  coast  fisheries. 

5.  The  hops,  wool,  and  mineral  industries  of  the  Pacific  coast. 

6.  Effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  trade  of  the  west  coast  ports. 

293 


294  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Chapter  VI. — The  coal  supply  for  the  commerce  and  countries  of  the  Pacific — The  canal 
and  the  coal  trade  of  the  United  States. 

1.  Industrial  and  commercial  importance  of  coal. 

2.  Sources  from  which  the  coal  consumed  on  the  Pacific  is  now  obtained. 

3.  Puget  Sound  coal. 

4.  The  fuel  supply  of  California. 

5.  Prices  and  costs  of  coal  in  different  sections  of  the  United  States. 

6.  River  transportation  of  coal  from  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  and  Alabama 

7.  Coal  prices  along  the  Suez  route. 

8.  Concerning  the  marketing  of  Appalachian  coal  west  of  the  canal. 

Chapter  VII. — The  isthmian  canal  and  the  iron  and  steel  industries  of  the  United  States. 

1.  The  United  States  as  an  exporter  of  iron  and  steel  products. 

2.  Conditions  of  present  competition  of  the  United  States  with  Europe. 

3.  American  iron  and  steel  trade  with  Pacific  countries. 

4.  The  manner  in  which  the  isthmian  canal  will  affect  the  American  iron  and 
steel  industries  as  a  whole,  and  those  of  the  Southern  States  in  particular. 

Chapter  VIII. —  The  canal  and  the  shipbuilding  and  maritime   interests  of  the    United 

States. 

1.  Importance  of  the  maritime  industries. 

2.  The  canal  and  shipbuilding. 

3.  The  ownership  of  ocean  vessels  by  exporters. 

4.  The  canal  anil  the  American  merchant  marine. 

Chapter  IX. — Concerning  the  use  of  an  isthmian  canal  by  sailing  vessels. 

1.  The  place  of  the  sailing  vessel  in  the  commerce  of  the  world  and  of  the  United 

States. 

2.  The  future  use  of  sailing  vessels  by  special  classes  of  traffic. 

3.  Tonnage  of  steam  and  sailing  vessels  clearing  from  the  United  Kingdom  and 
Germany  for  Eastern  countries. 

4.  Merits  of  the  steamer  and  sailing  vessel  compared. 

5.  Would  sailing  vessels  use  a  canal  at  Panama  »>r  across  Nicaragua? 

b\  Saving  to  sailing  vessels  by  use  of  isthmian  canal  instead  of  Cape  route. 

Chapter  X. — The  canal  and  the  traffic  of  American  railways. 

1.  <ieneral  statement  of  the  possible  effects  of  the  canal  upon  railway  traffic. 

2.  Concerning  the  statistics  of  transcontinental  railway  traffic. 

3.  The  nature  of  the  competition  of  the  canal  with  the  railways. 

4.  The  canal  and  the  traffic  of  the  Atlantic  roads. 

5.  The  canal  ami  the  traffic  of  the  Gulf  roads. 

6.  The  canal  and  the  traffic  of  the  railways  of  the  central  West. 

7.  Effect  <>f  the  canal  upon  the  traffic  of  the  Pacific  railways. 

8.  Conclusions. 

Chapter  XI. — The  trade  am!  industries  of  western  South  America  ami  the  effect  of  the 

canal  n/ion  them. 

1.  Area  and  population  compared  with  North  America. 

2.  The  trade  /.ones  of  South  America. 

:;.   Inadequate  transportation  facilities  of  western  South  America. 

4.  Dependence  of  western  South  America  upon  foreign  capital  and  large  organiza- 
tions of  capital. 

5.  Disadvantages  of  the  United   States  in   trading  with   western  South   America. 
Effect  of  the  isthmian  canal. 

(J.  Geography,  resources,  and  industries  of  Chile. 

7.  The  canal  and  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Chile. 

8.  Tropical  section  of  western  South  America.     General  description. 

t>.  The  Peruvian  coast.      Its  industries  and  the  effects  of  the  canal  upon  them. 

10.  The  Andean  plateau. 

11.  Relation  of  canal  to  industries  and  trade  of  eastern  slope  of  Andean  plateau. 

12.  Industries  of  Pacific  slope  of  Ecuador  and  Colombia. 
1.'!.   The  Cauca  Valley  in  the  Colombian  Andes. 

14.  Summary  of  the  effecl  which  the  canal  will  have  on  western  South  America. 

15.  Effect  of  canal  upon  Atlantic  South  America  will  not  be  great. 


REPORT    OF    THE    TSTHMTAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  295 

Chapter  XII.     Japan  and  the  isthmian  canal. 

1.  The  salient  characteristics  of  Japan's  resources. 

2.  Japan  as  a  manufacturing  and  commercial  country. 

3.  Analysis  of  Japanese  trade  with  reference  to  effects  of  the  canal. 

Chapter  XIII.    -China  ami  tin  isthmian  rami/. 

1.  Geographical  divisions  of  China. 

2.  Resources  and  trade  of  north  China,  Manchuria,  Hoangho  Valley,  and  Shan- 
tung. 

3.  Resources  and  trade  of  central  China,  Yangtse  Valley. 

4.  Resources  and  trade  of  southern  China. 

5.  The  foreign  trade  of  China. 

6.  Trade  of  United  States  with  China  and  effects  of  canal. 

Chapter  XIV. — The  canal  ami  the  industries  ami  trade  of  Australasia. 

1.  Australian  industries  require  large  foreign  trade. 

2.  The  canal  and  distances  to  Australia. 

3.  General  geography  of  Australia. 

4.  Pastoral  and  agricultural  resources. 

5.  Mineral  resources. 

6.  The  canal  and  the  commerce  of  Australia  with  the  United  States. 

7.  New  Zealand  and  the  canal. 

Chapter  XV. — The  canal  and  (he  Philippines  ami  Hawaii. 

I.    THE    PHILIPPINES. 

1.  The  geography  and  industries  of  the  Philippines. 

2.  The  commerce  of  the  Philippines. 

3.  The  location  of  the  Philippines  with  reference  to  trade  routes  from  the  United 
States. 

II.    THE    HAWAIIAN    ISLANDS. 

1.  Soil  and  climate  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

2.  Resources  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

3.  The  canal  and  the  trade  of  Hawaii. 

Chapter  XVI.  —  The  canal  and  Central  America  ami  western  Mexico. 

I.  CENTRAL    AMERICA. 

1.  The  population  and  general  geography  of  Central  America. 

2.  The  Central  American  industries. 

3.  The  canal  and  the  foreign  trade  of  Central  America. 

II.  WESTERN    MEXICO. 

1.  Agricultural  resources  of  western  Mexico. 

2.  Mineral  resources. 

3.  The  canal  and  the  commerce  of  western  Mexico. 

Chapter  XVII. — Comparison  of  distances  %  the  isthmian  canal  and  other  routes. 

1.  Distances  via  the  Nicaragua  and  Magellan  routes  between  the  eastern  ports  of 
the  United  States  and  the  ports  of  the  west  coast  of  North,  Central,  and  South 
America. 

2.  Distances  from  Europe  to  Pacific  ports  via  the  Nicaragua  Canal  and  the  Straits 
of  Magellan. 

3.  Distances  from  Atlantic  American  ports  to  Yokohama,  Shanghai,  and  Hong- 
kong via  the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes. 

4.  Distances  from  American  Atlantic  ports  to  Manila  via  Xicaragua  and  Suez 
routes. 


296  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

5.  Distances  between  the  eastern  seaboard  of  the  United  States  and  Australia  via 
the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes. 

6.  Distances  from  Liverpool  to  the  East  by  the  Suez  and  Nicaragua  routes. 

7.  Comparisons  of  distances  from  New  York  and   Liverpool  to  Australasian  and 
Asiatic  ports  via  the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes. 

8  Comparison  of  distances  from  American  and  European  Atlantic  ports  to  Pacific 
ports  via  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  canals. 

Chapter  XVIII. — Cargo  tonnage  of  the  existing  maritime  commerce  thai  would  use  an 

isthmian  canal  in  1S99. 

1.  General  description  of  the  three  traffic  investigations  contained  in  the  report. 

2.  Nature  and  limitations  of  the  information  available  from  official  statistics. 

3.  Four  tables  giving  the  value  and  cargo  tonnage  of  that  part  of  the  foreign  trade 
of  our  two  seaboards  that  would  have  passed  through  an  isthmian  canal  in  1899. 

4.  Methods  employed  in  preparing  the  tables. 

5.  The  average  value  of  the  cargo  ton. 

6.  Tonnage  of  the  commerce  between  Europe  and  the  west  coast  of  South  and 
Central  America  and  British  Columbia  and  Hawaii. 

7.  Summary  of  the  cargo  tonnage  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  Atlantic  Ameri- 
can seaboard  with  Pacific  countries  and  of  Europe  with  Pacific  America  in  1899. 

Chapter  XIX. — Tonnage  of  the  vessels  employed  in  the  commerce  that  would  have  used  an 

isthmian  canal  in  1899. 

1.  Concerning  statistics  of  entrances  and  clearances. 

2.  Vessel  tonnage  of  commerce  between  Europe  and  western  South  America. 

3.  Importance  of  the  Chilean  commerce. 

4.  European  trade  with  western  Central  America  and  Mexico. 

5.  Trade  of  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States,  British  Columbia,  and  Hawaii 
with  Europe. 

6.  United  States  Atlantic  coast  tonnage  with  foreign  countries. 

7.  Traffic  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

8.  Coasting  trade  of  the  United  States  available  for  the  canal. 

V».  Summary  of  commerce  of   Europe  with  Pacific  America  and   of  commerce  of 
Atlantic  United  States  with  Pacific  countries. 

Chapter  XX. — Traffic  investigation  by  the  new  Panama  Canal  Company — Comparison 
of  results  of  the  three  investigations. 

1.  Plan  of  the  investigation. 

2.  Tonnage  of  vessels  engaged  in  trade  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans. 
:;.  Concerning  use  of  American  canal  by  commerce  of  Europe  with  the  Orient. 

4.  Evidences  of  increasing  number  of  round-the-world  voyages. 

5.  Tonnage  of  available  canal  traffic. . 

6.  Comparison  of  the  tonnage  of  1888  and  1898. 

7.  The  substitution  of  steamers  for  sailing  vessels. 

8.  Comparison  of  the  results  of  the  three  traffic  investigations. 

Chapter  XXI. — Growth  of  canal  traffic  1899  to  1914  and  1914  to  1924. 

1.  bate  of  increase  shown  by  table  of  Panama  Canal  Company. 

2.  Growth  in  value,  ixs<i  1899,  trade  of  United  states  Atlantic  coast  with  foreign 
countries  on  the  Pacific. 

.">.    Increase  in  trade  between  Europe  and  western  coast  of  America. 

4.  Growth  in  trans-Pacific  trade  of  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States. 

5.  Probable  available  canal  traffic  in  1914. 

li.   Estimate  of  growth  of  traffic  during  first  decade  of  the  use  of  the  canal. 

7.  Suez  ( 'anal  traffic. 

8.  The  estimate  for  L924. 

Ch  \itkk  XXII. — The  question  of  tolls. 

1.   Concerning  the  general  policy  of  tolls. 
■   2.  Suez  Canal  tolls. 

3.  Suez  Canal  tonnage  and  traffic  receipts. 

I.  Effect  of  tolls  upon  volume  of  traffic  of  Suez  Canal, 

5.  isthmian  canal  tolls  and  the  Chilean  traffic. 

6.  Isthmian  canal tollsand  the  Australian  trade. 

7.  The  Philippine  trade. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  297 

Chapter  I. — Scope  and  method  of  the  hwesHgation. 

This  study  of  the  isthmian  canal  from  the  standpoint  of  its  use,  or 
its  industrial  and  commercial  value,  has  been  made  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  two  purposes.  One  object  was  the  presentation  of  an 
analytical  discussion  of  the  more  important  relations  of  the  proposed 
waterway  to  the  commerce  of  foreign  nations  and  to  the  industries,, 
transportation  interests,  and  domestic  and  foreign  trade  of  the  United 
States.  The  other  purpose  was  to  compare  the  commercial  advantages 
of  the  Nicaragua  route  with  those  of  one  across  Panama,  all  other 
routes  having  been  eliminated  from  consideration. 

There  are  two  sides  to  an  investigation  of  the  value  of  an  isthmian 
canal,  one  industrial  and  the  other  commercial.  A  careful  stud}T  of 
the  leading  industries  of  the  different  sections  of  the  United  States  is 
requisite  to  an  analysis  of  the  effects  which  the  canal  will  accomplish 
or  to  a  fruitful  discussion  of  the  commerce  that  will  use  the  waterway. 
Commerce  is  but  the  auxiliary  of  industry;  and  a  complete  discussion 
of  the  economic  value  of  an  isthmian  canal  first  requires  an  examina- 
tion of  the  leading  industries  of  the  United  States  and  other  important 
countries,  and  then  a  consideration  of  the  volume  of  business  which 
those  industries  would  bring  to  the  canal. 

While  this  report  does  not  discuss  the  entire  field  as  thus  defined,  it 
covers  those  parts  of  the  subject  that  are  of  direct  importance  to  the 
American  people.  The  relation  of  the  canal  to  the  industries  and 
domestic  and  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States  has  been  studied 
with  care  and  is  presented  with  considerable  detail,  nearly  half  of  this 
discussion  being  devoted  to  the  subject.  A  separate  chapter  is  given 
to  each  of  the  four  sections  of  the  United  States — the  southern,  eastern, 
central,  and  western — for  the  purpose  of  considering  the  manner  in 
which  the  proposed  canal  will  affect  their  industries  and  commercial 
progress,  and  these  chapters  are  followed  by  more  detailed  studies  of 
the  coal  and  iron  and  steel  industries  and  the  shipbuilding  and  mari- 
time interests,  with  special  reference  to  the  effects  which  the  new  inter- 
oceanic  route  will  have  upon  each.  The  facts  bearing  upon  the  use  of 
the  canal  by  sailing  vessels  are  analyzed  and  the  influence  which  the 
new  waterwa}7  will  have  upon  the  future  place  of  the  sailing  vessel  as 
an  ocean  carrier  is  considered.  The  effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  traffic 
of  American  railways  is  also  made  the  subject  of  a  special  chapter. 

The  foreign  countries  whose  resources  and  trade  have  been  examined 
are  those  of  the  Pacific,  and  they  were  chosen  for  investigation  partly 
because  it  was  believed  that  in  general  the  effect  of  the  interoceanic 
canal  upon  them  would  be  greater  than  upon  other  foreign  countries; 
that  their  commercial  relations  and  economic  conditions  would  be  most 
benefited.  The  present  and  prospective  importance  to  the  United 
States  commercially,  and  politically  also,  of  the  Pacific  nations  was 
another  reason  for  studying  carefully  the  relation  of  the  canal  to  the 
progress  of  those  countries.  The  industries  and  trade  of  the  countries 
of  western  South  America  and  the  manner  in  which  the  isthmian 
canal  will  affect  their  progress  and  our  commercial  relations  with  them 
have  been  examined  with  special  care,  because  of  the  importance  of 
this  extensive  section  to  the  world's  commerce.  The  information  con- 
cerning this  region  is  comparatively  meager  and  the  significance  of 
the  section  for  the  traffic  of  an  interoceanic  canal  and  the  commercial 
progress  of  the  United    States  is  frequently  underestimated.     The 


298  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

industries  and  trade  of  Japan.  China.  Australia,  the  Philippines, 
Hawaii,  western  Mexico,  and  Central  America,  and  the  effects  of  the 
isthmian  canal  upon  them  are  also  discussed. 

The  latter  part  of  this  discussion  relates  to  the  traffic  that  will  use 
the  waterway.  The  effects  which  the  isthmian  canal  will  have  upon 
thelengthof  the  ocean  routes  connecting  the  United  States  and  Europe 
with  the  various  countries  of  the  Pacific  are  shown  by  eight  tables, 
the  distances  in  which  were  calculated  by  the  United  States  Hydro 
graphic  Office. 

The  investigations  made  to  ascertain  the  present  and  prospective 
available  tonnage  of  canal  traffic  are  described  in  Chapters  XVIII  to 
XXI.  inclusive.  Three  statistical  studies  are  discussed  in  the  report, 
and  after  describing  and  presenting  the  results  of  the  three  investiga- 
tions the  tonnage  figures  obtained  by  the  three  different  methods  of 
inquiry  are  compared. 

After  having  determined  the  amount  of  canal  traffic  available  in  1899, 
and  having  ascertained  the  rate  of  increase  in  that  traffic  during  the 
previous  decade,  estimates  are  made  concerning  the  probable  tonnage 
that  will  be  available  for  the  canal  in  1909  and  1914.  The  growth  in 
the  traffic  passing  the  Suez  is  analyzed  and  an  estimate  is  made  regard- 
ing the  increase  in  the  tonnage  of  the  isthmian  canal  during  the  first 
decade  of  its  use. 

In  the  discussion  of  available  canal  tonnage  the  effect  of  tolls  upon 
the  use  of  the  waterway  by  the  traffic  between  the  different  sections 
has  been  considered.  The  detailed  analysis  of  the  relation  of  tolls  to 
the  volume  of  traffic  using  the  canal  was.  however,  reserved  for  a 
special  chapter  in  which  the  question  is  treated  at  some  length. 

Printed  material,  books,  pamphlets,  and  official  statistical  reports 
published  by  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries  have  been 
examined,  and  an  extensive  correspondence  has  I  teen  carried  on  with 
men  engaged  in  different  lines  of  business  so  as  to  secure  data  concern- 
ing industrial  and  commercial  facts  in  descriptive  rather  than  statistical 
form.  Special  and  different  inquiries  were  addressed  to  manufacturers, 
importers,  and  exporters,  the  owners, operators,  and  builders  of  ships, 
and  the  higher  officials  of  a  number  of  the  larger  railway  companies. 
The  information  received  from  individual  sources  is  frequently  referred 
to,  but  for  obvious  reasons  the  personal  or  corporate  name  of  the  cor- 
respondent is  not  given.  The  information  regarding  the  industries  and 
trade1  of  foreign  countries  was  in  part  supplied  by  special  reports  pre- 
pared for  the  commission  by  consuls  and  ministers  of  the  United  States 
in  accordance  with  instructions  sent  them  by  the  State  Department. 

In  order  to  supplement  the  information  obtained  from  the  sources 
just  enumerated,  visits  were  made  by  one  member  of  the  commission, 
and  in  some  instances  by  two,  to  twenty-nine  large  commercial  and 
industrial  cities.  The  places  visited  included  the  larger  seaports  from 
Portland,  Me.,  to  Galveston  Tex.,  and  the  interior  industrial  cities  of 
Pittsburg.  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Detroit.  Indianapolis.  Milwaukee, 
Chicago,  St.  Louis.  Memphis.  Louisville,  Chattanooga,  Birmingham, 
and  Atlanta.  In  each  of  these  cities  the  commercial  organizations, 
manufacturers,  and  others  interested  in  the  development  of  their  indus- 
tries assisted  the  visiting  commissioners  by  giving  them  information. 
Special  reports  were  prepared  for  the  commission  by  the  commercial 
organizations  in  these  and  other  cities. 

From  the  nature  of  the  subject  investigated,  some  of  the  conclusions 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  299 

regarding  the  industrial  effects  of  the  canal  must  be  based  on  premises 
concerning  which  differences  of  opinion  may  exist.  Moreover,  the 
presentation  of  the  industrial  data  and  a  discussion  of  them  can  not  be 
made  as  brief  and  concise  as  a  mathematical  demonstration.  These 
limitations  apply  in  less  degree  to  the  statistical  material  used  in  meas- 
uring the  volume  of  traffic  available  for  the  use  of  the  canal.  The 
conclusions  to  which  this  inquiry  has  led  are  here  given  without  claim- 
ing that  they  are  absolutely  correct  in  every  particular,  but  they  are 
close  approximations  to  the  truth  attained  by  careful  research. 

Much  time  and  labor  have  been  given  to  the  preparation  of  maps 
locating  the  resources  and  industries  of  the  foreign  Pacific  countries 
discussed  in  Chapters  XI  to  XVI  of  the  report.  Chapter  XVII,  on 
distances,  is  accompanied  by  commercial  maps  showing  the  location 
and  length  of  the  ocean  routes  by  present  lines  of  trade  and  by  those 
that  would  pass  through  a  Nicaragua  canal  and  a  Panama  canal. 

The  information  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  maps  accompanying 
the  report  was  derived  from  numerous  sources.  American  and  foreign 
government  publications  have  been  consulted,  and  geograpnical  litera- 
ture and  maps,  both  published  and  unpublished,  have  been  examined. 
The  United  States  consular  reports,  and  particularly  certain  special 
reports  prepared  for  the  canal  commission  by  the  consular  representa- 
tives of  the  United  States  in  the  various  foreign  countries,  were  a 
valuable  aid,  especially  in  the  preparation  of  the  maps  of  Australia, 
China,  South  America,  and  Japan.  In  a  number  of  cases  the  text  of 
these  special  reports  was  accompanied  by  maps  prepared  in  accord- 
ance with  suggestions  made  by  the  commission.  The  publications  of 
the  Bureau  of  the  American  Republics  have  been  used  to  some  extent 
in  preparing  all  of  the  American  maps.  With  the  exception  of  two 
countries,  this  is  also  true  of  Bianconi's  commercial  charts.  The  com- 
mission has  secured  many  facts  by  an  extensive  correspondence;  and 
in  the  following  specific  references  to  the  authorities  for  the  informa- 
tion contained  in  the  maps  no  attempt  is  made  to  give  all  the  sources 
drawn  upon. 

The  map  of  Chile  contains  much  information  furnished  b}T  the  rep- 
resentatives of  the  Chilean  Government,  and  among  the  other  sources 
of  the  data  used  special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  work  of  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau  and  of  the  book  on  South  America  by 
F.  G.  Carpenter.  The  chart  of  northwestern  South  America  contains 
many  data  contributed  by  the  Bolivian  Government.  The  Geographic 
Society  of  Lima  sent,  in  manuscript,  a  carefully  prepared  agricultural 
map  of  Peru.  Some  facts  were  taken  from  Carpenter's  "  South  Amer- 
ica11 and  from  "  Between  the  Andes  and  the  Ocean,"  by  W.  E.  Curtis. 
The  reports  of  the  Intercontinental  Railroad  surveys  were  of  value  in 
the  preparation  of  this  map  and  also  of  that  of  Central  America. 

The  map  of  Mexico  is  based  in  part  upon  the  economic  map  recently 
published  by  the  Bureau  of  the  American  Republics.  This  information 
has  been  largely  supplemented  and  verified  by  extensive  correspond- 
ence with  Americans  engaged  in  business  in  Mexico.  The  following 
authorities,  in  addition  to  those  more  generally  referred  to  above, 
w7ere  consulted:  French  and  Belgian  consular  reports,  and  "  Geograph- 
ical Notes  on  Mexico,11  by  M.  Romero. 

The  map  of  New  Zealand  was  constructed  almost  entirely  from  infor- 
mation derived  from  the  yearbook  and  the  other  excellent  reports  pub- 
lished by  the  government  of  that  colony. 


300 


report  of  the  isthmian  canal  commission. 


For  the  Australian  map  the  information  came  chiefly  from  the  maps 
accompanying  the  special  consular  reports  and  from  the  detailed 
industrial  descriptions  contained  in  the  official  publications  of  the 
various  States. 

The  map  of  China  draws  largely  upon  the  economic  maps  published 
by  Beresford  in  "The  Breakup  of  China,"  and  Chisholm's  "The  Re- 
sources and  Means  of  Communication  of  China."  The  data  used  were, 
in  almost  every  case,  verified  by  the  excellent  economic  map  prepared 
for  this  commission  at  the  United  States  legation  in  Pekin  or  by  refer- 
ence to  some  of  the  following  works  on  China:  Reports  of  Imperial 
Maritime  Customs;  "A  Journey  in  Western  Szechuen,"  by  Bishop; 
"China  in  Transformation,"  by  Colquhoun;  "China  in  Decay,"  Ivy 
Krauss;  "Through  Yangtse  Gorges,'' by  Little;  "The  Earth  and  Its 
Inhabitants,"  by  Reclus. 

For  the  data  used  in  the  map  of  Japan  large  use  was  made  of  the 
facts  in  Ransom's  "Japan  in  Transition,''  which  were  verified  and  sup- 
plemented by  reference  to  a  special  United  States  consular  report  and 
to  Japanese  Government  reports,  public  and  special. 

Chapter  II.- — TJie  isthmian  canal  and  tJie  industries  <ni<]  tnulc  of  the 

Southern  States. 

The  products  of  the  South  find  their  present  foreign  market  mainly 
in  Europe,  but  they  are  desired  in  greater  or  less  degree  by  nearly  all 
countries,  those  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  as  well  as  those  of  the  Atlantic. 
Because  of  the  geographical  position  of  the  South  its  exports  can  not 
readily  reach  the  markets  of  the  Pacific.  The  position  of  the  South  as 
regards  Pacific  trade  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  west  coast  of  the 
United  States  as  regards  its  commerce  with  Atlantic  countries. 

As  compared  with  the.  States  adjacent  to  the  North  Atlantic,  those 
of  the  Gulf  are  considerably  nearer  the  eastern  terminus  of  an  isthmian 
canal.  In  the  following  table  the  distances  of  Greytown  and  Colon 
from  New  York  are  compared  with  their  distances  from  the  most 
important  Gulf  ports : 


Boston 

New  York... 
Philadelphia 

Norfolk 

Savannah... 

Tampa 

Pensacola. . . 

Mobile 

New  Orleans 
Sabine  <  lity  . 
Galveston. . . 


To  Grey- 
town. 


Less  than 
distance    I 

from  New 
York  to 

Greytown. 


>  I  no 


60 

'Jll 
II  I 
943 
887 

,S10 

so:; 
tic 

700 


2,  L65 
1,981 
1,960 
1,779 
1 .  586 
1,215 
1,844 
1,871 
1,3S0 

i ,  it;.r> 

1.  isi 


Less  than 
distance 
from  New- 
York  to 
Colon. 


21 
202 

395 
766 
637 
610 

C01 
516 

r.oo 


■  More. 

It  will  be  seen  that  of  the  Gulf  ports  included  in  the  table  Tampa  is 
nearest  to  Greytown  and  ( !olon  and  that  the  ports  to  the  west  of  Tampa 
are  successively  farther  from  the  two  isthmian  ports,  Tampa  being 
approximately  250  miles  closer  than  Galveston  is  to  the  Caribbean 
termini  of  the  two  canal  routes.  This  would  give  Tampa  some  ad- 
vantage over  the  other  Gulf  ports  in  the  canal  trade  were  not  the 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  301 

benefits  derivable  from  the  shorter  ocean  route  in  part,  if  not  quite, 
overcome  by  the  Longer  railway  haul  to  that  city  as  compared  with 
Pensacola  and  other  Gulf  ports  from  many  of  the  sources  of  the 
heaviest  volumes  of  traffic  originating  in  the  Southern  States. 

Hie  proximity  to  the  canal  of  the  Gulf  States  and  cities  as  com- 
pared with  the  North  Atlantic  section  of  the  country  will  help  the 
South  in  developing  a  direct  trade  through  the  canal  aiul  in  drawing  a 
larger  amount  of  the  export  and  import  trade  of  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley to  the  Gulf  ports,  but  the  more  northerly  ports,  especially  New 
York,  will  possess  the  advantage  of  having  more  facilities  for  shipping 
at  all  times  to  different  parts  of  the  world.  However,  as  the  com" 
merce  of  the  South  with  Pacific  countries  develops  because  of  the 
opportunities  afforded  by  the  isthmian  canal  for  dispatching-  freight 
more  promptly  to  different  ports  of  the  world,  the  Southern  gateways 
will  enjoy  in  increasing  measure  the  benefit  of  their  relative  nearness 
to  the  canal. 

THE    CANAL   AND   THE    COTTON    INDUSTRIES. 

The  raising  of  cotton  has  been  the  dominant  industry  of  the  South 
for  nearly  a  hundred  years,  and,  although  the  development  of  other 
resources  is  giving  that  section  of  the  country  an  increasingly  diversi- 
fied economic  life,  cotton  and  the  manufactures  based  upon  it  now  hold 
and  will  probably  retain  the  first  rank.  The  rapid  multiplication  of 
cotton  mills  and  the  extensive  manufacture  of  cotton-seed  products 
have  latterly  strengthened  very  greatly  the  industrial  position  of  the 
cotton  crop. 

The  chief  Pacific  market  for  our  raw  cotton  is  Japan,  which  took 
312,269  bales,  valued  at  $12,712,619,  during  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1900,  the  gain  over  the  previous  years  having  been  large.  The  sales 
for  1898  and  1899  averaged  about  200.000  bales  a  year.  The  consump- 
tion of  raw  cotton  in  the  mills  of  Japan  has  increased  with  extraordi- 
nary rapidity.  In  1887  the  Japanese  imports  of  raw  cotton  were  only 
28,400  bales,  by  1895  the  amount  had  increased  to  380,000  bales,  and 
in  1898  the  imports  were  660,000  bales.  In  1895  57.3  per  cent  of  these 
cotton  imports  into  Japan  were  obtained  in  China.  British  India  sup- 
plied 32.5  per  cent,  the  United  States  8.4  per  cent,  and  other  countries 
1.8  per  cent.  Three  years  later  the  imports  from  China  dropped  to 
11.1  per  cent.  Those  from  British  India  rose  to  56.3  per  cent,  while 
the  purchases  in  the  United  States  comprised 30. 8  percent,  the  amount 
obtained  from  other  countries  remaining  at  1.8  per  cent.  It  is  fair  to 
conclude  from  these  percentages  that  the  United  States  is  certain  to 
find  a  large  and  growing  market  for  raw  cotton  in  Japan. 

The  cotton  cloth  shipped  from  the  United  States  finds  its  way  to 
numerous  Pacific  countries.  China,  the  largest  buyer,  took  $s,  783,134 
worth  in  1900,  her  purchases  for  the  two  previous  years  having  aver- 
aged $7,500,000  annually.  Among  the  other  buyers  of  cotton  man- 
ufactures are  the  British  East  Indies,  which  took  $524,419  worth  in 
1900,  and  Australia,  whose  purchases  amounted  to  $622,228.  Besides 
this,  the  Hawaiian  Islands  took  $572,541  worth.  The  demand  of  these 
and  other  Pacific  countries  is  increasing,  and  our  sales  to  them  are 
growing,  even  under  the  present  adverse  conditions  to  be  overcome  in 
reaching  their  markets. 

About  300,000  bales  of  the  cotton  exports  to  Japan  for  the  fiscal  year 
1900  were  shipped  during  the  first  eight  months  of  the  season.    'The 


302  REPORT   OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

distribution  of  these  300,000  bales  among  the  three  shipping  routes 
gave  the  Atlantic  ports,  New  York  and  Savannah,  44,000  bales;  the 
Gulf  ports,  New  Orleans,  Galveston,  and  Pensaeola,  87,000,  and  the 
Pacific  coast  ports,  which  were  reached  by  rail,  169,000  bales.  Nearly 
three-fifths  of  the  cotton  exported  to  Japan  that  year  took  the  overland 
route,  involving  a  railway  haul  of  2,000  miles  to  the  seaboard. 

The  cost  of  transporting  such  a  bulky  commodity  as  cotton  from 
the  southern  section  of  the  United  States  to  North  Pacific  countries 
by  rail  to  our  west  coast,  and  thence  by  steamer,  or  from  our  Atlantic 
or  Gulf  seaboard  through  the  Suez  Canal  (sometimes  direct,  and  some- 
times via  England  or  Germany),  are  so  high  as  greatly  to  restrict  the 
trade.  This  fact  is  clearly  shown  in  letters  received  from  firms  that 
are  exporting  cotton  from  Texas,  New  Orleans,  Charleston,  and  else- 
where. The  difficulties  under  which  cotton  is  exported  to  oriental 
markets  by  the  existing  routes  can  lie  illustrated  by  quoting  a  few 
sentences  from  a  communication  received  from  a  representative  New 
Orleans  firm: 

Two  direct  steamers  went  last  year  Erom  this  port  t<>  Japanese  and  one  to  Chinese 
ports  (Shanghai)  around  the  Cape,  and  more  steamers  went  from  Galveston,  hut 
these  steamers  are  too  long  on  the  way.  First  of  all,  they  have  to  stop  in  port  here 
a  long  time  to  collect  all  the  lots  which  are  hound  for  Japan;  then  they  travel  two 
or  three  months,  whereas  payment  is  made  by  Japanese  and  ( Jhinese  buyers  against 
ninety  days  draft,  thereby  causing  loss  of  interest.  To  avoid  this  loss  Japan  bought 
last  year  (1898)  a  lot  of  cotton  in  Texas,  the  nearest  State  for  shipment  via  San  Fran- 
cisco, Imt  the  Southern  Pacific  and  other  roads,  owing  to  the  inclement  weather,  etc., 
could  not  handle  the  big  quantity,  and  cotton  that  should  have  gone  out  in  January 
was  in  San  Francisco  by  June.  The  rate  to  Yokohama  and  Kobe  (Hiogo)  is  80 
cents  per  hundred  pounds  gross,  to  Shanghai  90  cents  per  hundred  pounds  gross; 
insurance  2  per  cent,  equal  to  one-eighth  cent  per  pound.  We  believe  China  and 
Japan  will  consume  over  2,000,000  American  cotton  (hales)  a  year  within  the  next 
rive  years.  A  good  deal  of  cotton  to  China  yet  comes  from  Hamburg,  <  iermany,  and 
London.  England.  Any  shorter  and  safer  route  would  materially  increase  consump- 
tion and  net  more  to  the  producer  here,  as  big  freight  and  high  insurance  stand  in 
the  way  of  trade. 

The  cotton  manufacturing  industry  of  tin1  South,  as  well  as  the 
exporters  of  raw  cotton,  will  be  served  by  the  canal.  With  5,000,000 
spindles  already  in  operation  and  the  erection  of  new  mills  constantly 
going  on.  the  growth  in  the  cotton  manufacturing  business  of  the 
South  will  in  the  future  be  limited  only  by  the  extent  of  the  market 
that  can  profitably  be  reached.  Tin1  secretary  of  the  New  Orleans 
Cotton  Exchange,  a  recognized  authority  on  the  cotton  industry,  makes 
the  following  statement  in  regard  to  the  growth  of  the  business  of 
cotton  manufacturing  in  tin1  United  States: 

The  American  mills,  north  and  south,  took,  in  the  year  1890,  2,346,000  hales,  and 
of   this   the   census   of  that    year  tells    US   2,259,000    hales  were  consumed.      In  1891* 

American  mil  Is  consumed  3,589,000,  or  1,330,000  Wales  more.  Our  nulls  now  turn 
imt  more  goods  than  necessary  for  this  country  alone,  and  it  is  essential  to  their 
prosperity  that  exporl  facilities  he  had  that  will  enable  them  to  compete  successfully 
with  other  countries  in  the  great  markets  of  the  world,  especially  those  of  the  Far 

East.      To  the  Southern  Stales  particularly,  which  have  increased  their  consumption 

from  547,000  hales  in  L890  to  i,  100,000  in  1899,  and  give  promise  of  still  greater  prog- 
ress in  the  near  future,  an  outlet  through  an  isthmian  canal  is  of  the  first  importance. 

In  a  special  report  received  by  the  commission  from  a  committee  of 
business  men  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  the  opinion  is  expressed  that  "within 
a  period  of  five  years  South  and  North  Carolina  will  spin  more  cotton 
than  they  grow."  The  report  also  states  that  "the  cloth  they  manu- 
facture is  almost  entirely  of  the  coarser  grades,  such  as  is  used  in 
South  America  and  the  Orient.    The  average  growth  of  the  two  States 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  303 

is  1,450,000  bales.  They  spun  into  cloth  last  year  (1S99)  970,000 
hales." 

Although,  as  the  foregoing  quotation  states,  the  chief  market  in  the 
Orient  is  for  the  coarser  grades  of  cottons,  there  seems  to  be  a  grow- 
ing demand  for  the  finer  qualities.  Several  manufacturers  report  an 
increasing  tale  of  the  finer  qualities  of  cloth,  and  these  statements 
would  indicate  that  the  eastern  market  is  in  the  future  to  be  one  where 
a  variety  of  cotton  manufactures  can  be  sold. 

At  present  the  cotton  goods  exported  from  this  country  to  the  East 
go  out  largely  by  way  of  New  York  and  through  the  Suez  Canal, 
although  a  portion  of  the  trade  is  done  by  way  of  transcontinental 
railways. 

THE  CANAL  AND  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  SOUTH. 

The  most  notable  phase  of  the  recent  industrial  progress  of  the  South 
has  been  the  growth  of  the  iron  industry,  whose  chief  center  is  in  the 
district  about  Birmingham,  in  the  north  central  part  of  Alabama.  Two 
members  of  the  commission  visited  this  section,  and  Chattanooga, 
where  a  large  variety  of  iron  and  steel  wares  are  manufactured,  and 
were  strongl}7  impressed  by  the  extent  and  range  of  the  present  activ- 
ities, and  by  the  possibility  of  future  development. 

A  special  report  prepared  for  the  commission  by  a  committee 
appointed  by  the  Birmingham  Commercial  Club  contains  the  following 
statement: 

We  have  the  three  essential  materials  for  iron  making — coal,  ore,  and  limestone 
within  exceptional  proximity,  within  rifle  range  of  the  furnaces;  and  in  consequence 
of  these  geological  conditions  and  the  low  cost  of  individual  materials,  iron  can  be 
produced  in  this  district  cheaper  than  at  any  other  point  in  the  known  world. 

The  use  that  is  being  made  of  these  resources  of  coal  and  iron  is 
concisely  stated  in  this  report: 

Less  than  twenty-five  years  ago  the  first  coal  mine  was  opened.  In  1878  fires  were 
lighted  in  its  first  furnace.  There  are  now  in  this  district  about  125  coal  mines,  with 
a  capacity  of  about  20,000  tons  output  per  day;  about  5,000  coke  ovens,  with  a 
capacity  of  about  4,500  tons  per  day;  two  steel  mills,  with  a  capacity  of  about  1,160 
tons  per  day;  one  wire,  rod,  and  nail  mill,  with  a  capacity  of  500  tons  per  day. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  about  200  more  small  manufacturing 
concerns,  all  established  within  the  last  twenty-five  years. 

The  Southern  States,  including  the  Virginias,  at  the  present  time 
produce  nearly  one-fifth  of  all  the  iron  ore  mined  in  the  United  States, 
and  the  Alabama  and  Tennessee  mines  yield  nearly  one-seventh  of  the 
total.  The  pig-iron  manufacture  in  Alabama  in  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1900,  equaled  about  1,200,000  tons. 

The  iron  industries  of  the  Birmingham  district  are  devoted  most 
largely  to  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron.  This  pig  iron  is  in  part 
manufactured  into  cast-iron  pipe,  wire,  and  nails,  and  the  other  simpler 
iron  and  steel  products. 

The  iron  of  the  Alabama  district  is  mostly  shipped  outside  of  the 
State.  During  the  last  ten  years  about  20  per  cent  of  the  iron  has 
been  used  in  local  establishments;  about  5  per  cent  was  taken  by 
Southern  States  other  than  Alabama,  1  per  cent  went  to  the  Pacific 
coast  and  to  Mexico,  19  per  cent  was  exported  to  foreign  countries 
other  than  Mexico,  and  55  per  cent  of  the  entire  output  was  marketed 
north  of  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  rivers. 

For  the  last  three  years  about  one-fifth  of  the  iron  produced  in  the 
Birmingham  district  has  been  exported.     This  export  of  iron  began  as 


304  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

late  as  1896,  and  during-  the  years  1897  and  189S  was  larger  than  it  has 
since  been.  These  foreign  sales  of  iron  from  the  Southern  furnaces 
have  been  facilitated  by  the  cheap  rates  obtainable  on  iron,  which 
makes  desirable  freight  for  a  part  of  the  cargo  of  steamers  that  load 
with  cotton. 

In  the  Southern  States,  outside  of  the  Birmingham  district,  notably 
in  Chattanooga,  machinery,  engines,  implements,  and  a  variety  of 
ircn  and  steel  articles  are  being  manufactured  both  for  the  domestic 
and  foreign  trade.  Twenty-one  Chattanooga  firms  are  already  ship- 
ping to  or  beyond  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  most  of 
these  are  engaged  in  some  form  of  iron  and  steel  manufacture.  The 
disadvantageous  conditions  under  which  they  are  conducting  this  trade 
at  the  present  time  are  illustrated  by  a  letter  received  from  the  head 
of  one  of  the  large  establishments  of  that  city  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  steel  plows.     He  says: 

We  have  made  several  .shipments  to  Australia  and  some  to  China  this  year  (1900) . 
Some  of  these  we  had  to  ship  hy  rail  to  San  Francisco  and  pay  a  freight  of  $1.50  per 
hundredweight  (to  San  Francisco),  when  we  could  have  reached  New  Orleans  and 
put  them  on  a  vessel  for  2-4  cents. 

In  the  foregoing  discussion  of  the  iron  manufactures  of  the  South 
and  the  effect  which  the  opening  of  a  canal  would  have  upon  them  the 
statements  made  are  intended  to  be  illustrative  rather  than  compre- 
hensive. Alabama  and  Tennessee  contain  the  largest  iron  producing 
and  manufacturing  regions  in  the  Southern  States,  but  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia  have  come  to  be  important  centers  for  those  industries. 
Their  industrial  and  commercial  interests,  however,  are  more  closely 
associated  with  the  North  Atlantic  than  with  the  South  Atlantic  and 
the  Gulf,  and  they  have  consequently  not  been  considered  in  this 
discussion. 

THE  CANAL  AND  THE  EXPORTATION  OF  SOUTHERN  LUMBEK  AND  FOREST 

PRODUCTS. 

In  a  special  study  of  the  lumber  trade  of  the  United  States  made 
by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics  and  published  in  the  Monthly 
Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance,  November,  1900,  the  importance 
and  general  location  of  the  timber  resources  of  the  Southern  States 
are  described  in  the  following  concise  manner: 

The  ti  in  bored  region  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  slope  is,  commercially, 
the  most  important  district  in  the  United  States.  A  circle  whose  center  is  Chicago 
and  whose  circumference  begins  with  Norfolk,  Va.,  and  sweeps  southwestward  to 
the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  Arkansas  passes  through  the  heart  of  the  Southern 
pine  region  from  beginning  to  end.  The  hard-wood  region  of  the  South  lies  inside 
of  the  great  pine  bell  and  south  of  the  Ohio  River,  embracing  the  mountainous  sec- 
tion of  every  Southern  State  east  of  the  Mississippi,  together  with  the  whole  of  AVest 
Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.  The  Piedmont  and  mountain  sections  and  the 
river  valleys  of  the  slopes  of  the  Southern  Alleglienies  are  the  home  of  the  best 
remaining  hard  woods  east  of  the  Mississippi,  if  not  the  best  in  the  entire  country. 

The  standing  supply  of  timber  in  the  Southern  States  is  estimated 
to  be  about  700,000,000,000  feet  B.  M.,  about  30  per  cent  of  the  pres- 
ent total  amount  within  the  United  States. 

The  exports  of  forest  products  from  the  United  States  have  reached 
large  proportions  and  arc  increasing.  Our  total  foreign  sales  in  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1900,  of  wood  and  manufactures  of  wood,  not 
including  other  forest  products,  were  $50,598,416,  and  were  double 
the  amount  sold  ten  years  ago.     This  increase  litis  been  due  to  several 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  305 

causes,  prominent  among  which  are  the  restrictions  which  European 
nations  are  placing  upon  the  cutting  of  their  timber.  Most  of  the 
lumber  shipped  abroad  is  cut  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  the  Southern 
States.  The  latter  furnish  more  than  half  of  the  lumber  exported 
from  the  United  States,  and  somewhat  more  than  seven-tenths  of  the 
lumber  sent  abroad  from  the  South  goes  to  Europe.  One-fourth  of 
the  Southern  exports  are  now  marketed  in  the  West  Indies,  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  eastern  South  America. 

Although  the  lumber  exports  from  the  United  States  are  large,  they 
are  estimated  to  be  not  more  than  8  per  cent  of  the  total  amount 
manufactured  in  the  country.  The  lumber  coasting  trade  of  the 
Atlantic  States  is  much  in  excess  of  the  foreign  shipments  from  that 
legion,  but  the  opposite  is  true  of  the  Gulf  cities.  The  chief  lumber- 
•shipping  ports  on  the  Gulf  are  Pensacola,  Mobile,  Pearl  River,  Missis- 
sippi, and  New  Orleans,  but  there  are  now  others  doing  a  large  busi- 
ness, the  trade  being  well  distributed.  The  stave  trade,  one  of  the 
important  branches  of  the  lumber  business,  is  centered  at  New  Orleans, 
which  handles  more  than  half  of  all  the  staves  exported  from  the 
country. 

The  large  and  rapidly  growing  exportation  of  lumber  from  the 
Southern  States,  not  onl}T  to  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies,  but  also  to 
Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  Argentina,  indicates  that  large  shipments  would 
Iba  made  to  the  west  coast  of  South  and  Central  America  if  an  isthmian 
canal  were  in  existence.  Those  sections  are  obliged  to  import  a  large 
part  of  their  lumber,  and  b}7  way  of  a  canal  they  will  be  nearer  the 
Gulf  cities  of  the  United  States  than  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata 
now  is.  There  is  a  demand  on  the  west  coast  of  all  three  Americas 
for  hard  wood,  and  from  Southern  California  south  soft  woods  are 
needed. 

The  hard-wood  lumber  is  now  being  shipped  from  the  Southern 
States  to  the  Atlantic  South  American  States  and  to  the  Pacific  coast 
<of  the  United  States.  The  cost  of  transportation  by  all  water  from 
-Memphis  through  a  canal  to  Pacific  markets  would  be  so  low  as  to 
make  possible  the  development  of  a  more  important  trade.  The  indus- 
trial progress  of  the  west  coast  of  all  the  three  Americas  will  greatly 
enlarge  the  demand  for  lumber.  This  larger  business  will  be  shared 
both  by  the  regions  of  present  supply  and  by  other  and  new  ones  now 
debarred  from  trade  because  of  their  inaccessibility  to  the  markets. 

Naval  stores — turpentine,  resin,  tar,  etc. — constitute  an  important 
<class  of  forest  products.  These  commodities  have  always  been  pro- 
<diq<eed  in  the  South,  because  that  is  the  home  of  the  long-leaf  pine,  from 
Which  they  are  obtained.  Besides  supplying  the  large  home  demand 
for  naval  stores,  the  Southern  States  exported  about  $12,500,000  worth 
in  the  year  ending  June  30, 1900.  The  previous  year  the  exports  were 
valued  at  about  $10,000,000,  and  in  the  year  before  that  at  about 
$9,000,000.  The  chief  foreign  markets  are  in  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
and  other  European  countries,  but  there  is  a  growing  demand  for  the 
commodities  in  all  Pacific  countries. 

Although  the  United  States  uses  a  vast  amount  of  paper  its  annual 
exports  of  that  commodity  now  amount  to  about  $6,250,000  in  value, 
the  paper  being  made  mainly  from  wood  pulp,  which  is  also  exten- 
sively used  for  pails  and  other  utensils.  The  manufacture  of  pulp  and 
paper  are  industries  naturally  associated  with  the  use  of  the  forests  for 
lumbering  purposes.     To  some  extent  pulp  is  a  by-product  of  the 

S.  Doc.  51,  pt  2 20 


306 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


lumber  industry,  because  much  of  the  material  used  in  its  manufacture 
would  otherwise  be  wasted  in  cutting  off  the  forests.  At  the  present 
time  the  pulp  mills  are  mostly  located  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
United  States,  partly  because  the  poplar  and  spruce  timber  that  has 
thus  far  been  used  mainl}T  in  pulp  manufacture  exists  most  abundantly 
in  that  section.  As  far  as  the  supply  of  available  timber  is  a  deter- 
mining factor,  the  pulp  manufacturing-  industry  can  be  developed  in 
the  South  as  well  as  in  the  North.  Pulp  is  now  manufactured  from 
hemlock  as  well  as  spruce,  and  such  timbers  as  basswood,  cucumber, 
buckeyTe,  maple,  birch,  and  beech  are  successfully  used  in  connection 
with  poplar.  Cottonwood  is  well  adapted  to  paper  making  and  is 
largely  used  for  that  purpose,  being  nearly  as  good  as  poplar. 

Australia  is  a  very  large  buyer  of  American  paper  and  woodenware, 
being  the  third  heaviest  purchaser,  and  ranking  second  among  our 
foreign  markets  for  printing  paper,  of  which  she  takes  35  per  cent  of 
all  our  exports.  In  the  Australian,  South  American,  and  other  Pacific 
markets,  our  trade  in  paper,  woodenware,  and  other  products  made 
from  wood  could  be  increased  by  facilities  for  cheaper  shipments. 

THE  CANAL  AND  THE  FERTILIZER  INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES. 

The  South  alread}T  uses  large  amounts  of  fertilizers  on  its  cotton  and 
tobacco  plantations,  its  grain  fields,  and  its  truck  farms,  and  the  future 
demands  will  be  larger  than  the  present.  Much  of  the  soil  of  the 
South,  while  it  possesses  excellent  physical  characteristics,  is  not 
strong  in  those  chemical  properties  required  by  the  various  plants  that 
are  grown.  Unless  carefully  cultivated  and  kept  up  by  fertilizing,  the 
soil  is  soon  exhausted;  but  when  care  is  taken  in  tilling  the  ground 
and  restoring  to  it  the  chemical  constituents  that  are  taken  by  the 
various  crops,  the  farms  are  highly  and  continuously  productive. 
Such  being  the  case,  the  South  must  inevitably  require  a  constantly 
increasing  amount  of  fertilizers  as  the  population  becomes  more  dense 
and  the  change  from  extensive  to  intensive  methods  of  agriculture 
becomes  necessary. 

The  South  has  great  stores  of  phosphate  rock,  the  most  important 
mineral  constituent  of  commercial  fertilizers.  The  supply  of  this  min- 
eral is  the  source  of  a  large  foreign  trade  and  the  basis  of  important 
fertilizer  manufacturing  industries.  The  exports  of  crude  phosphate 
amounted  to  776,220  tons,  valued  at  $6,376,367,  in  the  year  ending  June 
:><),  1!M>().  The  States  in  which  most  of  the  rock  is  mined  are  Florida, 
South  Carolina,  and  Tennessee.  The  amounts  obtained  from  each  State 
and  the  amount  of  increase  in  the  production  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing table.  One  noticeable  fact  is  the  recent  prominence  which  Ten- 
nessee has  acquired  in  the  phosphate  production.  The  figures  are  from 
the  latest  published  report  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey: 


Proiluclinn  of  jihoxphate  rock,  1894  '""'  1809,  a 

ml  value  where  mined 

State. 

1894. 

1899. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

527,  05:5 

450, 108 

19,188 

SI, 066, 813 

1 ,  746, 570 

67,158 

726, 420 

» 357, 090 

430, 192 

2,000 

82,804,061 

1,078,099 

1,192,916 

9,000 

Total 

996, 949 

3,  179,  517 

1,515,702 

5,  084, 070 

'Including  140  tuns  from  North  Carolina. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  307 

The  opening  of  an  isthmian  canal  will  affect  the  fertilizer  industries 
of  the  Southern  States  in  two  ways:  (1)  In  the  manufacture  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers  nitrate  of  soda  is  used,  and  this  at  present  has  to 
come  from  Chile  around  Cape  Horn  or  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 
(2)  There  would  be  a  large,  market  for  the  manufactured  product  in 
California.  Hawaii,  and  other  Pacific  countries  if  the  costs  of  reaching 
those  markets  were  lower.  Cheaper  transportation  will  enable  the 
manufacturers  of  fertilizers  in  South  Carolina,  Virginia,  and  probably 
in  Tennessee  to  supply  the  growing  demand  of  the  Australian  and 
California  agriculturists.  With  the  growth  of  population  and  the 
increasing  value  of  land  in  those  countries,  present  methods  of  agri- 
culture are  becoming  unprofitable,  and  a  change  must  be  made. 
Farming  is  carried  on  in  Japan  in  a  very  intensive  manner,  and  large 
quantities  of  fertilizers  are  required.  In  the  Hawaiian  Islands  there 
is  already  a  considerable  demand  for  the  article,  and  portions  of 
western  South  America  will  in  time  import  large  quantities  of  the 
commodity. 

Although  Florida  is  the  State  from  which  the  largest  quantity  of 
crude  phosphate  rock  is  obtained,  the  region  about  Charleston,  S.  C, 
is  where  the  largest  amounts  of  commercial  fertilizers  are  manufac- 
tured. A  special  report  prepared  for  the  Commission  by  the  Cotton 
Exchange  and  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Charleston  contains  the  fol- 
lowing information  in  regard  to  the  phosphate  industry  of  that  vicinity 
and  the  benefit  which. would  be  conferred  by  the  opening  of  a  canal 
across  the  Isthmus: 

Inquiries  have  come  for  the  manufactured  fertilizers  from  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
and  efforts  are  now  being  made  to  sell  the  manufactured  fertilizers  there  and  in 
Japan.  In  connection  with  this  commodity,  it  may  be  stated  that  Charleston  manu- 
factures more  commercial  fertilizers  than  any  place  in  the  world,  the  output  of  the 
factories  here  being  400,000  tons  per  annum.  With  cheap  rates  of  freight  that  the 
isthmian  canal  would  give  large  quantities  of  this  fertilizer  would  undoubtedly 
move  to  different  countries  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  only  commodity 
moving  from  Charleston  to  any  of  the  countries  touching  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  phos- 
phate rock,  to  the  Sandwich  Islands  and  Japan.  About  5,000  tons,  approximately 
three  steamer  loads,  of  this  commodity  go  from  here  annually  to  these  countries. 
The  value  of  this  commodity  here  is  $4  per  ton;  the  steamer  freight  has  averaged 
about  $7.50  per  ton  to  Japan.  The  high  freight  rate  is  a  barrier  to  a  large  movement 
of  this  commodity  to  the  islands  named. 

The  chemical  company  which  controls  a  larger  fertilizer  manufac- 
turing business  than  any  other  concern  in  Virginia  and  North  Caro- 
lina stated  in  letters  received  from  them  in  Ma}r  and  July,  1900,  that 
they  had  imported  about  10,000  tons  of  nitrate  of  soda  during  the  pre- 
ceding twelve  months.  They  also  say  that  they  could  use  a  great  deal 
more  if  the  cost  of  the  nitrate  were  reduced.  In  regard  to  the  effect 
which  the  present  rates  of  freight  have  upon  their  west  coast  business, 
they  state  as  follows: 

There  is  now  a  demand  for  goods  we  produce,  viz,  superphosphates,  on  the  west 
coast  of  this  country.  Our  recent  efforts  to  secure  freights  on  large  bulk  cargoes 
which  would  make  such  business  possible  from  Atlantic  coast  ports  have  proved 
unavailing.  Overland  freights  on  our  products  from  this  coas*.  to  the  Pacific  coast 
are  entirely  prohibitory. 

THE    CANAL   AND    COMMERCE    OF   THE    GULF   PORTS. 

Several  forces  are  now  operating  to  increase  the  future  commercial 
importance  of  the  Gulf  ports,  and  in  order  to  appreciate  the  probable 
scope  of  the  influence  of  the  proposed  canal  upon  the  commerce  handled 
through  the  Gulf  gateways  a  brief  analysis  of  those  forces  is  essential. 


308 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


The  Gulf  ports  have  capacity  for  handling-  a  large  commerce.  Large 
wharves  and  piers  have  been,  and  are  being,  erected  by  the  railway 
companies,  which,  together  with  other  corporations,  are  making  large 
investments  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  trade  of  these  ports. 
The  Plant  System  at  Port  Tampa,  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  at 
Pensacola,  the  Illinois  Central  and  Southern  Pacific  at  New  Orleans, 
the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  at  Gal- 
veston, these  and  other  roads  are  expending  large  sums  for  the  devel- 
opment of  terminal  facilities.  The  Mobile  and  Ohio,  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville  and  other  companies  are  developing  the  port  of  Mobile. 

The  Gulf  ports  have  the  commercial  advantage  of  being  nearer  than 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  is  to  the  larger  portion  of  the  Central  West,  the 
upper  part  of  the  great  Mississippi  Valley.  These  cities  are  con- 
venient gateways  for  a  greater  or  less  share  of  the  import  and  export 
traffic  of  the  entire  Mississippi  Valley.  The  relative  distances  by  rail 
from  representative  Mississippi  Valley  points  to  New  York  and  to 
New  Orleans  are  shown  by  the  following  table: 


From— 


To  New 

To  New 

York. 

Orleans. 

Miles. 

Miles. 

912 

912 

1,390 

1,337 

1,332 

1,297 

-    1,321 

1,279 

1,422 

1,258 

1,402 

1,070 

1,079 

968 

1,058 

695 

1,006 

860 

1,089 

554 

989 

708 

867 

746 

939 

557 

1,932 

1,336 

1,335 

878 

Saving  to 

New 
Orleans. 


Chicago,  111 

Duluth,  Minn 

Minneapolis,  Minn 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

Sioux  City,  Iowa  . . 

Omaha,  Nebr 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Peoria,  111 

Cairo,  111 

Evansville.Ind 

Louisville,  Ky 

Nashville, Tenn ... 

Denver,  Colo 

Kansas  City,  Mo... 


Miles. 


0 

53 

35 

42 

164 

332 

111 

363 

lit; 

53"- 
281 
121 
382 
596 
457 


All  points  south  and  west  of  Lake  Superior,  northern  Michigan,  Lake 
Michigan,  and  a  line  drawn  from  Chicago  through  Indianapolis,  Frank- 
fort, Ky.,  and  on  to  Charleston,  are  nearer  New  Orleans  and  to  several 
other  Gulf  ports  than  to  New  York.  While  distance  is  not  the  only 
factor  in  determining  the  direction  in  which  traffic  will  move,  itisone 
of  the  factors,  and  the  proximity  of  the  industrial  centers  of  the  Cen- 
tral States  to  the  Gulf  cities  will  greatly  assist  those  ports  in  securing 
a  large  share  of  the  South  American  and  Pacific  trade.  The  Gulf  ports 
have  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  bring  the  railway  car  and  the 
steamer  side  by  side  at  terminals  where  freight  can  be  very  economic- 
ally handled,  and  this  is  a  factor  that  will  materially  assist  their  com- 
mercial progress. 

The  following  tables  show  to  what  extent  the  ports  of  the  Atlantic 
and  of  the  Gulf,  respectively,  have  increased  the  tonnage  of  the  vessels 
entering  and  clearing  in  foreign  trade  during  the  past  ten  years.  The 
first  table  compares  all  the  ports  of  the  Atlantic  with  all  the  ports  of 
the  Gulf.  The  second  table  compares  the  increase  made  in  ths  tonnage 
of  entrances  and  clearances  by  each  of  seven  of  the  North  Atlantic 
ports  with  the  growth  accomplished  by  each  of  the  live  leading  Gulf 
ports: 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


309 


Tonnage  of  vessels  entered  and  cleared  at  Atlantic  and  Gulf  ports,  years  ended  June  30, 

1890,  1895,  1900. 


Ports. 

1890. 

1895. 

tiain  in  tive        1onn 
years.            1JW- 

Gain  in  ten 

years. 

10, 127, 586 
4,380,176 

(iaiii  in 
ten  years. 

22, 649, 610 
4,035,256 

24,186,387 
4,679,247 

1,536,777     32,777,196 
643,991       8,414,432 

Per  cent. 

44.72 

Guli 

108.  55 

Tonnage  of  vessels  entered  and  cleared  at  the  seven  leading  North  Atlantic  ports  and  at 
the  fire  leading  Gulf  ports,  years  ended  June  80,  1890,  1895,  and  1900. 


Port. 

1890. 

1895. 

Gain  in 
5  years. 

1900. 

Gain  in 
10  years. 

Gain  in 
10  years. 

North  Atlantic  ports: 

260, 796 
2, 613, 335 
12,283,740 
2,530,094 
1,969,501 
266, 138 
183, 533 

250, 312 
3, 115, 478 
13, 188, 085 
2,711,434 
1,608,257 
440,046 
208, 992 

0 

716.001 

455,205 

Per  cent. 

174.  5  J 

502,143       4,145,187 
904,345     16.020.290 

1,531,852            58.62 

3, 736, 550            30. 42 

181, 340 

0 

173, 908 

25, 459 

3,736,615 

3,452,654 

1,095,727 

592, 887 

1,206,521 

1,483,153 

829, 589 

409, 354 

47.69 

75. 31 

311.71 

Norfolk 

223. 04 

Total 

20, 107,] 37 

21,522,604 

1,415,467 

29, 759, 361 

9, 652, 224 

48.00 

Gulf  ports: 

9,080  i        174,466 
815, 778           70S.  380 

165, 376 

(a) 
278, 386 

M 

424, 054 

208,595 
1,115,382 
1,054,471 
3, 395, 442 
1,538,300 

199,  515 

299, 604 

800, 459 

1,360,370 

1,194,725 

2, 197. 30 

36.73 

254, 012 

2, 035, 072 

343, 575 

532, 399 

1,997,769 

767, 629 

315. 13 

66  85 

347. 73 

Total 

3,457,517 

4, 175,  643 

718, 126 

7, 312, 190 

3,854,673 

111.  49 

a  Decrease. 

In  order  to  show  the  gains,  above  referred  to,  in  the  grain  export 
traffic  of  the  Gulf  cities,  a  table,  taken  from  evidence  prepared  for  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  in  1899,  is  submitted. 

Percentage  of  the  total  wheat,  corn,  and  flour  exports  handled  at  the  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and 
Pacific  ports,  respectively,  during  the  years  1880,  1885,  1890,  1895,  and  1899. 


Wheat. 

Corn. 

Flour.' 

Atlantic  ports: 

1880 

Per  cent. 
78.3 
56.1 
40.9 
53 
48.8 

2.5 
1.9 
4.5 
2.5 
29.4 

13.9 
37.9 
50  5 
38.3 
17.3 

5.3 
4.1 
4.1 
6.2 
4.5 

Per  cent. 
83.7 
79.7 
75.3 

78.6 
76.2 

3.2 
12.8 
14.7 

9.8 
15.1 

0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.5 

Per  cent. 
83  7 

1885 

77  8 

1890 

79  1 

1895 

80 

1899  » 

79  4 

Gulf  ports: 

1880 

0  9 

1885 

0  2 

1890 

0  4 

1895 

1  7 

1899  » 

3  9 

Pacific  ports: 

1880 

10  8 

1885 

14  4 

1890 

13  1 

1895 

10  4 

1899  » 

11  4 

Miscellaneous  ports: 

1880 

8 

7.4 

9.9 

11.1 

8.7 

4  6 

1885 

7  6 

1890 

7  4 

1895 

7  9 

1899" 

5.3 

>  Four  months,  January  1  to  April  30,  inclusive. 


310  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  Gulf  ports  are  making  substantial  commercial  progress.  Their 
trade  is  growing  with  the  industrial  progress  of  the  South,  and  they 
are  handling  an  increasing  volume  of  business  originating  in  the  cen- 
tral section  of  the  United  States.  This  latter  source  of  the  commerce 
of  the  Gulf  cities  is  usually  spoken  of  as  due  to  a  diversion  of  traffic 
away  from  the  Atlantic  ports.  This  statement,  however,  does  not 
exactly  describe  what  has  occurred.  During  the  past  score  of  years 
there  has  been  an  enormous  expansion  of  the  industrial  activities  of 
the  central  West,  and  at  the  same  time  the  railway  s3Tstems  leading  to 
the  Gulf  have  increased  in  number  and  efficiency.  The  result  has  been 
that  both  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  lines  have  handled  an  ever-increasing 
volume  of  business.  The  business  of  the  Gulf  cities  shows  a  greater 
percentage  increase,  but  the  absolute  growth  in  the  traffic  to  and  from 
the  Atlantic  has  been  much  larger  than  the  increase  in  the  business 
handled  through  the  Gulf  gateways. 

Many  commodities  are  now  moved  a  third  of  the  distance  across  the 
continent  to  the  Eastern  seaports  of  the  United  States  for  shipment  to 
the  Orient.  At  the  present  time,  with  the  exception  of  some  occa- 
sional full  cargoes,  mainly  of  cotton,  the  trade  between  the  southern 
sections  of  the  United  States  and  the  Orient  is  carried  on  either  by 
way  of  the  Pacific  ports  or  through  the  Atlantic  gateways.  New  York 
City  handles  by  far  the  larger  share  of  the  oriental  and  west  coast 
South  American  commerce  of  the  southern  and  central  sections  of  the 
United  States.  If  an  isthmian  canal  were  in  existence,  the  South 
American  and  trans-Pacific  trade  of  the  Southern  States  would  be 
largely  handled  by  the  Gulf  ports,  and  the  Central  States  would  have 
the  advantage  of  a  new  route,  which  they  would  doubtless  adopt  from 
time  to  time  in  accordance  with  the  conditions  of  competition  prevailing 
among  rail  and  ocean  carriers. 

The  effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  traffic  of  the  Gulf  cities  will  consist 
less  of  diverting  existing  traffic  to  new  routes  than  of  bringing  about 
trade  not  now  in  existence.  It  will  lead  to  a  larger  commerce  between 
the  southern  section  of  the  United  States  and  the  west  coast  of  South 
America.  This  trade  will  consist  largely  of  the  importation  of  nitrate 
of  soda  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  fertilizers  and  explosives  and 
of  the  exportation  of  lumber,-  coal,  manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  wood, 
and  cotton  goods.  The  southern  section  of  the  United  States  has 
practically  no  direct  trade  at  the  present  time  with  the  west  eoast  of 
South  America. 

The  opening  of  the  canal  would  lead  to  a  direct  trade  between  the 
Gulf  ports  and  the  Orient — a  trade  consisting  of  the  exchange  of  cotton, 
cotton  goods,  lumber,  and  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel,  for  the  tea, 
silk,  mattings,  curios,  and  other  manufactures  characteristic  of  the 
Orient. 

An  important  effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  trade  of  the  southern  sec- 
tion will  result  from  giving  that  region  a  more  direct  and  economical 
connection  by  water  with  the  Pacific  States.  The  coal,  steel,  cotton 
goods,  cotton-seed  products,  and  fertilizers  of  the  Southern  States  will 
find  a  growing  market  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  whence  the 
South  will  secure  wool,  wines,  fruits,  and  barley. 

In  their  efforts  to  increase  their  trade,  the  Gulf  cities  now  suffer 
because  their  exports  are  so  much  greater  than  their  imports.  But 
few  goods  are  brought  into  the  country  by  way  of  the  Gulf  cities. 
One  effect  of  the  opening  of  a  canal  will   be  to  remove  this  handicap 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  311 

partially,  although  not  entirely.  The  Gulf  cities  will  be  ports  from 
which  a  larger  portion  of  our  imports  from  tropical  and  oriental  coun- 
tries will  be  distributed.  The  present  one-way  trade  of  the  South, 
with  its  consequent  relatively  high  costs  for  transportation,  will,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  give  way  to  a  reciprocal  and  more  economically 
.transported  commerce. 

Chapter  III.  —  The  canal  and  the  industries  and  trade  of  the  north- 
eastern section  of  the  United  States. 

The  northeastern  section  of  the  United  States  does  more  manufac- 
turing and  has  more  foreign  trade  than  any  other  part  of  the  country; 
and,  although  the  central,  southern,  and  western  divisions  of  the 
United  States  are  rapidly  expanding  and  diversifying  fheir  industries, 
there  is  no  probability  that  the  States  and  seaports  of  the  Northeast 
will  cease  to  rank  first  in  manufacture  and  foreign  commerce.  Inas- 
much as  the  chief  commercial  reason  prompting  the  United  States  to 
construct  an  isthmian  canal  is  to  connect  our  two  seaboards  and  to 
promote  the  foreign  trade  of  the  country,  the  effects  of  the  proposed 
waterway  upon  the  industrial  and  commercial  activities  of  the  section 
of  the  country  having  the  densest  population,  the  most-highty  diversi- 
fied industries,  and  the  largest  trade  with  other  nations  constitute  an 
inquiry  meriting  careful  consideration. 

GEOGRAPHICAL   LIMITS   OF   THE    NORTHEASTERN    SECTION. 

The  geographical  limits  of  the  northeastern  section  are  clearly 
defined  on  the  south  by  the  mouth  of  the  James  River  and  by  the 
railway  systems  from  the  West  having  their  termini  at  Norfolk  and 
Newport  News.  South  of  those  cities  and  the  territory  served  by 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  and  the  Norfolk  and  Western  railways  the 
industrial  and  commercial  affiliations  are  mainly  with  the  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  States.  The  western  margin  of  the  northeastern 
section  of  the  United  States  can  not  be  so  easily  and  distinctly  marked, 
because  the  industries  of  the  East  shade  off  into  those  of  the  Central 
West  by  close  gradations.  The  latitude  being  the  same,  the  two 
regions  are  not  much  differentiated  b}T  diversities  of  climate,  and  their 
common  stores  of  coal  and  iron  give  them  the  basis  for  several 
identical  industries.  The  industrial  and  commercial  similarities  of  the 
East  and  Central  WTest,  however,  have  very  marked  limitations.  East 
of  Pittsburg  the  economic  activities  are  dominantly  manufacturing 
and  commercial,  while  westward  from  that  city  agriculture  grows 
increasingly  important,  and  before  the  State  of  Ohio  is  passed  it 
becomes  characteristic  of  most  parts  of  the  region. 

The  region  about  Pittsburg — that  is,  the  western  part  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  eastern  Ohio — lies  on  the  borderland  between  the  Northeast 
and  the  Central  West,  with  both  of  which  it  has  close  business  rela- 
tions. The  iron  ore  used  in  this  region  comes  mainly  from  the  west; 
its  coal  supply  is  local.  Its  markets  are  both  east  and  west,  although 
the  larger  volume  of  trade  is  with  the  American  States  and  foreign 
countries  adjacent  to  the  Atlantic.  Its  business  connections  are  such 
as  to  prevent  its  being  with  strict  propriety  included  with  either  the 
Central  West  or  the  East;  but,  if  placed  with  either,  it  will  best  be 
grouped  with  the  northeastern  section,  which,  for  the  purpose  of  this 


312  TtEPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

discussion,  will  be  held  to  include  eastern  Ohio,  West  Virginia,  and 
that  part  of  the  United  States  east  of  that  region  and  north  of  the 
mouth  of  the  James  River. 

INDUSTRIAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 

The  northeastern  section  of  the  United  States  has  become  much  like 
western  Europe  industrially  and  commercially.  It  has  a  large  foreign 
trade  in  manufactured  products,  made  in  part  from  materials  obtained 
domestically  and  to  some  extent  from  raw  and  partially  manufactured 
materials  imported  from  other  countries.  The  southern,  central, 
and  far  western  sections  of  the  United  States  are  drawn  upon  alike 
by  Europe  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  for  the  raw 
materials  of  industry;  indeed,  those  sections  of  our  country  contain 
the  granaries,  mines,  and  forests  that  supply  a  large  share  of  the  needs 
of  the  manufacturing  nations  grouped  about  the  North  Atlantic. 

Both  Europe  and  the  northeastern  section  of  the  United  States  are 
obliged  to  secure  a  part  of  their  supply  of  the  crude  materials  required 
by  their  manufactures  from  the  tropical  and  south-temperate  latitudes 
of  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  oceans.  The  nitrate  of  soda  from 
Chile,  the  lumber  and  grain  from  the  Pacific  slope  of  the  United  States, 
the  Australian  wool,  meats,  and  hides;  the  teas,  silks,  and  mattings  from 
the  Orient;  the  sugar  and  spices,  rice,  jute,  hemp,  vegetable  oils,  and 
gums  from  the  British  and  Dutch  East  Indies  and  Oceania  are  examples 
of  the  large  class  of  imports  derived  by  the  North  Atlantic  nations 
from  the  lands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans.  These  raw  materials 
and  oriental  wares  are  for  the  most  part  paid  for  by  European  and 
American  manufactures,  which  are  finding  a  large  and  growing  market 
in  the  countries  of  the  western  part  of  the  American  continent  and  in 
the  islands  and  continental  countries  of  the  South  Pacific  and  Far  East. 

The  Suez  Canal  has  given  Europe  convenient  access  to  the  raw 
materials  and  markets  of  the  Indies  and  the  Orient,  but  her  ships  are 
still  obliged  to  make  the  long  detour  around  Cape  Horn  in  order  to 
reach  the  western  ports  of  the  Americas.  The  eastern  half  of  the 
United  States  is  less  favorably  situated  than  Europe  is  for  trading 
with  Pacific  countries.  The  distances  to  Australasia.  Malaysia,  China, 
and  Japan  are  shorter  from  Europe  than  from  our  Atlantic  coast. 
For  the  trade  with  the  west  coast  of  South  and  North  America,  also, 
the  advantages  are  with  Europe,  partly  because  sailing  vessels,  which 
have  been  used  extensively  in  this  commerce,  can  make  the  trip  from 
Europe  more  quickly  than  from  the  United  States,  and  also  because  of 
the  cheaper  freight  rates  from  Europe  to  Pacific  America  than  from 
the  eastern  United  States  to  that  section,  the  lower  freight  charges 
being  secured  by  the  European  shippers  on  account  of  the  large  ton- 
nage of  vessels  sailing  from  Europe  in  ballast  or  partly  loaded. 

In  studying  the  relation  of  the  canal  to  the  southern  and  western 
sections  of  the  United  States,  the  most  typical  industrial  resources  and 
activities  have  been  separately  considered  and  the  changes  that  the 
proposed  waterway  will  produce  have  been  pointed  out,  and  that  plan 
of  investigation  could  readily  be  followed  for  the  Southern  and  West- 
ern States,  because  of  the  relatively  small  Dumber  of  Large  industries 
typical  of  each  of  the  sections.  In  the  Northeastern  States,  however, 
where  manufacturing  has  reached  a  high  degree  of  development,  the 
number  of  large  industries   is  much   greater  than   in  the  South  and 


REPOKT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


313 


West,  and,  in  order  to  avoid  making-  the  discussion  prolix,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  group  the  varied  economic  activities  in  a  small  number  of  large 
classes. 

Most  of  the  economic  activities  of  the  Northeastern  States  are  directly 
or  indirectly  associated  with  four  groups  of  industries,  a  study  of 
which  with  reference  to  the  effects  of  the  isthmian  canal  will  present  the 
more  important,  though  by  no  means  all,  of  the  relations  of  the  water-  ■ 
way  to  the  future  industrial  and  commercial  progress  of  that  section 
of  the  United  States.  These  four  groups  are  (1)  the  mining,  transporta- 
tion, and  exportation  of  coal;  (2)  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel 
and  of  the  machines  and  tools  made  of  steel;  (3)  the  shipbuilding  and 
maritime  interests;  (4)  the  various  classes  of  textile  manufactures.  If, 
in  addition  to  considering  these  four  groups  of  industries,  an  analysis 
be  made  of  the  effects  which  an  isthmian  canal  would  have  upon  (5) 
the  commerce,  or  the  import  and  export  business,  of  the  North  Atlantic 
seaports,  the  chief  relations  of  the  proposed  waterway  to  the  economic 
interests  of  the  Northeastern  States  can  be  presented.  In  this  chapter 
only  the  textile  industries  and  the  commerce  of  the  North  Atlantic 
cities  will  be  discussed.  The  effect  of  an  isthmian  canal  upon  the  coal- 
mining industry  of  the  country,  and  the  relation  of  our  coal  trade  to 
the  commercial  use  of  that  waterwa}r,  are  subjects  of  such  importance 
that  a  special  chapter,  No.  VI,  has  been  given  to  their  discussion. 
The  relation  of  the  canal  to  the  iron  and  steel  industries  of  the  United 
States  is  discussed  in  Chapter  VII.  The  effects  which  the  isthmian 
canal  will  have  upon  American  shipbuilding  and  maritime  interests  are 
considered  in  Chapters  VIII  and  IX,  Chapter  VIII  dealing  with  the 
subject  directly  and  exclusively  and  Chapter  IX  indirectly,  in  connec- 
tion with  an  anatysis  of  the  factors  affecting  the  use  of  the  canal  route 
by  sailing  vessels. 

THE    CANAL   AND   THE   TEXTILE   INDUSTRIES   OF   THE   NORTHEASTERN 

STATES. 

The  importance  which  the  textile  industries  of  the  United  States  are 
assuming  is  shown  by  comparing  the  number  of  machines  used  in  the 
industries  in  1900  with  those  employed  in  1890.  The  following  table 
is  taken  from  the  July,  1900,  issue  of  the  Textile  World: 

Comparison  of  textile  machinery  in  1900  with  1890. 


1890. 


Per  cent  of 
increase. 


( '( >tt<  m  spindles 

Cotton  looms 

Woolen  sets  of  cards 

Wi  irsted  combs 

Woolen  and  worsted  looms 

Knitting  machines 

Silk  spinning  and  twisting  spindles 
Silk  looms 


21,057,983 

490, 398 

7,806 

1,510 

80, 759 

75, 721 

1,426,245 

48, 246 


14, 188, 103 

324, 866 

7,245 

855 

67, 817 

36, 462 

718, 360 

20, 822 


48.4 
50.9 
7.9 
76.6 
19.0 

107.6 
98.5 

131.7 


The  silk  industry  in  the  United  States  is  confined  almost  entirely  to 
the  New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  States,  only  two  Southern 
States  having  yet  established  the  industry,  and  much  the  same  state- 
ment maybe  made  regarding  the  woolen  industries,  although  the  mills 
are  somewhat  more  widely  distributed.     There  are  now  in  the  United 


314  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

States  nearly  half  as  many  cotton  spindles  as  there  are  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  country  is  far  ahead  of  all  others  in  the  textile  indus- 
tries, and  the  number  of  our  mills  is  rapidly  increasing.  The  cotton 
manufacturing  industry  is  increasing  in  both  the  northeastern  section 
of  the  country  and  in  the  Southern  States,  the  growth  being  more 
rapid  in  the  latter  region.  In  1900,  according  to  the  Textile  World, 
the  Southern  States  were  operating  5,845,-129  spindles  and  the  North- 
ern mills  15,242,55-1.  Ten  years  earlier  the  South  possessed  only 
1,828,972,  and  the  Northern  States  had  12,722,341.  During  the  decade 
the  number  of  spindles  in  the  South  increased  4,016,457,  or  219.6  per 
cent.  The  gain  in  the  number  of  spindles  in  the  Northern  States  was 
2,520,213,  or  19.8  per  cent.  Massachusetts  is  far  ahead  of  all  other 
States  in  the  number  of  spindles,  it  having  8,012,331  in  the  year  1900. 
Rhode  Island  ranked  second,  with  2,090,138;  South  Carolina  came  third, 
with  1,794,657;  North  Carolina  fourth,  with  1,499,540,  and  then  came 
New  Hampshire,  Georgia,  and  Kentucky. 

We  are  now  supplying  ourselves  with  nearly  all  of  the  various 
grades  of  cotton  used  in  this  country,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
foreign-made  articles  of  a  higher  grade,  the  demand  for  which  is  kept 
up  by  custom,  and  have  developed  a  foreign  trade  which  has  amounted 
to  about  $24,000,000  annually  for  the  past  two  years.  Our  silk  and 
woolen  mills  are  still  unable  to  meet  the  home  demand,  and  we  are 
obliged  to  import  large  quantities  both  of  manufactured  goods  and 
raw  materials.  We  have  no  silk  exports,  and  the  sales  of  woolen  goods 
amount  to  only  $1,250,000  a  year.  Three-fourths  of  the  raw  silk 
comes  from  Pacific  countries,  and  we  are  obliged  to  purchase  wool  in 
China,  Oceania,  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  and  the  west  coast 
of  Mexico  and  the  United  States. 

The  exports  of  cotton  manufacture  from  the  United  States  are  sent 
mainly  to  the  countries  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  China  takes  about  hall' 
of  our  exported  cotton  cloth,  and  the  sales  to  Australia,  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  other  parts  of  Oceania,  and  numerous  Pacific  countries  are 
slowly  increasing.  One  significant  fact  concerning  our  foreign  trade 
in  cotton  goods  is  the  small  market  which  we  now  have  in  South 
America.  The  cotton  goods  purchased  by  those  countries  now  amounts 
to  between  170,000,000  and  $80,000,000  a  year.  Barely  6  per  cent  of 
those  goods  come  from  the  United  States.  It  seems  probable  that  the 
United  States  will  be  able  in  the  future  to  supply  a  large  share  of  the 
demand  of  these  countries  for  cotton  goods.  The  opening  of  the  canal 
will  give  our  mills  ready  access  to  the  west  coast  of  the  continent,  and 
make  much 'more  favorable  the  conditions  of  competition  for  the  trade 
of  the  western  third  of  South  America,  a  region  from  which  we  are 
practically  debarred. 

In  the  manufacture  of  the  higher  grades  of  woolen  goods  it  is  neces- 
sary to  import  considerable  quantities  of  Australian  wool.  At  the 
present  time  most,  although  not  all,  of  this  wool  comes  to  North 
Atlantic  ports  of  the  United  Slates  by  way  of  London,  which  is  the 
great  wool  market  of  the  world.  The  advantage  of  importing  wool 
from  London  is  that  the  American  buyer  is  able  to  select  his  purchases 
from  a  large  and  varied  stock.  The  disadvantage  is  that  the  American 
exporter  has  to  pay  freight  charges  for  a  route  that  is  somewhat  round- 
about as  compared  with  tin1  future  route  via  an  isthmian  canal,  and 
has  to  bear  the  expenses  incurred  in  handling,  storing,  and  selling  the 
wool  in  London.     With  the  growth  of  our  wool  manufacturing  industries 


REPORT    (>K    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  315 

we  shall  be  obliged  to  import  increasing  quantities  of  Australian,  South 
American,  Chinese,  and  South  African  wools,  and  it  is  reasonable  to 
expect  that  New  York  or  Boston  will  become  the  wool  market  of  this 
country.  Should  this  change  take  place,  it  will  be  brought  about 
largely  !>}•  the  effect  which  the  canal  will  have  upon  ocean  routes. 

The  textile  industries  of  the  United  States  have  developed  later 
and  more  slowly  than  many  other  manufacturing  activities,  because 
they  have  their  natural  home  in  thickly  populated  countries,  where  an 
abundant  supply  of  skilled  and  inexpensive  labor  is  available.  The 
populous  States  of  our  country  now  possess  the  requisites  of  textile 
manufacture,  and  the  cotton,  woolen,  carpet,  silk,  and  weaving-  indus- 
tries generally  are  expanding  rapidly.  Foreign  markets  will  in  the 
future  be  needed  for  the  products  of  our  spindles  and  looms,  as  well 
as  for  the  output  of  our  furnaces,  foundries,  and  other  manufacturing 
establishments.  • 

THE   CANAL   AND   THE   COMMERCE    OF  THE    NORTH   ATLANTIC   PORTS. 

Our  European  commerce  at  present  includes  a  part  of  both  the 
import  and  export  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Pacific  countries. 
The  outbound  rates  from  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Belgium  being 
very  low,  because  the  heavier  volume  of  their  commerce  is  inbound, 
and  the  facilities  for  shipping  directly  from  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States  to  the  west  shore  of  the  American  continents  and  to 
other  sections  of  the  Pacific  being  limited,  our  trade  with  those  regions 
is  frequently  sent  to  Europe  and  the  goods  there  transshipped.  This 
roundabout  route  is  still  used,  although  the  reduction  in  the  rates  on 
our  transcontinental  railways,  the  establishment  of  the  American- 
Hawaiian  Steamship  Company's  line  between  New  York  and  San  Fran- 
cisco, the  increased  facilities  and  connections  for  handling  freight  via 
the  Panama  Railroad,  and  the  placing  of  more  vessels  on  the  route 
between  New  York  and  Australia  have  made  the  American  exporters 
and  importers  less  dependent  than  they  formerly  were  on  securing 
transportation  by  way  of  some  European  ports  of  transshipment. 

After  the  American  canal  route  has  become  available  it  is  probable 
that  little,  if  any,  of  our  South  American  and  Pacific  foreign  com- 
merce will  be  handled  by  way  of  Europe.  Possibly  some  shipments 
to  the  east  coast  of  South  America,  south  of  Cape  St.  Roque,  will  be 
sent  to  Europe  and  taken  thence  by  the  lightly  laden  outbound  vessels. 
This  will  depend  upon  the  rapidity  with  which  we  develop  our  facili- 
ties, during  the  next  ten  or  fifteen  years,  for  shipping  directly  from 
the  United  States  to  that  region.  Probably  none  of  the  trade  between 
our  eastern  seaboards  and  the  west  coast  of  North,  Central,  and  South 
America  will  take  the  indirect  route  after  the  Isthmus  can  be  traversed 
by  ocean  vessels. 

The  reciprocal  nature  of  the  trade  that  will  be  carried  on  through 
the  canal  between  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  and  the  west- 
ern part  of  South  America  is  discussed  in  Chapter  XI.  That  chapter 
and  the  others  dealing  with  the  relation  of  the  proposed  canal  to  the 
trade  and  industries  of  the  countries  of  the  Pacific  should  be  read  both 
with  reference  to  our  own  trade  and  with  regard  to  the  effect  which 
the  canal  will  have  on  the  foreign  countries  discussed. 

The  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Japan  and  continental  Asia, 
the  Indies,  and  Oceania  is  now  carried  in  part  through  the  Pacific  ports 


3 10  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  the  United  States  and  British  Columbia  by  means  of  the  railways 
and  steamship  lines  having-  termini  there;  but  the  larger  share  of  the 
business  is  shipped  by  way  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  Several  h'rms 
run  steamers  via  the  Suez  Canal  between  New  York  and  eastern 
ports,  and  three  regular  lines  of  steamers  and  sailing  vessels  connect 
New  York  with  Australia  by  way  of  the  Good  Hope  route.  There  is 
also  a  large  amount  of  traffic  between  our  eastern  seaboard  and  orien- 
tal countries  in  tramp  steamers  chartered  for  limited  periods.  The 
steamers  going  out  from  New  York  to  the  Indies,  China,  or  Japan 
pass  through  the  Suez  Canal  and  usually  return  b}^  the  same  route. 
Chartered  steamers  going  out  from  New  York  to  an  oriental  port  fre- 
quently cross  the  Pacific  to  Chile  to  obtain  nitrate  cargoes  for  Europe. 
Steamers  returning  to  our  eastern  seaboard  from  Australia  more  fre- 
quently come  via  Suez  and  call  at  Europe,  while  the  sailing  vessels  cross 
the  Pacific  Ocean  to  secure »a  west-coast  cargo  for  New  York  or  some 
other  Atlantic  port.  There  is  an  important  round-the-woild  move- 
ment of  vessels  at  the  present  time,  the  extent  of  which  will  probably 
be  increased  by  the  American  canal. 

After  the  isthmian  canal  is  completed,  the  shipments  between  our 
Atlantic  or  Gulf  ports  and  Japan,  the  Philippine  Islands,  Australia, 
and  the  continent  of  Asia  north  of  Hongkong  will  usually  make  use 
of  the  American  canal  route;  although  some  ships  will  doubtless 
go  and  come  by  the  Suez  route,  for  the  purpose  of  doing  business 
at  intermediate  ports.  A  large  part  of  the  world's  commerce  will 
be  done  by  tram])  steamers  whose  characters  will  take  them  in  what- 
ever direction  and  along  whatever  route  the  movement  of  tonnage 
is  strongest.  The  outbound  traffic  of  the  United  States  to  most  sec- 
tions is  heavier  than  the  inbound;  the  opposite  is  true  of  European 
commerce.  The  tramp  steamer  will,  whenever  possible,  move  with, 
rather  than  counter  to,  the  flow  of  traffic. 

One  certain  effect  of  the  isthmian  canal  upon  the  Atlantic  ports  of 
the  United  States  will  be  to  cause  the  major  portion  of  their  commerce 
to  and  from  places  east  of  Singapore  to  use  the  American  canal  instead 
of  the  present  easterly  routes.  Between  Singapore  and  Shanghai,  and 
in  the  region  of  the  Philippines  and  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  there  will 
be  a  region  whose  trade  with  our  Atlantic  and  Gulf  seaboard  will  be 
divided  between  the  American  and  Suez  Canal  routes.  It  is  believed, 
however,  for  reasons  stated  in  Chapters  XIX  and  XX,  that  the  con- 
ditions of  competion  will  be  more  favorable  for  the  American  than  for 
the  Suez  route. 

Our  exports  to  Australia  and  New  Zealand  will  consist  mainly  of 
general  manufactures,  and  to  some  extent  of  heavy  iron  and  steel 
products.  The  major  portion  of  the  general  manufactures  will  be 
sent  out  from  the  North  Atlantic  ports;  the  iron  and  steel  products 
will  probably  be  shipped  very  largely  from  the  Southern  States. 
Most  of  the  wool,  hides,  gums,  etc.,  imported  from  Australia  and 
New  Zealand  will  enter  by  the  North  Atlantic  cities,  which  arc  the 
most  convenient  gateways  to  the  section  of  the  country  where  manu- 
facturing is  most  fully  developed. 

After  the  canal  has  come  into  use  probably  but  a  small  part  of  the 
trade  carried  on  between  the  Southen.  States  and  Pacific  markets  will 
be  handled  through  North  Atlantic  ports;  soon  after  the  opening  of 
the  isthmian  waterway  facilities  for  importing  and  exporting  directly 
through  Southern  ports  may  be  expected  to  develop. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  317 

The  general  effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  commerce  handled  by  the 
North  Atlantic  ports  will  be  to  enlarge  its  volume  and  variety.  The 
Pacific  countries,  both  American  and  transoceanic,  will  be  markets  for 
increasing  amounts  of  American  manufactures  and  the  source  of  grow- 
ing- quantities  of  the  raw  materials  required  by  the  industries  in  the 
Northeastern  part  of  the  United  States.  The  subsequent  chapters 
dealing-  with  the  industries  and  trade  of  foreign  Pacific  countries  indi- 
cate in  detail  the  character  of  the  commerce  that  will  be  promoted  by 
the  construction  of  the  canal.  The  establishment  of  a  new  highway 
for  a  large  share  of  the  world's  commerce  will  necessarily  change  the 
present  routes  of  some  trade.  It  will  cause  the  ports  of  our  North 
Atlantic  seaboard  to  cease  to  handle  some  of  the  traffic  now  passing 
their  gateways,  and  will  likewise  bring  to  them  some  commerce  now 
tributary  to  other  cities.  The  chief  effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  com- 
merce of  the  ports  of  the  Northeastern  States  will  come  from  the 
industrial  changes  that  will  follow  upon  the  opening  of  the  interoceanic 
waterway.  The  commerce  of  that  section  must  progress  pari  passu 
with  its  industrial  advance,  and  the  manufacturing  development  of  the 
Northeastern  States  during  the  coming  decades  promises  to  be  large 
and  many-sided. 

Reports  prepared  with  especial  care  were  received  by'the  commis- 
sion from  the  commercial  organizations  in  Boston  and  Philadelphia. 
A  brief  statement  of  some  of  the  facts  presented  in  those  reports  will 
indicate  some  of  the  relations  which  will  exist  between  the  isthmian 
canal  and  the  trade  of  the  North  Atlantic  ports. 

Appended  to  the  report  from  Philadelphia,  which  was  prepared 
under  the  joint  auspices  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  the  Maritime 
Exchange,  were  two  tabular  statements,  one  of  which  gave  the  quan- 
tity and  value  of  the  principal  items  of  commerce  between  Philadel- 
phia and  Pacific  markets.  The  other  table  compared  the  distances  for 
sailing  vessels  and  full -power  steamers  by  way  of  existing  routes  to 
the  Pacific  markets  with  the  distances  by  way  of  a  Panama  canal  route 
and  by  way  of  a  waterway  across  Nicaragua.  Concerning  the  saving 
in  freight  rates  that  an  isthmian  canal  would  accomplish  for  the  com- 
merce of  Philadelphia  the  report  states: 

The  canal  would  provide  a  shorter  water  route  than  any  now  followed  between 
Philadelphia  and  certain  important  ports  of  the  Pacific,  notably  those  of  the  west 
coast  of  North  and  South  America  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands;  *  *  *  it  would 
appear  that  its  existence  should  constitute  a  factor  of  significance  in  regulating  freight 
rates,  at  least  with  those  ports. 

The  report  does  not  attempt  to  state  in  precise  terms  the  saving  in 
freight  rates  that  would  be  accomplished  by  the  canal,  because  of  the 
complexity  of  the  factors  entering  into  the  fixing  of  rates,  and  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  predicting  what  readjustments  may  take  place  in 
ocean  transportation  as  the  result  of  the  opening  of  a  new  highway  for 
such  a  large  part  of  the  world's  commerce,  but  it  illustrates  the  saving 
which  the  new  route  would  effect  in  cost  of  ocean  transportation  by 
presenting  an  estimate  based  upon  the  daily  costs  of  operating  a 
modern  freight  steamer  of  6,000  tons  cargo  capacity.  The  calculation 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  a  saving  of  about  75  cents  per  cargo  ton  would 
be  accomplished  by  using  the  canal  route  instead  of  existing  water 
routes  between  Philadelphia  and  San  Francisco,  Vancouver,  or  Aca- 
pulco.  In  this  calculation  a  toll  of  $1  per  net  register  vessel  ton  was 
assumed.  The  report  closed  with  the  following  statements  regarding 
the  relation  of  the  canal  to  Philadelphia: 


318  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  prospect  of  the  inevitable  increase  of  our  country's  transoceanic  commerce  in 
the  near  future  enhances  the  importance  of  an  isthmian  canal  as  contributing  to  the 
facilities  of  ocean  transportation,  but  we  would,  however,  point  out  that  whether 
the  canal  exists  or  not,  supply  and  demand  must,  in  the  last  resolution,  determine 
the  volume  of  our  port's  trade. 

The  canal  project,  while  opening  a  new  route,  would  in  reality  open  up  no  markets 
that  are  not  already  accessible,  but  it  would  seem  that  the  canal  would  be  a  favorable 
factor  by  shortening  the  routes  to  some  important  points,  and  thus  assist  our  mer- 
chants to  enter  into  more  effective  competition  with  nations  of  Europe  which  are 
now  enabled  to  underbid  us  in  the  Far  East,  by  reason  of  the  more  economical  and 
expeditious  transportation  which  their  merchants  enjoy  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal 
route. 

In  the  statement  that  the  volume  of  Philadelphia's  trade  must,  in 
the  last  analysis,  be  determined  by  supply  and  demand,  the  underly- 
ing thought  evidently  is  that  the  opening  of  a  new  ocean  route  must 
be  considered  as  only  one  of  the  factors  determining  the  volume  of 
any  community's  foreign  trade.  Supply  and  demand,  however,  it 
must  be  remembered,  is  but  a  general  statement  of  the  manner  in 
which  production  and  consumption  are  kept  in  equilibrium.  There  is 
no  absolute  law  or  principle  explaining  the  final  adjustment  of  pro- 
duction and  consumption  embodied  in  the  general  term  "supply  and 
demand."  The  intensity  of  demand  and  the  volume  of  supply  are 
both  subject  to  modification  by  any  factor  capable  of  altering  costs  or 
prices,  or  both.  The  effect  of  the  isthmian  canal  will  be  to  lower  the 
cost  of  producing  many  things  at  Philadelphia  and  elsewhere,  and  to 
reduce  the  prices  at  which  those  products  can  be  sold  to  the  consumers 
in  Pacific  markets.  Stated  concretely,  the  manifold  manufacturing 
industries  of  Philadelphia  will  be  able,  after  the  canal  is  in  existence, 
to  produce  more  cheaply  and  will  be  able  to  put  their  commodities  on 
Pacific  markets  at  lower  freight  costs.  The  persons  who  buy  these 
articles  in  those  markets  will  be  able  to  secure  commodities  more 
cheaply,  and  the  amount  they  consume  will  correspondingly  expand. 

The  city  of  Boston  has  developed  a  large  commerce  with  Europe, 
but  has  a  comparatively  small  direct  maritime  trade  with  Pacific  coun- 
tries. A  small  share  of  its  Pacific  business,  import  and  export,  is 
carried  by  the  transcontinental  railways,  but  a  much  larger  part  is 
handled  through  New  York  or  via  Liverpool.  The  report  of  the 
special  committee  of  the  Boston  Chamber  of  Commerce  states: 

We  have  from  Boston  practically  no  water-borne  commerce  with  the  west  coast  of 
Central  and  South  America,  the  west  coast  of  t  lie  Tinted  States  and  Canada,  Japan 
and  China,  Australia  and  Oceania.  *  *  *  While  we  send  to  the  Orients  con- 
siderable i|iiantity  of  our  manufactured  wares,  and  receive  from  Asia  and  Australasia 
a  targe  quantity  of  merchandise  there  produced,  the  trade  is  not  systematized.  Trans- 
portation is  carried  through  a  variety  of  channels,  hut  only  a  small  portion  of  it 
comes  to  or  <roes  from  Boston  directly. 

Boston's  tc;i  imports,  according  to  the  report,  come  by  three  routes, 
by  way  of  tin1  transcontinental  railroads,  or  through  New  York,  or  via 
London.  The  Australian  wool  comes  chiefly  by  sailing  vessels  direct 
from  Melbourne,  but  a  part  is  received  by  vrayof  the  London  market. 
Thechinaware  from  Japan  and  China  "  comes  chiefly  across  the  Pacific 
and  by  rail  via  Vancouver  and  San  Francisco." 

The  readier  access  to  the  raw  materials  and  markets  of  the  Pacific 
countries  afforded  by  the  isthmian  canal  will  promote  the  manufactur- 
ing and  commercial  progress  of  New  England  and  of  the  territory 
tributary  to  Boston.  This  will  give  Boston  a  larger  trade  and  increase 
the  incentives  for  the  operation  of  tramp  and  line  vessels  between  Bos- 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  319 

ton  and  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries.  A 
large  increase  in  American  shipping  during  the  coming  fifteen  years 
seems  to  be  indicated  by  the  trend  of  our  economic  development;  and 
this,  together  with  the  larger  trade  tributary  to  Boston,  will  naturally 
tend  to  cause  Boston  to  depend  less  upon  other  ports.  What  is  true 
of  Boston  in  this  regard  will  obtain  with  other  Atlantic  cities;  and  the 
general  effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  commerce  of  the  North  Atlantic 
cities  will  be  to  increase  its  total  volume  and  promote  its  distribution 
among  the  several  ports. 

The  manner  in  which  the  isthmian  canal  will  affect  the  industries 
and  commerce  of  the  northeastern  section  of  the  United  States  is  illus- 
trated in  a  concrete  way  by  a  letter  received  from  a  firm  located  in 
New  York  and  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  pumping  engines  and 
hydraulic  machinery  for  the  home  and  foreign  trade.  The  firm  has  a 
large  trade  with  several  important  Pacific  countries. 

We  have  a  large  trade  on  the  western  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  this  would 
undoubtedly  be  increased  if  we  had  a  short  water  route,  so  that  we  might  ship 
machinery  at  a  reasonable  freight  rate.  This  is  probably  of  more  importance  in  the 
case  of  first-class  freight,  as  the  risk  of  railroad  transportation  to  intricate  machinery  is 
greater  than  water  transportation,  and  'herefore  the  freight  rates  are  unusually  high, 
as  we  are  obliged  to  pay  from  $1  25  to  $4  per  100  pounds.  You  can  readily  see  the 
advantage  of  a  canal  to  the  fruit  and  other  agricultural  industries  in  California  if  they 
are  able  to  purchase  machinery  for  irrigation  at  a  lower  price  than  they  are  now 
obliged  to  pay  for  it. 

Our  business  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  has  been  very  large  in  the  past  few  years — 
at  the  rate  of  over  one-half  million  dollars  per  year.  This  could  undoubtedly  be 
increased,  and  at  the  same  time  the  sugar  and  other  industries  there  fostered  if  we 
were  not  handicapped  by  the  long  railroad  haul  across  the  country. 

Our  business  in  Japan  and  China  has  not  been  large,  owing  to  the  fact  that  we  are 
obliged  to  ship  by  all-water  route  in  order  to  keep  the  prices  down  to  meet  European 
competition.  Such  a  large  proportion  of  our  machinery  is  sold  on  contract  where 
time  is  so  much  an  object  that  we  are  badly  handicapped,  and  that  which  is  sent  out 
for  stock  requires  the  tying  up  of  considerable  capital  and  loss  of  interest,  owing  to 
the  long  time  the  material  is  on  the  water  in  transit. 

Our  trade  on  the  western  coast  of  South  America  is  growing  but  very  slowly.  We 
believe  that  a  canal  would  be  of  great  benefit  to  the  western  coast  of  South  America 
in  building  up  their  industries  by  enabling  people  to  purchase  machinery,  etc.,  to  so 
much  better  advantage,  and  that  this  country  would  receive  the  benefit  of  this,  as  a 
good  line  of  steamers  from  here  direct  down  to  the  western  coast  would  undoubtedly 
tend  to  throw  most  of  the  business  to  this  market. 

As  the  manufacturing  activities  of  the  northeastern  section  of  the 
United  States  multiply,  the  volume  of  imported  raw  materials  brought 
in  by  way  of  an  isthmian  canal  will  increase,  and  the  stream  of  manu- 
factured articles  flowing  out  through  the  canal  to  the  market  of  our 
west  coast  and  of  foreign  Pacific  countries  will  grow  steadily  larger 
with  every  lowering  of  the  costs  of  production  and  transportation. 
The  proposed  waterway  will  readjust  the  routes  of  shipment  and  open 
avenues  for  a  larger  and  more  varied  commerce. 

Chapter  IV. — The  canal  and  the  Central  West. 

The  term  Central  West  is  generally  applied  to  the  five  States  north 
of  the  Ohio  River  and  the  seven  trans  Mississippi  States  of  Minne- 
sota, Iowa,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  the  two  Dakotas.  These 
twelve  States  have  a  combined  area  of  753,550  square  miles,  and  a 
total  population  of  26,335,243.  That  is  to  say,  they  comprise  one- 
fourth  of  the  area,  and  nearly  one-third  of  the  population  of  the 
United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska  and  our  insular  possessions. 


320  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  eastern,  southern,  and  western  sections  of  the  United  States  are 
situated  adjacent  to  or  comparatively  near  the  seaboard,  and  the  imports 
and  exports  received  or  dispatched  by  them  through  an  isthmian  canal 
will  need  to  be  hauled  a  relatively  short  distance  by  rail.  The  Central 
West,  on  the  contrary,  is  situated  from  500  to  1,500  miles  from  the 
ocean,  and  the  trade  which  it  may  have  by  way  of  a  canal  will,  on  an 
average,  be  moved  nearly  1,000  miles  by  railroad.  Will  the  canal 
affect  the  industries  and  Pacific  trade  of  this  interior  section  of  the 
United  States  ? 

INDUSTRIAL    RESOURCES   OF   THE    CENTRAL   WEST. 

Taking  this  region  as  a  whole,  its  most  important  industrial  resources 
are  those  connected  with  agriculture.  The  States  in  the  western  part 
of  this  section  of  our  country  are  entirely  agricultural,  but  Ohio  and 
Indiana  are  extensively  engaged  in  manufacturing,  and  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, and  Illinois  have  numerous  cities  in  which  large  manufacturing 
activities  are  carried  on.  In  most  of  these  States  there  are  abundant 
supplies  of  the  raw  materials  of  industry.  Ohio  and  Illinois  have  large 
fields  of  coal  in  which  30,000,000  tons  of  bituminous  coal  are  annually 
mined,  and  Indiana,  Iowa,  Missouri,  and  Kansas  have  deposits  from 
which  10,000,000  tons  are  taken  yearly.  The  natural-gas  wells  of  Ohio 
and  Indiana  are  a  valuable  source  of  fuel  for  parts  of  those  States.  In 
the  northern  section  of  the  Central  West  there  are  large  forests  of 
excellent  white  pine,  while  in  the  central  and  southern  portions  of  the 
region  a  good  quantity  of  hard-wood  timber  is  available.  Throughout 
all  these  States  foods  are  cheap,*and  in  the  more  thickly  populated  sec- 
tions there  is  a  large  supply  of  intelligent  labor. 

In  northern  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota  over  seven-tenths 
of  all  the  iron  ore  mined  in  the  United  States  is  obtained,  the  rich 
deposits  of  those  States  being  made  available  b}T  the  cheap  transporta- 
tion on  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
Illinois.  The  low  costs  of  pig  iron  and  steel  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
and  other  States  of  the  Central  West  unite  with  the  abundant  stores  of 
cheap  fuel  and  good  lumber  to  establish  a  sure  foundation  for  diversi- 
fied manufacturing  activities.  This  foundation  is  being  rapidly  built 
upon,  and  several  of  the  States  of  this  part  of  our  country  are  manu- 
facturing on  a  large  scale  both  for  the  extensive  and  expanding  home 
markets  and  for  our  trade  with  foreign  countries  in  all  parts  of  the 
earth. 

Ohio  is  the  leading  State  of  the  central  Western  group  in  the  variety 
and  amount  of  its  manufactures.  Cleveland  and  Cincinnati,  the  larg- 
est cities  of  the  State,  are  typical  industrial  centers,  and  in  order  to 
illustrate  the  relation  of  the  proposed  isthmian  canal  to  the  Ohio  as  a 
whole  a  special  discussion  is  given  below  of  the  industries  and  foreign 
trade  of  those  cities  and  the  manner  in  which  they  will  be  affected  by 
the  new  water  route  to  and  from  the  Pacific.  Indianapolis  is  the 
metropolis  and  most  important  industrial  center  of  Indiana,  and  the 
sann1  is  true  of  Chicago  as  regards  Illinois,  and  St.  Louis  with  refer- 
ence to  Missouri. 

By  studying  the  relation  of  the  canal  to  these  cities  and  a  few  others 
of  minor  rank,  as  is  done  in  the  following  pages,  it  is  believed  that 
the  effects  of  the  interoceanic  waterway  upon  the  Central  West  gener- 
ally can  be  adequately  portrayed. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  o2l 

In  the  tier  of  four  States  situated  farthest  west  in  the  seel  ion  being 
considered  in  this  chapter  the  export  business  consists  almost  entirely 
of  grain  and  provisions,  but  from  all  the  other  eight  Commonwealths 
there  are  sent  out  to  foreign  markets,  in  addition  to  those  articles,  large 
quantities  of  agricultural  machinery,  wooden  ware,  vehicles,  tools  and 
implements  of  all  kinds,  stoves,  engines,  and  other  iron  and  steel 
products  in  great  variety,  boots  and  shoes,  and  many  other  articles 
enumerated  in  detail  in  the  reports  received  from  commercial  organi- 
zations, the  volume  and  variety  of  the  export  trade  increasing  from 
west  to  east,  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the  State  of  Ohio. 

There  is  also  an  important  volume  of  imports  from  Pacific  foreign 
countries  and  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States  required  in  the  Cen- 
tral West.  These  imports  consist  in  part  of  wool,  nitrate  of  soda, 
canned  fruits,  vegetables  and  salmon,  Japanese  and  Chinese  goods  in 
large  variet}^,  and  hemp,  jute,  gums,  and  waxes.  Those  from  foreign 
Pacific  countries  come  in  part  by  way  of  our  Pacific  ports,  but  most 
largel}T  through  New  York. 

PRESENT   ROUTES   OF   SHIPMENT   FROM   CENTRAL   WEST. 

The  exports  from  the  central  West  to  foreign  Parific  countries  are 
now  sent  by  various  routes,  most  of  which  can  be  indicated  by  refer- 
ring to  the  shipments  from  Chicago,  the  largest  and  most  centrally 
located  city  of  the  region.  The  manufactures  of  that  city,  particularly 
mining  and  other  heavy  machinery,  are  sent  to  many  parts  of  the 
world.  Heavy  freight  destined  for  Mexico  is  frequently  sent  directly 
by  rail,  but  shipments  are  often  made  via  New  York,  and  sometimes 
by  way  of  San  Francisco.  Assignments  for  the  east  coast  of  Central 
America  may  go  either  by  New  Orleans  or  New  York.  Most  of  those 
for  the  west  coast  of  Central  America  and  all  those  for  western  South 
America  go  via  New  York  and  thence  either  by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
or  around  South  America.  Until  four  years  ago  most  shipments  of 
machinery  from  Chicago  to  Australasia,  Malaysia,  and  the  Orient  are 
reported  to  have  been  sent  to  some  European  port  and  there  trans- 
shipped, but  latterly  vessels  direct  from  New  York  have  handled  the 
business.  The  shipments  to  Hawaii  go  via  San  Francisco  or  some 
other  Pacific  port,  as  also  do  those  that  must  reach  trans-Pacific  coun- 
tries with  a  minimum  of  delay,  but  when  time  permits  heavy  freight 
is  sent  through  New  York.  Further  information  regarding  the  routes 
by  which  commodities  from  the  Central  West  are  shipped  to  Pacific 
markets  is  given  below,  where  a  communication  received  from  the 
chamber  of  commerce  of  Cleveland  is  referred  to. 

THE    CANAL   AND   THE    INDUSTRIES   OF   CLEVELAND. 

The  State  of  Ohio  is  situated  in  that  indeterminate  border  land  lying 
between  the  northeastern  section  of  the  United  States,  where  manu- 
facturing and  commerce  are  the  dominant  activities,  and  the  Central 
West,  where  agriculture  still  heads  the  list  of  industries.  The  State 
consequently  now  ranks  well  up  in  the  list  of  manufacturing  Common- 
wealths, and  its  future  development  must  inevitably  increase  the  mag- 
nitude and  variety  of  its  industries.  Something  concerning  the  effects 
which  the  isthmian  canal  will  have  on  the  economic  progress  of  Ohio 
may  be  found  in  the  subsequent  chapters  devoted  to  "The  canal  and 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 21 


322  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  iron  and  steel  industries."  By  referring  with  some  detail  in  this 
connection  to  the  interest  of  Cleveland  and  Cincinnati  in  the  canal,  the 
relation  of  the  new  water  route  to  the  foreign  trade  not  onty  of  those 
cities,  but  also  of  Ohio  and  much  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Central 
West,  will  be  indicated. 

Cleveland,  which  is  now  the  metropolis  of  Ohio,  has  become,  by- 
virtue  of  its  location  on  Lake  Erie  and  at  a  point  where  the  coal  from 
Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  and  the  iron  ore  from  Lake  Superior  can  be 
readily  and  economically  brought  together,  a  great  center  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  iron  and  steel  products  and  the  home  of  a  large  variety 
of  activities.  It  has  the  advantages  of  cheap  fuel  and  low  transporta- 
tion costs  to  domestic  markets. 

The  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Cleveland  was  requested  to  address  a 
circular  letter  to  the  merchants  and  manufacturers  of  the  city,  asking 
them  to  state  what  commodities  they  were  sending  or  receiving  from 
various  Pacific  countries,  by  what  routes  these  shipments  to  and  from 
Cleveland  were  made,  and  to  indicate  how  the}"  would  be  affected  by 
the  proposed  canal.  Letters  were  sent  by  the  chamber  of  commerce 
to  153  establishments  and  replies  were  received  from  58,  of  which  38 
manifested  a  direct  interest  in  the  canal  and  9  others  favored  the  open- 
ing of  the  waterway  because  it  would  inevitabl}T  benefit  their  business. 
Thirty  of  the  38  having  a  direct  interest  in  the  opening  of  the  canal 
were  manufacturers  and  8  were  importers  and  wholesalers.  Of  the  30 
manufacturers  who  replied  that  they  were  shipping  to  Pacific  countries, 
6  thought  their  business  was  such  that  the  canal  would  not  be  of  much 
help  to  them,  and  1  person  thought  the  canal  would  give  his  rivals  in 
New  England  a  greater  advantage  than  they  now  possess. 

The  foregoing  analysis  of  the  replies  indicates,  first  of  all,  the  well- 
known  fact  that  the  manufacturers  of  Cleveland — and  the  same  is  true 
of  the  Central  West  and  most  of  the  United  States  at  the  present  time — 
are  producing  mainly  for  the  home  market.  It  is  also  evident,  from  the 
letters,  that  several  Cleveland  firms  doing  a  foreign  business  have  not 
yet  developed  a  trade  with  Pacific  countries.  Some  report  that  they 
are  debarred  from  this  trade  by  the  present  cost  of  transportation. 
A  few  Cleveland  firms  whose  goods  reach  Pacific  markets  are  unable 
to  report  the  amount  of  trade  in  those  markets  because  their  goods 
are  sold  to  New  York  or  London  exporters.  Other  firms  having  no 
foreign  Pacific  trade  report  that  they  are  doing  business  in  our  west 
coast  States,  and  they  especially  complain  of  the  present  high  costs  of 
transportation  by  rail. 

The  variety  of  commodities  shipped  from  Cleveland  to  the  various 
countries  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  surprisingly  large.  In  the  report 
submitted  by  the  Cleveland  Chamber  of  Commerce  the  articles  sent  to 
each  section  of  the  Pacific  are  enumerated,  the  routes  by  which  the 
commodities  are  shipped  are  stated,  and  tin1  principal  imports  into 
Cleveland  from  these  several  sections  are  named.  This  part  of  the 
report  is  so  informative  that  it  merits  quotation,  although  the  multi- 
tude of  details  in  the  statement  deprives  it  of  the  usual  fascination  of 
literature. 

1.  Commodities  shipped  from  Cleveland  to  the  following  parts  of  the  world  during 
1899: 

A.  West  coast  of  Central  and  South  America:  Carbons,  iron  roofing,  iron  houses. 
wire,  barb  wire,  wire  nails,  galvanized  smooth  wire,  annealed  wire,  wire  fencing, 
telegraph  wires,  oil  stoves,  gas  stoves,  twist  drills,  machinists'  tools,  tackle  blocks, 
sewing  machines,  ironwork. 


REPORT   OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  823 

B.  West  coast  of  the  United  States  and  Canada:  Sugar  machinery,  carbons,  iron 
rooting,  iron  houses,  iron  magazines,  pneumatic  cranes,  machine  tools,  holts  and 
nuts,  steel  springs,  barb  wire,  wire  nails,  galvanized  smooth  wire,  annealed  wire, 
wire  fencing,  telegraph  wires,  malleable  iron  castings,  oil  stoves,  gas  stoves,  cloaks 
and  suits,  manufactured  wool  stock,  oil  and  grease,  paint  and  varnish,  wire  brushes 
and  brooms,  foundry  supplies,  bristle  brushes  and  brooms,  twist  drills  and  machin- 
ists' tools,  steel  plate  and  castings,  hot-air  registers,  imported  and  domestic  whiskies, 
brandies,  <:ins,  imported  cordials,  wines,  tackle  blocks,  forgings,  turn-buckles  and 
railroad  iron,  sewing  machines,  ironwork. 

C.  Japan  and  China:  Nail  machinery,  carbons,  pneumatic  cranes,  jacks,  and  pul- 
leys, machines,  barb  wire,  wire  nails,  galvanized  smooth  wire,  annealed  wire,  wire 
fencing,  telegraph  wires,  oil  stoves,  gas  stoves,  twist  drills  and  machinists'  tools, 
automatic  or  self-filling  buckets,  rolling-mill  machinery,  sewing  machines,  iron- 
work. 

D.  Australia  and  Oceania:  Nail  machinery,  carbons,  bolts  and  nuts,  barb  wire, 
wire  nails,  galvanized  smooth  wire,  annealed  wire,  wire  fencing,  telegraph  wires, 
malleable  iron  castings,  oil  stoves,  gas  stoves,  wire  brushes,  twist  drills,  machinists' 
tools,  tackle  blocks,  sewing  machines. 

E.  The  Indian  Ocean:  Barb  wire,  wire  nails,  galvanized  smooth  wire,  annealed 
wire,  wire  fencing,  telegraph  wires,  oil  stoves,  gas  stoves,  sewing  machines,  iron- 
work. 

2.  Routes  over  which  these  commodities  were  shipped  to  each  of  the  destinations 
named. 

A.  West  coast  of  Central  "and  South  America:  Via  New  York,  through  New  York 
exporters;  via  Cape  Horn;  via  Isthmus  of  Panama  (railroad). 

B.  West  coast  of  the  United  States  and  Canada:  Southern  Pacific  Railway  via  San 
Francisco;  over  various  railways  and  lakes;  via  Isthmus  of  Panama  (railroad). 

C.  Japan  and  China:  Via  New  York;  via  Pacific  coast;  Suez  Canal;  from  Cleve- 
land to  San  Francisco  by  rail,  to  Vladivostok  via  Nagasaki,  Japan. 

D.  Australia  and  Oceania:  New  York  exporters;  via  steamers  from  New  York  and 
around  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  by  rail  to  San  Francisco,  thence  by  steamer. 

E.  The  Indian  Ocean:  Via  New  York,  Suez  Canal. 

3.  Commodities  received  from  the  countries  and  sections  named. 

A.  West  coast  of  Central  and  South  America:  Wool,  nitrate  of  soda. 

B.  West  coast  of  the  United  States  and  Canada:  Canned  goods,  dried  fruits,  wine, 
brandy,  beans,  raisins,  canned  fruits,  salmon,  nuts,  wool. 

C.  Japan  and  China:  Straw  mattings,  mattings  and  rugs,  tea,  notions,  rattan  cane, 
china  reeds,  split  bamboos. 

D.  Australia  and  Oceania:  Wool. 

E.  The  Indian  Ocean:  Burlaps  and  jute  bags. 

The  results  of  the  inquiry  concerning  Cleveland's  trade  in  Pacific 
countries  ma}'  be  summarized  by  saying  that  this  great  manufacturing 
center  has  begun  to  trade  with  practically  all  sections  of  the  Pacific, 
and  that  some  firms  are  now  doing  a  business  of  considerable  impor- 
tance. The  chamber  of  commerce  and  numerous  individuals  conferred 
with  believe  that  Cleveland's  interests  will  be  largely  promoted  by  an 
increase  in  the  city's  trade  with  Pacific  countries.  The  present  Pacific 
trade  of  the  city  is  widely  distributed  and  comprises  a  wide  range  of 
commodities. 

CINCINNATI    AND   THE   CANAL. 

The  industries  of  Cincinnati  differ  largely  from  those  of  Cleveland, 
but  are  quite  as  typical  of  the  manufacturing  activities  of  Ohio, 
bscause  they  are  even  more  diversified.  The  articles  produced  include 
a  large  number  of  commodities  created  b};  the  application  of  skilled 
labor  to  the  cruder  manufactures  of  steel,  lumber,  and  leather.  Besides 
being  able  to  secure  those  materials  advantageously,  Cincinnati  has  the 
advantage  of  possessing  in  its  population  a  homogeneous  body  of 
skilled  labor  well  trained  in  a  variety  of  arts.  The  Ohio  River  has 
assured  the  city  cheap  transportation  for  much  of  the  crude  and  raw 
material  required,  and  has  aided  in  the  economical  distribution  of  its 


324  KEPOET    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

manufactures;  and  although  the  railroads  now  carry  the  greater  vol- 
ume of  freight,  a  part  of  their  business  is  now  subject  to  a  water 
competition. 

From  information  obtained  from  the  chamber  of  commerce,  it 
appears  that  the  industries  which  would  derive  most  benefit  from  the 
canal  are  those  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  machinery  in  large 
variety,  vehicles,  electric-railway  equipment,  saddlery  and  harness, 
pianos,  office  appliances,  pork  products,  liquors,  shoes,  and  furniture 
made  from  native  and  tropical  woods. 

There  is  at  present  a  trade  of  some  importance  between  Cincinnati 
and  foreign  Pacific  countries;  but  the  business  with  the  west  coast  of 
the  United  States  is  of  greater  consequence.  This  Pacific  coast  trade 
is  now  much  restricted  by  the  cost  of  rail  transportation.  Cincinnati 
manufactures,  moreover,  find  difficulty  in  competing  in  all  Pacific 
markets  with  domestic  and  foreign  producers  so  situated  that  ship- 
ments can  be  made  by  water.  The  home  market  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  can  be  reached  cheaply  from  Cincinnati,  but  in  order  to 
give  her  ready  access  to  the  Pacific  trade,  the  cheaper  transportation 
is  reported  to  be  necessary. 

THE    CANAL    AND    INDIANA. 

The  inquiries  sent  out  by  the  Indianapolis  Board  of  Trade  to  the  man- 
ufacturers in  Indianapolis  and  other  parts  of  Indiana  concerning  their 
business  in  the  Pacific  markets  of  the  United  States  and  foreign  coun- 
tries and  the  effects  of  the  canal  were  replied  to  by  150  firms.  An  analy- 
sis of  the  letters  received  shows  that  63  of  the  150  firms  making  answer 
are  now  doing  business  either  on  the  west  coast  of  the  United  Stales 
or  in  foreign  Pacific  countries;  87  of  the  150  firms  have  as  yet  devel- 
oped no  trade  in  those  markets;  77  of  the  respondents  say  that  the 
canal  would  either  directly  or  indirectly  assist  them  in  the  development 
of  the  Pacific  trade;  73  of  the  firms  make  no  suggestion  as  to  the  effe<  ts 
of  the  canal.  It  is  probable  that  these  150  firms  may  be  taken  as  fairly 
representative  of  the  larger  manufacturing  concerns  of  Indiana,  and, 
if  so,  somewhat  more  than  two-fifths  of  the  Indiana  manufactories  now 
have  trade  in  American  and  foreign  Pacific  markets.  Somewhat  over 
half  of  these  representative  Indiana  firms  foresee  that  the  canal  would 
be  of  direct  or  indirect  assistance  to  them. 

When  one  considers  the  preset)!  costs  of  reaching  trans-Pacific  mar- 
kets from  such  a  section  as  that  of  the  State  of  Indiana,  tin1  significance 
of  the  foregoing  showing  in  regard  to  the  present  Pacific  trade  of 
Indiana  firms  becomes  manifest.  A  manufacturer  in  Indiana  stated  in 
a  letter  to  the  Commission  that  a  shipment  to  Australia  in  1891)  was 
sent  by  way  of  New  York  at  a  total  freight  cost  of  $105.  The  freight 
on  the  same  shipment  would  have  been  about  $150  to  San  Francisco  or 
Portland.  The  firm  stated  that  it  could  usually  reach  Australia  more 
cheaply  than  our  Pacific  coast. 

THE    CANAL    AND    ILLINOIS   AND   WISCONSIN. 

The  National  Business  League,  whose  offices  are  in  Chicago,  for- 
warded to  the  Commission  45  replies  to  the  circular  letter  of  inquiry 
sent  to  the  members  of  the  league.  Twenty-one  of  these  letters  were 
from  Chicago  firms,  10  from  concerns  in  other  cities  of  Illinois,  8  were 
from   Wisconsin,  and   6    from   other   States;     34  of    the  respondents 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  325 

reported  ;i  Pacific  trade,  and  11  no  present  business  in  that  section  of 
the  world;  35  believed  that  the  canal  would  assist  them,  T  said  they 
would  receive  no  aid,  2  gave  no  opinion,  and  1  believed  the  waterway 
would  be  an  injury  to  his  business. 

In  the  city  of  Chicago  a  great  variet}r  of  manufacturing  industries  is 
carried  on,  and  shipments  are  made  to  all  the  countries  of  the  Pacific. 
Railway  materials  and  mining  and  agricultural  machinery,  however, 
are  especially  important,  mining  machinery  being  sent  to  all  parts  of 
the  world,  wherever  mining  operations  are  carried  on.  The  foreign 
trade  of  one  Chicago  firm  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  mining 
machinery  amounts  to  15,000  tons  annually.  The  agricultural  machin- 
ery manufactured  in  and  about  Chicago  is  now  shipped  to  the  west 
coast  of  South  America,  to  eastern  Siberia,  and  to  various  parts  of 
Australasia.  The  Australasian  trade  of  one  firm  last  year  amounted 
to  11,000  tons.  The  shipments  of  this  firm  and  presumably  of  others 
of  that  part  of  the  country  are  made  by  way  of  New  York,  except  on 
rare  occasions,  when,  for  the  purpose  of  economizing  time,  the  goods 
are  routed  by  way  of  San  Francisco  or  Vancouver.  The  rates  from 
New  York  are  usualty  much  lower  than  those  by  way  of  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  time  taken  to  get  goods  from  Chicago  to  Australia  varies 
from  sixty-five  to  eight}r-five  days,  ten  days  of  that  time  being  required 
for  getting  the  goods  to  New  York  City.  The  average  time  from  Chi- 
cago to  the  Pacific  coast  is  eighteen  da}7s,  and  steamers  from  our  Pa- 
cific coast  to  Australasia  take  from  twent}r-two  to  twenty-eight  da}\s 
for  the  passage.  The  canal  will  shorten  the  distance  hy  water  from 
our  Atlantic  seaboard  to  Australasia  by  approximate  distance  to  South 
America  more  than  twice  that  number  of  miles. 

The  southern  and  central  parts  of  Wisconsin  are  developing  impor- 
tant manufacturing  industries  and  a  Pacific  trade,  although  the  cost  of 
reaching  Pacific  markets  is  a  heavy  burden.  A  carriage  company,  for 
instance,  situated  near  Racine,  Wis.,  reports  that  it  has  for  some  time 
past  exported  vehicles  to  the  western  coast  of  South  America,  Aus- 
tralia, and  the  Orient,  the  shipments  in  the  majority  of  cases  being- 
made  via  Atlantic  seaports,  "on  account  of  the  high  cost  of  transpor- 
tation by  the  transcontinental  lines  from  here  to  the  Pacific  coast." 
The  firm  states  that  on  business  to  Pacific  coast  points  "we  have  to 
pay  on  a  car  of  goods  valued  at  $1,500  $320  for  transportation."  An 
Oshkosh,  Wis.,  firm  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  sash,  doors,  and 
blinds  ships  some  of  its  products  to  jobbers  in  England  who  export 
commodities  to  various  Pacific  markets.  A  Milwaukee  company  which 
manufactures  engines,  pumping,  mining,  and  other  heavy  machinery, 
and  has  branch  offices  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  and  in  several 
foreign  countries,  reports  a  large  export  trade  with  the  Pacific  coast 
of  the  United  States  and  foreign  Pacific  countries.  This  firm  states 
that  "  the  rates  from  the  European  ports  we  generally  find  to  be  some- 
what lower  than  from  various  United  States  ports,  and  this  feature 
makes  European  competition  more  difficult  to  overcome." 

There  is  a  direct  Pacific  export  business  from  all  of  the  States  of 
the  Middle  West  except  those  forming  the  second  tier  of  States  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  In  these  four  States — the  two  Dakotas, 
Nebraska,  and  Kansas — agricultural  and  food  products  comprise 
nearly  all  the  commodities  sent  beyond  their  borders.  Should  the  canal 
create  larger  home  and  foreign  markets  for  those  products  it  would 
work  to  the  indirect,  if  not  direct,  benefit  of  these  strictly  agricultural 
commonwealths. 


326  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

THE   CANAL   AND   ST.    LOUIS. 

It  remains  onty  to  speak  of  the  State  of  Missouri.  Most  of  the 
activities  of  the  people  of  this  large  State  are  devoted  to  agriculture. 
Its  hard-wood  forests,  however,  yield  an  export  product  of  much 
importance.  The  city  of  St.  Louis  is  a  prominent  manufacturing  cen- 
ter, and  is  one  of  the  largest  jobbing  and  distributing  cities  of  the 
United  States.  Situated  almost  at  the  center  of  the  United  States, 
on  the  largest  river  of  our  country,  and  being  the  center  of  railway 
systems  radiating  in  all  directions,  it  has  peculiar  advantages  both  for 
manufacturing  and  for  distributing  articles  required  by  the  people 
living  in  that  great  stretch  of  country  west  of  the  Mississippi  and 
south  of  the  Missouri  River.  Our  rapidly  growing  trade  with  Mexico 
is  also  largely  controlled  by  St.  Louis. 

The  circular  letter  of  inquiry  sent  out  by  the  Merchants1  Exchange 
of  St.  Louis  was  generally  responded  to,  and  the  exchange  forwarded 
to  the  Commission  65  letters.  Of  these  65  firms  making  reply  32 
stated  that  they  were  carrying  on  a  trade  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States  or  in  foreign  Pacific  countries,  and  33  answered  that  they 
have  no  present  business  in  those  sections;  48  of  the  65  firms  expressed 
the  opinion  that  the  canal  would  assist  them  either  in  developing  their 
present  business  or  in  securing  a  trade  that  they  were  not  able  to 
engage  in  under  present  transportation  conditions.  Six  companies 
reported  that  the  canal  would  not  be  of  any  assistance  to  their  business. 
Ten  gave  no  opinion  as  to  the  effect  of  the  canal,  and  1  person  expressed 
the  belief  that  the  canal  would  enable  the  New  York  exporters  to  injure 
his  business.  The  most  characteristic  business  of  the  city  is  its  jobbing 
trade,  which  is  now  somewhat  facilitated  by  the  cheap  river  transpor- 
tation. The  St.  Louis  jobbers  of  heavy  commodities  will  in  the  future 
have  the  advantage  of  economical  water  transportation,  not  only  to  and 
from  the  Gulf  ports,  but  also  between  their  city  and  all  points  reached 
by  the  canal  route. 

THE    EFFECT  OF  THE  CANAL  UPON  THE    TRANSPORTATION    FACILITIES  OF 

THE    CENTRAL   WEST. 

The  large  and  varied  industrial  development  which  the  Central  West 
has  enjoyed,  in  spite  of  its  situation  near  the  center  of  a  great  conti- 
nent, has  been  due  to  its  excellent  transportation  facilities.  Through- 
out the  past  fifty  years  the  Great  Lakes  have1  given  the  Central  West 
the  opportunity  to  trade  with  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States 
under  peculiarly  favorable  conditions.  The  commerce  on  the  Great 
Lakes  is  growing  with  marvelous  rapidity,  and  at  the  present  time 
these  lakes  afford  the  cheapest  inland  transportation  to  be  found  in  any 
part  of  the  world.  The  Ohio,  the  Mississippi,  and  other  rivers  of  the 
Central  West  have  in  the  past  been  important  auxiliaries  to  the  com- 
mercial development  of  that  section,  and  at  the  present  time  the  Ohio 
River  is  of  much  assistance  to  southern  Ohio  and  the  other  regions 
adjacent  to  the  stream.  With  the  decreasing  costs  of  railway  trans- 
portation, the  importance  of  river  navigation  grows  less;  but  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  and  Wisconsin  will  in  the  future 
derive  no  small  benefit  from  the  opportunites  which  they  will  possess 
of  shipping  their  commodities  by.  river  to  Gulf  ports.  The  opening 
of  the  isthmian  canal  will  unquestionably  emphasize  the  commercial 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  327 

importance  of  the  Gulf  cities,  and  will  .strengthen  the  reasons  for 
improving  the  great  river  systems  of  the  Central  West. 

The  existence  of  the  canal,  the  larger  commerce  at  Gulf  ports,  the 
more  favorable  conditions  for  river  navigation,  and  the  continued 
growth  in  mileage  and  efficiency  of  the  railway  systems  leading  from 
the  Central  West  to  the  Gulf  will  tend  to  strengthen  the  power  of  the 
Gulf  seaports  to  share  with  the  cities  situated  on  the  Atlantic  the 
traffic  from  and  to  the  Middle  West.  While  it  is  not  probable,  for 
reasons  that  are  elaborated  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  that  so  large  a 
share  of  the  traffic  of  the  Central  West  will  be  handled  by  the  Gulf 
routes  as  by  those  connecting  with  the  Atlantic,  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
Central  West  will  have  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  choose  between 
the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  routes,  and  this  power  of  choice  will  insure  to 
them  that  competition  in  transportation  which  always  quickens  indus- 
trial activity.  The  transportation  facilities  of  the  Central  West  will 
be  made  better  by  the  ca*nal,  and  the  increased  traffic  to  which  the  canal 
will  give  rise  will  lead  to  the  extension  and  improvement  of  the  agen- 
cies for  rail  and  inland  water  transportation.  Whatever  affects  the 
transportation  facilities  of  the  Central  West  touches  its  economic  life 
at  the  very  center. 

Chapter  V. — The  canal  and  the  Pacific  coast  States. 

With  the  exception  of  that  part  of  the  United  States  comprised 
within  the  great  Cordilleran  Plateau  or  Rocky  Mountain  section  of  the 
United  States,  the  Pacific  coast  States  have  been  and  still  are  the  por- 
tion of  our  country  most  burdened  by  transportation  costs,  because  the 
most  highly  developed  manufacturing  sections  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  world  are  adjacent  to  the  North  Atlantic  and  its  tributary  waters. 
The  economies  that  have  been  effected  in  the  cost  of  transportation  by 
rail  have  so  reduced  freight  charges  as  to  make  possible  the  move- 
ment of  considerable  quantities  of  valuable  commodities  across  the 
great  mountain  divide,  and  to  a  limited  extent  bulky  freight,  such  as 
cedar  shingles  and  finishing  lumber  toward  the  East,  and  raw  cotton 
and  heav}7  machinery  toward  the  West,  will  now  bear  the  cost  of 
transportation  by  rail.  The  amount  of  rail  freight,  however,  now 
being  carried  between  the  Pacific  and  the  States  east  of  the  Cordille- 
ras, as  is  shown  in  another  part  of  this  report,  is  comparatively  small, 
so  small,  indeed,  that  it  is  well  within  the  facts  to  say  that  the  Pacific 
section  of  our  country  is  able  to  market  its  products  by  rail  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  only  to  a  limited  extent.  The  railroads  have  not 
yet  satisfactory  connected  the  Pacific  coast  States  with  their  largest 
and  most  natural  markets. 

Although  the  Pacific  coast  States  of  our  country  are  developing  an 
oriental  trade  of  very  satisfactory  proportions,  and  there  is  every  rea- 
son to  believe  that  this  commerce  will  grow  in  the  future,  neverthe- 
less the  trans-Pacific  trade  of  our  west  coast  will  probably  be  small 
in  comparison  with  the  commerce  of  that  section  with  the  markets 
adjacent  to  the  North  Atlantic.  The  western  part  of  the  United  States 
is  now,  and  will  be  for  a  long  time  to  come,  devoted  very  largely  to 
the  production  of  food  products,  lumber,  and  the  basic  materials  of 
industry.  The  natural  markets  for  products  of  this  kind  are  in  the 
eastern  part  of  our  country  and  Europe. 


328  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

THE    CANAL   AND    CALIFORNIA. 

It  would  be  impossible,  even  if  it  were  desirable,  to  consider  every 
industry  of  California  and  discuss  the  manner  in  which  it  would  be 
affected  by  the  canal.  This  survey  being  intended  to  be  suggestive 
rather  than  exhaustive,  the  purpose  of  the  discussion  can  be  accom- 
plished better  by  considering'  only  the  grain,  lumber,  and  horticultural 
and  mining  interests  of  the  State.  These  are  the  industries  that  will 
make  the  largest  use  of  the  canal,  and  the  industrial  effects  which  that 
waterway  will  accomplish  will  be  fully  illustrated  by  a  consideration 
of  these  characteristic  economic  activities  of  the  State. 

The  two  cereals  that  California  produces  for  export  are  wheat  and 
barley,  both  of  which  are  now  produced  in  large  quantity.  The 
average  annual  wheat  crop  of  California  for  the  past  fifteen  years  has 
been  about  30,000,000  bushels.  The  annual  barley  crop  of  the  State 
during  recent  years  has  been  about  20,000,000  bushels. 

It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  the  wheat  crop  of  California  has  not 
increased  since  1893;  indeed  the  recent  annual  productions  have  been 
less  than  they  were  in  former  years.  The  reasons  for  this  are  to  be 
found  partly  in  the  low  prices  of  wheat  that  have  prevailed  much  of 
the  time  during  the  past  decade,  and  in  the  fact  that  the  transportation 
charges  from  the  Pacific  coast  to  the  principal  grain  markets  are  rela- 
tively higher  than  from  most  of  the  other  wheat-growing  regions  of 
the  world.  While  the  wheat  production  has  declined,  the  amount  of 
California  wheat  consumed  at  home  and  in  the  neighboring  States  has 
increased  with  the  growth  of  population,  and  the  consequence  has 
been  lighter  foreign  shipments  than  were  formerly  made.  Twenty 
years  ago  wheat  raising  was  the  most  attractive  industry  of  the  State. 
but  since  then  the  crops  of  the  State  have  become  diversified,  the  great 
wheat  farms  are  being  divided  up,  and  single  crop  agriculture  on  an 
extensive  scale  has  to  some  extent  given  way  to  more  intensive  culti- 
vation of  smaller  farms  devoted  to  the  production  of  several  crops. 

The  wheat  crop  of  California  is,  however,  a  large  and  valuable  one 
at  the  present  time,  and  will  probably  continue  to  be.  It  is  quite  pos- 
sible that  better  methods  of  culture,  the  use  of  fertilizers,  and  the 
ability  to  reach  Atlantic  markets  more  cheaply  will  largely  increase 
the  future  wheat  production  of  the  State. 

California  bailey  is  of  excellent  quality  and  is  being  exported  in 
increasing  quantity  to  England,  where  it  is  in  demand  for  brewing 
purposes.  The  barley  of  California  can  meet  the  competition  of  other 
regions  of  production  more  easily  than  the  wheat  can,  and  cheaper 
transportation  charges  would  enable  the  State  to  increase  largely  the 
sales  of  this  cereal  in  foreign  countries  and  the  brewing  centers  in  the 
central  and  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States. 

Corn  and  oats  are  not  grown  to  much  extent  in  California,  barley 
being  used  instead  of  them  for  feeding  stock.  Corn  and  oats  will  not 
be  exported  from  California  after  the  canal  has  been  opened,  but  a 
small  quantity  of  them  may  be  imported  from  the  eastern  half  of  the 
United  States. 

California  has  both  an  import  and  export  trade  in  lumber.  The 
exports  by  sea  are  comparatively  light,  being  only  23,041,058  feet  in 
1899,  and  are  sent  mainly  to  Europe,  Australia.  .Mexico,  and  Central 
America,  less  than  one-third  of  the  shipments  being  to  Europe  and  the 
eastern  United  States.  Although  the  annual  output  of  the  California 
sawmills  is  about  600,000,000  feet,  the  State  is  a  large  buyer  of  bun- 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  329 

ber  for  use  at  homo  and  for  sale  in  the  mountain  States  oast  of  her. 
About  200,000,000  feet  of  lumber— two-thirds  of  Washington's  mari- 
time shipments     arc  scut  annually  from  Puget  Sound  to  California. 

The  Sierras  of  California  arc  well  wooded  with  pines,  spruce,  and 
cedar,  and  the  redwood  forests  extend  along-  the  coast  from  Oregon 
south  half  the  length  of  the  State.  The  redwood  lumber  is  much  in 
demand  in  Atlantic  countries,  and  in  the  future  will  probably  be 
exported  more  largely  than  at  present.  The  costs  of  shipping  lumber 
by  the  sailing  vessels  which  now  cany  the  traffic  have  averaged  about 
65s.  ($15.85)  per  ton  from  the  Pacific  coast  to  Europe  during  the  past 
ten  years.  During  the  past  two  years,  1899-1900,  the  charges  have 
been  even  higher  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  ships.  By  way  of  an 
isthmian  canal  the  rates  for  large  cargoes  would  not  need  to  be  more 
than  half  the  average  charges  of  the  past  to  the  eastern  United  States 
and  to  European  ports. 

In  the  production  of  fruits,  nuts,  and  wine  California  has  reached  a 
position  of  eminence,  and  the  extensive  horticultural  interests  of  this 
and  the  other  Pacific  coast  States  aie  rapidly  increasing  in  value  with 
the  betterment  of  the  facilities  for  quick  transportation  in  refrigerator 
cars  to  the  Eastern  markets.  Formerly  nearly  all  the  excellent  fruit 
of  the  West  was  dried  or  canned  before  shipment,  but  now  a  large 
part  of  it  is  marketed  as  green  fruit.  The  following  figures  will 
indicate  the  increasing  magnitude  of  the  business  of  selling  our  west 
coast  fruit  in  the  central  and  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
in  Europe.  In  1895,  4,568  cars  of  green  deciduous  fruit  were  shipped 
from  California  to  the  Eastern  cities,  and  in  1899,  9,694  carloads  were 
sent.  Efforts  are  being  made  to  ship  the  Western  green  fruits  to 
Europe,  42  carloads  having  been  shipped  from  California  in  1896,  58 
in  1897,  42  in  1898,  and  123  in  1899.  The  citrus-fruit  shipments  aver- 
age 15,000  cars  a  }rear  from  California  to  our  Eastern  markets. 
Western  dried  and  canned  fruits  find  a  ready  and  increasing  market 
in  Europe.  There  were  8,692  carloads  of  dried  fruit  shipped  out  of 
California  in  1899,  about  20  per  cent  of  which  went  to  Europe.  The 
growth  in  the  sales  of  California  canned  fruit  in  Europe  has  been 
especially  rapid.  In  1894  there  were  85,817  cases  sent  to  England, 
whereas  in  1899  over  half  a  million  cases  were  shipped. 

The  production  of  nuts,  raisins,  and  olives  has  reached  large  pro- 
portions. California  raised  14,000,000  pounds  of  almonds  in  1899— 
one-third  the  total  large  consumption  in  the  United  States.  The  Cali- 
fornia raisin  crop  is  from  70,000,000  to  100,000,000  pounds  a  year,  the 
shipments  out  of  the  State  being  3,600  carloads  in  1899.  California 
olive  oil  is  now  being  sold  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States. 

The  foregoing  figures  refer  particularly  to  California,  but  the  devel- 
opment they  indicate  is  typical  of  all  the  Pacific  States.  California 
preceded  Oregon  and  Washington  in  the  development  of  her  horticul- 
tural industries,  but  these  two  States  have  latterly,  with  the  increase  in 
their  population  and  the  formation  of  better  railway  connections  with 
the  East,  been  making  the  valley  of  the  Columbia  River  and  its 
tributaries  a  section  of  large  production  and  exportation  of  fruit. 
Although  fruit  is  a  commodity  wTith  a  relatively  high  value  for  its  bulk, 
it  is  also  an  article  the  consumption  of  which  is  most  readily  stimu- 
lated by  a  reduction  in  price.  The  production  of  fruits  and  other 
horticultural  products  is  capable  of  being  largely  increased  in  Cali- 
fornia and  the  other  Pacific  coast  States.  If  cheaper  transportation 
can  be  secured  for  horticultural  products  from    the  Pacific  coast  to 


380  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  Eastern  United  States  and  Europe,  the  production  and  consump- 
tion of  fruits  will  expand.  The  figures  of  present  shipments  indicate 
that  fair  progress  is  being  made  in  reaching  our  Eastern  markets,  but 
what  has  thus  far  been  accomplished  is  reported  to  be  but  a  good 
beginning. 

The  shipment  of  fruit  long  distances  will  always  be  made  to  a  large 
extent  by  rail.  There  is,  however,  no  doubt  about  the  ability  of  the 
isthmian  canal  route  to  reduce  the  costs  of  shipping  canned  and  dried 
fruits  from  the  Pacific  coast  to  our  Eastern  States  and  Europe.  It  is 
perhaps  uncertain  whether  green  fruits  will  be  largely  shipped  by 
the  canal  route  instead  of  by  rail.  Most  varieties  of  green  fruit, 
however,  can  be  successfully  shipped  by  water,  provided  proper 
arrangements  for  refrigeration  are  made,  and  provided  the  market 
permits  of  regular  cargo  or  large  berth  shipments.  Whether  the 
water  route  will  be  used  for  the  shipment  of  green  fruits  or  not  will 
depend  upon  the  size  of  the  market  and  the  arrangements  for  prompt 
distribution  among  retail  buyers.  If  the  market  is  large  enough  and 
well  organized,  shipments  will  probably  be  made  in  vessels  especially 
equipped  for  the  service. 

The  production  and  shipment  of  California  wine  is  such  an  impor- 
tant industry  that  it  calls  for  special  discussion  in  considering  the 
industrial  effects  which  the  isthmian  canal  will  produce.  In  1897  no 
less  than  34,000,000  gallons  of  wine  wrere  manufactured  in  California, 
the  production  having  doubled  in  a  decade.  Since  1897  the  amount 
made  has  fallen  off,  because  of  the  ravages  of  the  phylloxera,  but  the 
decline  will  probably  be  only  temporary.  Varieties  of  resistant  stocks 
are  being  planted  that  are  not  subject  to  the  attack  of  the  insect,  and 
there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  the  amount  of  wine  produced  in 
the  future  will  more  than  equal  the  figures  of  the  past. 

Wine  is  mainly  shipped  in  casks,  and  is  a  kind  of  freight  adapted 
equally  well  to  shipment  by  rail  or  by  vessel,  and  at  the  present  time 
shippers  are  making  use  of  both  means  of  transportation.  In  1899  Cali- 
fornia shipped  by  sea  to  the  Eastern  States,  most  of  it  being  consigned 
to  the  port  of  New  York,  13,373  tons  of  wine.  To  Europe  570  tons 
were  sent  direct.  Doubtless  a  part  of  that  consignment  to  New  York 
was  exported  to  Europe.  Shipments  to  Europe  and  the  eastern  part 
of  the  United  States  are  partly  direct  by  way  of  the  Panama  Railroad 
and  in  part  around  South  America.  Some  of  the  5S5  tons  sent  to 
Mexico  crossed  the  Isthmus.  During  this  same  year  the  shipments 
of  wine  by  rail  from  the  State  were  (>1,52<>  tons,  the  amounts  scut  by 
rail  being  between  four  and  five  times  the  total  cargoes  sent  by  water 
to  Atlantic  ports.  In  addition  to  the  wine,  there  were  shipped  by 
rail  3,599  tons  of  brandy  and  1,175  tons  of  "wine  and  brandy  not 
segregated."  The  brandy  shipments  by  water  amounted  to  346  tons. 
Under  the  present  conditions  of  expensive  transportation  a  fair  begin- 
ning lias  been  made  in  the  exportation  of  California  wine  to. Atlantic 
countries,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  wine  production  of  the  State  can 
be  largely  increased  with  the  more  favorable  conditions  of  competition 
that  would  result  from  lowering  the  expenses  of  reaching  markets. 

Among  the  other  industries  of  California  are  those  of  fishing,  min- 
ing, and  grazing.  These  industries  being  common  to  all  the  Pacific 
coast  States,  they  will  be  considered  later  in  connection  with  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  relation  of  the  canal  to  the  industries  of  Oregon  and 
Washington. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  331 

THE    CANAL   AND    THE    LUMBER   AND   GRAIN    INDUSTRIES  OF  OREGON  AND 

WASHINGTON. 

The  manufacture  of  Lumber,  the  raising  of  grain,  and  the  catching 

and  packing  of  fish  are  industries  of  prime  importance  in  both  Oregon 
and  Washington.  The  growth  of  fruit,  particularly  in  Oregon,  and 
the  mining  of  coal  in  Washington  are  industries  of  secondary  but 
increasing  rank.  The  commerce  of  this  section  of  the  United  States 
centers  at  Portland  and  in  the  cities  on  Puget  Sound. 

The  supply  of  timber  in  Oregon  and  Washington  is  so  abundant 
and  of  such  excellent  quality7  that  the  amount  of  lumber  marketed  is 
fixed  entirely  by  the  costs  of  transportation  to  the  distant  markets  of 
the  Orient,  and  particularly  of  the  north  Atlantic.  It  is  estimated  by 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  that  the  forests  of  Washington 
now  contain  about  115,000,000,000  feet  of  merchantable  lumber.  In 
the  four  northwestern  counties  of  Oregon  there  are  said  to  be  1,800,000 
acres  of  standing  timber,  containing  between  fifty  and  sixty  billion  feet 
of  lumber.  These  estimates  may  not  be  accurate,  but  they  serve  to 
show  the  magnitude  of  the  forest  resources  from  which  Washington 
and  Oregon  will  draw  traffic  for  an  isthmian  canal. 

Exports  of  lumber  from  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  and 
British  Columbia  are  now  made  to  the  countries  of  the  Pacific,  and  a 
limited  amount  takes  the  long  vo3Tage  around  the  Horn.  In  1899  our 
three  Pacific  coast  States  shipped  13,354,000  feet  to  Europe,  5,149,000 
feet  to  Argentina,  and  15,9-14,000  feet  to  South  Africa. 

Although  western  Europe  and  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States 
would  be  the  largest  markets  for  Pacific  coast  lumber  if  the  costs  of 
transportation  were  not  so  heavy,  the  present  difficult}7  of  shipping 
lumber  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  is  such  that  California  usually 
sends  to  Europe,  where  the  demand  for  redwood  would  be  large  if  the 
price  were  lower,  but  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  her  foreign  exports  of 
lumber.  There  were  422,211,000  feet  of  lumber  shipped  by  sea  from 
Washington  in  1899.  California  usually  takes  60  per  cent  of  the  whole 
amount  and  Hawaii  one-sixth.  After  these  countries  comes  Aus- 
tralia, then  South  Africa,  Asia,  Africa,  Europe,  and  the  east  coast  of 
the  United  States.  The  shipments  to  Europe  and  our  east  coast  are 
chiefly  spars  for  ships,  while  South  Africa  buys  bridge  material  and 
other  choice  lumber.  The  opening  of  an  isthmian  canal  would  reduce 
by  about  50  per  cent  the  freight  costs  of  marketing  our  west-coast  lum- 
ber in  Atlantic  countries,  and  this  reduction  in  freight  expenses  would 
add  a  corresponding  amount  to  the  value  of  all  that  part  of  the  Pacific 
coast  lumber  for  which  there  is  a  demand  in  these  countries. 

All  three  of  our  Pacific  coast  States  are  heavy  exporters  of  wheat. 
The  total  amount  produced  in  the  three  States  in  1899  was  77,404,000 
bushels,  about  one-seventh  of  the  total  production  of  the  United  States 
for  that  year.  The  exports  to  Europe  were  17,396,712  bushels  of 
wheat  and  378,763  barrels  of  flour.  Counting  5i  bushels  of  wheat  for 
1  barrel  of  flour,  the  total  exports  equaled  19,479,908  bushels  of  wheat.- 
To  South  Africa  1,508,100  bushels  were  sent,  making  the  total  shipments 
to  the  Atlantic  nearly  21,000,000  bushels,  or  about  562,000  gross  tons. 
In  addition  to  this,  638,094  bushels,  or  about  17,100  gross  tons,  of  bar- 
ley were  shipped  from  California  and  Oregon  to  Europe. 

The  wheat  exports  from  our  west  coast  during  the  fiscal  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1899,  were  unusually  light  on  account  of  the  shortage  in 


332  KEP0RT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  crop.  During  the  previous  fiscal  year  the  total  exports  of  wheat  from 
the  three  Pacific  States  to  Europe,  including  Hour  expressed  in  bushels 
of  wheat,  were  34,869,921  bushels.  The  exports  of  wheat  and  Hour  to 
South  Africa  and  Brazil  equaled  5,344,14:5  bushels.  Thus  in  1898  the 
total  exports  of  wheat  from  our  Pacific  coast  to  the  Atlantic  were 
10,211,066  bushels,  or  1,077,207  gross  tons.     The   barley  exports  of 

1898  were  5,628,717  bushels  from  San  Francisco  and  250,792  bushels 
from  San  Diego,  a  total  of  5,879,539  bushels,  or  125,918  gross  tons. 
The  total  gross  tonnage  of  these  wheat  and  barley  shipments  to  the 
Atlantic  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1898,  were  1,203,125  gross 
tons,  more  than  double  the  tonnage  of  the  succeeding  year.  The 
580,000  gross  tons  exported  in  1899  could  have  been  carried  in  65 
steamers  of  -4,000  tons  net  register.  To  have  carried  the  1,203,125 
gross  cargo  tons  of  grain  shipped  around  the  Horn  in  1898  would  have 
required  135  steamers  of  4,000  tons  net,  and  that  vessel  tonnage, 
540,000  tons  ne<  register,  more  nearly  represents  the  average  annual 
requirements  of  the  Pacific  coast  grain  shippers  than  does  the  tonnage 
of  1899. 

At  the  present  time  this  grain  goes  around  the  Horn  in  sailing  ves- 
sels averaging  about  1,800  tons  register.  After  the  isthmian  canal 
has  been  opened  the  ship  used  will  doubtless  be  a  steamer  of  not  less 
than  double,  and  probably  three  or  four  times,  the  size  of  the  sailing 
vessels  now  employed.  The  freight  rates  now  vary  from  $5.50  to  over 
§10  per  long  ton — from  15  to  26  cents  a  bushel — depending  upon  the 
available  supply  of  ships.  A  steamer  of  large  dimensions  could  doubt- 
less carry  the  grain  by  way  of  a  canal  from  our  west  coast  to  Europe 
for  10  cents  a  bushel — $3.73  a  gross  cargo  ton — and  pay  from  that 
freight  receipt  $1  per  register  ton — less  than  50  cents  per  cargo  ton — 
for  canal  tolls. 

THE    WEST-COAST    FISHERIES. 

The  fisheries  of  the  Pacific  coast  constitute  an  important  industry 
that  gives  rise  to  the  exportation  of  a  large  volume  of  valuable  freight. 
The  salmon  pack  of  Alaska,  British  Columbia,  and  our  west  coast  in 

1899  amounted  to  3,138,040  cases,  each  containing  48  1-pound  cans. 
Three-fifths  of  this  was  packed  in  Alaska  and  British  Columbia  and 
two-fifths  in  Washington  and  Oregon.  A  package  of  4S  pounds  of 
salmon  weighs  70  pounds,  and  3,138,040  cases  would  occupy  80,000 
measurement  tonsof40  cubic  feet  each.  It  would  require  about  twenty 
fully  loaded  vessels  of  2,000  net  register  tons  each  to  carry  the  freight. 

The  shipments  of  salmon  to  the  Eastern  part  of  the  United  States 
and  to  Europe  are  heavy,  both  from  British  Columbia  and  from  San 
Francisco.  From  San  Francisco  the  shipments  by  sea  in  L899  to  our 
Eastern  States  were  261,683  cases,  valued  at  $1,157,608.  The  total  ocean 
shipments  from  our  Pacific  ports  (mainly  from  San  Francisco)  to  foreign 
countries  east  of  the  Horn  in  1899  were  21,014,989  pounds,  or  437, sol 
cases,  which  would  amount  to  11,608  measurement  ton;-  of  40  cubic  feet. 
At  the  present  time  these  salmon  exports  by  sea  are  shipped  in  English 
sailing  vessels  around  the  Horn,  and  the  business  is  handled  mostly  by 
English  houses. 

In  addition  to  the  ocean  shipments  of  salmon,  there  are  fresh  salmon, 
halibut,  and  other  kinds  of  fish  shipped  east  by  rail.  The  American 
consul  at  Vancouver  reports  that  one  company  '"takes  in  the  open  sea 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  333 

to  the  north  of  Vancouver  from  a  million  to  a  million  and  a  half  pounds 
of  halibut  each  year.  The  halibut  steamers  bring  the  fish  to  Vancouver, 
where  they  arc  packed  in  ice  and  shipped  to  Boston." 

THE    HOPS,    WOOL.    AND     MINERAL    INDUSTRIES   OF    THE    PACIFIC   COAST. 

The  three  States  under  consideration  produce  three-fourths  of  all  the 
hops  grown  in  the  United  States,  and  a  large  share  of  the  Western  hops 
are  shipped  to  our  own  and  European  consumers.  The  production  of 
hops  in  the  Western  States  can  be  much  increased  whenever  the  mar- 
ket conditions  warrant  a  larger  output.  At  the  present  time  but  a 
small  share  of  the  hops  is  shipped  east  to  our  own  or  foreign  countries 
by  water,  and  our  west  coast  is  compelled  to  compete  with  European 
growers  and  under  the  limitations  imposed  by  expensive  transportation. 

The  Pacific  coast  States  and  the  neighboring  commonwealths  of  the 
.Cordilleran  Plateau  supply  the  woolen  mills  of  the  Eastern  States  with 
a  large  part  of  the  filler  they  require.  Only  a  part  of  the  wool  would 
be  shipped  through  the  canal,  but  the  freight  on  the  large  part  of  that 
shipped  by  rail  from  points  west  of  the  one  hundred  and  fifth  meridian 
would  be  affected  by  the  isthmian  waterway. 

The  principal  mining  industry  of  the  Pacific  States  at  the  present 
time  is  that  of  gold.  Some  copper  is  mined  and  a  variety  of  other 
minerals  in  small  quantities.  The  effect  of  a  canal  upon  them  could 
hardly  be  important.  Mining  machinery  would  be  obtained  somewhat 
cheaper,  and  the  canal,  by  promoting  immigration  and  more  rapid  set- 
tlement in  the  West,  might  provide  the  mining  companies  with  a  large 
and  a  cheaper  supply  of  labor. 

EFFECT   OF   THE    CANAL   UPON    THE    TRADE    OF   WEST-COAST   PORTS. 

The  general  effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  people  of  the  Pacific  coast 
will  be  that  of  enabling  them  to  buy  cheaper  and  sell  dearer  and  to 
cany  on  a  larger  trade  with  the  people  of  their  own  and  foreign  coun- 
tries. The  manner  in  which  the  seaports  of  the  west  coast  will  share 
in  this  larger  trade  constitutes  an  inquiry  of  local  and  general  interest. 
San  Francisco  is  the  centrally  located  port  and  has  a  harbor  of  great 
natural  excellence.  Formerly  that  city  controlled  nearly  all  our  Pacific 
coast  trade,  and  in  the  fiscal  year  1899-1900  about  67  per  cent  of  the 
foreign  commerce  of  the  Pacific  ports  was  handled  through  San 
Francisco.  The  trade  of  San  Francisco,  however,  has  averaged  but 
little  more  during  the  past  five  years  than  it  averaged  during  the  pre- 
ceding quinquennial  period.  The  value  of  the  imports  of  the  five 
years  ending  in  June,  1900,  show  a  gain  of  21  per  cent  over  the  total 
for  the  preceding  five  years,  while  the  exports  show  a  decline  of  11 
per  cent.  The  other  important  ports  of  the  Pacific  coast,  with  one 
exception,  have  had  an  increase  in  both  imports  and  exports,  and  in 
the  case  of  the  Puget  Sound  section  the  growth  of  foreign  trade  has 
been  especially  rapid. 

The  resources  of  the  country  about  Puget  Sound  have  been  much 
developed  during  the  past  decade,  and  the  transcontinental  railways 
reaching  the  Sound  have  both  increased  the  facilities  for  land  trans- 
portation and  have  placed  in  service  trans  Pacific  steamship  lines  by 
means  of  which  they  are  able  to  make  through  shipments  between 
interior  points  in  the  United  States  and  the  Orient.     There  is  one  line 


33-4  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

from  San  Francisco  to  the  Orient  operated  in  connection  with  a  rail- 
way company — the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company;  but  from  Paget 
Sound  there  are  three  steamship  lines  operated  by  the  transcontinental 
railway  companies.  The  consequence  has  been  an  increase  in  the  for- 
eign trade  of  the  United  States  customs  district  of  Puget  Sound  from 
$6,206,456  in  1890-91  to  $25,051,670  in  1899-1900.  During  the  past 
five  years  the  total  exports  from  the  Puget  Sound  customs  district 
were  116  per  cent  greater  than  the  exports  for  the  preceding  period  of 
equal  length.     The  total  imports  show  a  gain  of  about  500  per  cent. 

J  n  the  case  of  Portland,  or  the  customs  district  of  Willamette,  the 
growth  has  been  less  rapid,  a  comparison  of  the  totals  of  the  two  quin- 
quennial periods  showing  a  gain  of  60  per  cent  in  exports  and  38.6  per 
cent  in  imports.  In  the  foreign  trade  of  San  Diego  the  exports  of  the 
last  five  years  are  nearly  treble  those  of  the  preceding,  but  the  imports 
have  fallen  off  17  per  cent. 

The  foregoing  figures  indicate  that  with  the  exception  of  Puget 
Sound,  where  there  has  been  very  rapid  increase,  and  Portland,  where 
the  growth  has  been  moderately  large,  the  maritime  foreign  trade  of 
our  west  coast  has  not  developed  greatby  during  the  past  decade.  The 
opening  of  the  isthmian  canal  may  be  expected  to  increase  the  ocean 
commerce  of  the  Pacific-coast  section  as  a  whole  and  enable  the  south- 
ern seaports  to  make  a  better  showing,  as  compared  with  the  northern, 
than  they  have  been  making  in  the  past  decade. 

San  Diego,  Los  Angeles,  and  also  San  Francisco  will  not  only  have 
a  better  route  to  the  Atlantic  than  they  now  possess,  but  will  have  the 
advantage  of  being  convenient  ports  of  call  for  vessels  engaged  in  the 
coasting  trade  between  our  two  seaboards  and,  to  some  extent,  for  the 
vessels  plying  between  Atlantic  and  Oriental  ports  through  the  canal. 
The  short-distance  or  great-circle  route  between  the  American  isthmus 
and  Japan  and  China  runs  close  to  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  those  vessels  that  desire  to  call  at  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  this  route  will  be  the  one  naturally  taken  by  vessels  to  and 
from  the  Orient.  This  great-circle  route  will  also  have  the  advan- 
tage of  enabling  steamers  to  coal  on  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States, 
or  at  Vancouver,  where  satisfactory  steaming  coal  can  lie  secured  com- 
paratively cheaply.  Vessels  bound  for  the  East  will  be  obliged  to  run 
against  opposing  winds  and  currents,  but  this  disadvantage  w  ill  prob- 
ably be  more  than  offset  by  the  shortness  of  the  route  and  by  the 
coaling  facilities. 

How  will  the  canal  affect  the  maritime  commerce  of  ports  as  far 
north  as  Portland  and  Puget  Sound?  If  the  industrial  analysis  made 
in  the  preceding  pages  is  accurate  there  will  be  a  large  increase  in  the 
exportation  of  agricultural  and  forest  products.  These  northern  ports 
will  also  be  the  natural  gateways  for  a  Large  share  of  the  export  trade 
of  Idaho,  Montana,  and  Wyoming,  and  for  a  portion  of  the  commerce 
of  British  ( Columbia.  It  would  seem  certain  that  the  canal  will  enlarge 
the  export  business  of  the  northern  Pacific  ports. 

The  canal  doubtless  will  secure  some  import  business  that  would 
otherwise  be  turned  over  to  the  transcontinental  railways  at  Puget 
Sound  points  and  at  other  more  southerly  Pacific  ports,  but  a  study  of 
the  through  business  now  being  done  by  the  transcontinental  rail- 
roads shows  it  to  be  of  small  amount,  80  small  that  the  canal  would 
not  have  to  create  a  large  tonnage  of  new  traffic  for  the   railways  to 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  835 

cover  what  it  could  divert  from  the  roads.     A  discussion  of  the  trans- 
continental railway  traffic  may  be  found  in  Chapter  X  of  this  report. 

There  are  two  forces  that  will  favor  Puget  Sound  as  a  gateway  for 
imports  from  Japan  and  the  Continent  of  Asia.  Vessels  on  their  east- 
ward voyage  across  the  northern  Pacific  along  the  great-circle  route 
for  the  southern  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States,  or  for  the  Ameri-  . 
can  isthmus,  will  add  only  about  500  to  600  nautical  miles  to  their 
voyage  by  calling  at  Puget  Sound.  Under  those  conditions  it  would 
seem  that  Puget  Sound  points  would  naturally  become  important 
centers  for  the  distribution  of  Japanese  and  Asiatic  goods.  But  in 
addition  to  being  near  to  the  ocean  highwa}7,  along  which  a  large 
quantity  of  imports  will  travel,  the  Puget  Sound  ports  will  be  able  to 
supply  steamers  with  coal.  The  coal  obtainable  in  these  ports  will  be 
required  by  the  vessels  engaged  in  the  commerce  of  the  north  Pacific, 
and  this  fuel  supply  will  give  to  Washington  and  British  Columbia  the 
possession  of  a  magnet  that  will  attract  commerce  with  great  force. 
That  region  is  now  deriving  from  its  coal  much  assistance  in  the 
development  of  its  commerce;  the  opening  of  a  canal  will  inaugurate 
commercial  conditions  on  the  Pacific  that  will  enhance  rather  than 
lessen  the  efficiency  of  Puget  Sound  coal  as  an  agency  for  the  promo- 
tion of  commerce. 

In  this  discussion  of  the  relation  of  an  isthmian  canal  to  the  indus- 
tries and  commerce  of  the  Pacific  coast  States  only  the  larger  indus- 
tries of  the  section  have  been  considered.  The  business  activities  here 
dealt  with  are  concerned  mainly  with  the  production  of  food  and  the 
raw  materials  of  manufacture.  The  fisheries  and  horticultural  business 
of  our  Western  States  require  a  considerable  amount  of  auxiliary 
manufacturing  for  local  purposes;  but  with  the  exception  of  lumber 
and  flour  and  a  small  amount  of  leather  the  Pacific  coast  manufactures 
but  little  for  export.  This  will  be  characteristic  of  the  section  for 
some  time  to  come,  although  the  use  of  the  Puget  Sound  coal,  and  the 
petroleum  oil  of  southern  California,  and  the  application,  by  means  of 
electricity,  of  the  abundant  water  power  of  California  to  industrial 
purposes  will  make  possible  a  greater  diversification  of  industry  than 
has  yet  been  accomplished. 

The  most  general  statement  that  can  be  made  of  the  effect  which  an 
isthmian  canal  will  have  on  the  Pacific  coast  is  that  the  waterway  will 
enable  that  section  to  meet  more  easily  and  successfully  the  growing 
competition  of  those  countries  whose  similar  productions  make  them 
commercial  rivals  of  our  Western  States.  Argentina  is  a  large  and 
growing  exporter  of  grain,  wool,  and  hides;  but  it  possesses  all  the 
requisites  of  successful  horticulture,  and  just  as  our  Western  States 
have  done,  so  will  Argentina  become  a  large  producer  of  fruits  and 
wine,  both  for  domestic  and  foreign  markets.  Much  the  same 
development  may  safely  be  predicated  of  South  Africa  and  Chile. 
Without  an  isthmian  canal  our  West  coast  will  have  increasing  diffi- 
culty in  meeting  the  competition  of  these  rival  sections. 

Chapter  VI. — The  coal  supply  for  the  commerce  and  countries  of  the 
Pacific — The  canal  and  the  coal  trade  of  the  United  States. 

Abundant  and  cheap  coal  and  iron  are  resources  fundamental  to 
highly  diversified  industries  and  an  extensive  domestic  and  foreign 
commerce,  and  their  importance  increases  rather  than  diminishes  with 


336  KEPOET    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  development  of  the  economic  organization  of  society.  Whatever 
affects  these  resources  and  the  activities  directly  connected  with  them 
strengthens  or  weakens  the  foundation  upon  which  the  industrial  and 
commercial  superstructure  of  society  is  based.  Coal  has  become  the 
almost  universal  fuel  force  of  manufacturing  and  commerce  ;  and 
except  in  that  limited  field  where  electricity  generated  by  waterpower 
can  be  utilized  it  is  the  motive  power  of  business  activity.  It  more  than 
any  other  factor  determines  where  most  industries  shall  be  located, 
and  the  price  of  coal  is  at  the  present  time  not  only  determining  which 
sections  within  each  country  shall  succeed  most  largely  but  it  is  also 
deciding  which  of  the  industrially  resourceful  and  well-equipped 
nations  of  the  world  is  to  achieve  the  highest  measure  of  economic 
success. 

If  the  abundant  supply  of  coal  in  the  eastern  half  of  our  country  is 
available  for  export  at  a  moderate  cost,  it  will  tend  to  increase  the  use 
of  the  isthmian  canal  by  the  merchant  marine  of  our  own  and  foreign 
countries,  to  facilitate  the  development  of  the  commerce  of  the  Pacific,  and 
to  enhance  the  industrial  changes  that  may  be  wrought  by  the  waterway 
on  the  west  coast  of  South  America  and  North  America  as  far  north  as 
southern  California.  With  the  exception  of  the  coal  beds  of  the  sec- 
tion of  country  adjacent  to  Puget  Sound  in  Washington  and  British 
Columbia,  there  are  as  yet  no  large  and  valuable  coal  supplies  on  the 
entire  west  coast  of  the  Americas  available  for  the  vessels  engaged  in 
the  commerce  of  the  Pacific  or  for  the  fuel  which  future  industrial 
development  will  require.  There  are  coal  deposits  in  northern  Mexico, 
northern  Peru,  and  southern  Chile,  and  there  are  petroleum  fields  in 
Peru.  These  several  sources  of  fuel  may  possibly  become  valuable 
for  the  commerce  and  industry  of  the  Pacific  coast  generally,  but 
what  has  thus  far  been  accomplished  in  connection  with  these  fields 
would  hardly  warrant  one  in  expecting  them  to  become  of  much  more 
than  local  importance.  Probably  during  the  early  years  of  the  use  of 
the  canal,  and  possibly  for  many  years,  the  west  coast  of  America  from 
California  south,  and  the  coaling  stations  of  the  Pacific  generally,  will 
draw  their  supply  from  other  than  Mexican  and  South  American 
sources. 

The  routes  followed  by  steamers  is  determined,  when  a  choice  is 
possible,  almost  as  much  by  coal  costs  as  by  distances.  The  larger 
shareof  the  world's  ocean  commerce  originates  or  ends  in  the  countries 
about  the  North  Atlantic,  and  a  large  share  of  the  North  Atlantic  trade 
with  tin1  nations  of  the  Pacific  will  have  the  choice1  of  the  Suez  and 
American  canal  routes.  For  a  part  of  this  Atlantic-Pacific  trade  the 
Suez  route  will  be  shorter,  and  for  another  portion  the  American  route 
will  have  an  advantage  in  distance.  The  route  chosen  will,  to  some 
extent,  depend  upon  the  relative  cost  of  coal  at  the  stations  along  the 
respective  routes.  This  is  equivalent  to  saying  that,  in  the  competition 
of  the  two  canals  for  the  traffic  free  to  choose  between  the  two  water- 
ways, the  route  will  he  more  successful  that  can  furnish  vessels  with 
the  cheaper  coal,  unless  a  disparity  in  toll  charges  and  the  chances  foi 
securing  and  delivering  cargo  at  intermediate  ports  should  be  sufficient 
to  offset  the  advantage  of  cheaper  fuel. 

An  abundant  supply  of  good  coal,  obtainable  at  moderate  prices  in 
the  coaling  stations  of  the  Pacific,  in  addition  to  the  commercial  and 
industrial  benefits  conferred,  will  be  of  advantage  to  our  Nav3T,  because 
of  the  necessity  of  our  maintaining  a  number  of  naval  vessels  on  that 


RETORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  337 

ocean.  The  efficiency  of  a  naval  squadron  i.s  even  more  dependent 
than  that  of  a  merchant  fleet  upon  an  adequate  and  sure  supply  of 
good  coal,  and  whatever  will  increase  and  cheapen  the  coal  supply  of 
the  Pacific  will  enable  the  United  States  to  protect  its  commercial  and 
colonial  interests  with  fewer  risks  and  less  expenditure. 

SOURCES   FROM   WHICH   THE   COAL    CONSUMED   ON   THE    PACIFIC  IS   NOW 

OBTAINED. 

The  Pacific  States  of  the  United  States  are  not  only  unable  to  export 
much  coal,  but  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  State  of  Washington, 
obliged  to  import  large  quantities.  The  fuel  required  by  the  steamers 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  for  industrial  purposes  by  the  countries  in 
and  adjacent  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  practically  all  supplied  by  other 
countries  than  our  own.  In  1899  we  sent  a  small  amount  of  coal  for 
the  first  time,  34,000  tons,  to  the  British  East  Indies,  and  less  than 
2,000  tons  to  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  This,  however,  was  due  to 
unusual  conditions,  and  does  not  indicate  the  probable  beginning  of_ 
coal  exports  to  the  East  Indies.  For  several  years  we  have  sent  a 
little  coal  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  probably  as  ballast,  and  in  1898  our 
shipments  to  the  Hawaiian  and  Philippine  Islands  reached  16,580  tons, 
and  in  1899,  80,209  tons.  Nearly  all  of  this  tonnage,  however,  can 
probably  be  accounted  for  by  the  military  operations  which  we  carried 
on  in  the  East  after  the  spring  of  1898. 

Washington,  our  only  Pacific  State  having  a  surplus  of  coal,  pro- 
duced 2,000,000  tons  in  1899,  the  output  having  doubled  since  1893. 
The  larger  part  of  this  coal  is  consumed  locally,  some  of  it  used  by 
the  steamers  calling  at  Puget  Sound  ports,  and  California  imports 
about  400,000  tons  annually. 

The  State  of  Oregon  has  coal  mines  of  minor  importance,  but  which 
may  possibly  be  so  developed  as  to  enable  that  State  to  supply  a  part 
of  is  own  fuel  needs.  In  1898  the  output  of  the  Oregon  mines  was 
but  52,000  tons,  and  the  statistics  for  the  last  ten  years  do  not  reveal 
any  tendency  toward  the  increased  output.  However,  there  are  said 
to  be  veins  in  Oregon  which  are  expected  to  yield  considerable  quan- 
tities of  low-grade  bituminous  coal  in  the  future. 

British  Columbia  has  well-developed  coal  mines  on  Vancouver 
Island,  and  veins  that  are  probably  extensive  are  being  opened  up  on 
the  mainland.  The  total  coal  production  of  Canada  in  1898  was 
4,172,655  tons;  ten  years  earlier  it  was  2,658,000  tons.  The  greater 
part  of  the  present  output  is  obtained  in  British  Columbia,  although 
Nova  Scotia,  Quebec,  and  Ontario  all  produce  limited  quantities. 

Regarding  the  coal  mines  of  Vancouver,  the  United  States  consul  at 
Victoria  reports  that  the  total  output  of  the  island  in  1898  was 
1,117,915  tons,  and  for  1899,  1,666,251.  The  shipments  to  foreign 
countries  in  1898  were  765,961  tons,  and  in  1899,  769,091  tons.  San 
Francisco  and  the  southern  ports  of  California,  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
and  the  steamships  engaged  in  the  trade  between  America  and  China 
and  Australia  are  consumers  of  this  British  Columbia  fuel.  The 
imports  of  British  Columbian  coal  into  California  in  1899  amounted  to 
652,926  tons,  which  figures  represent  an  increase  of  50  i  er  cent  during 
the  last  ten  years,  although  the  amount  of  British  Columbian  coal 
imported  into  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  is  considerably 
less  than  it  would  be  had  not  the  coal  from  the  State  of  Washington 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 22 


338  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

become  available  for  the  California  trade.  The  constantly  increasing 
use  of  petroleum  and  electricity  in  California  has  probably  made  the 
demand  for  coal  in  that  State  less  than  it  would  otherwise  have  been. 

At  the  present  time  neither  the  State  of  Washing-ton  nor  British 
Columbia  is  furnishing  any  considerable  amount  of  coal  to  the  coaling 
stations  of  the  Pacific  nor  sending  very  much  coal  to  Pacific  countries 
generally.  It  would  seem,  nevertheless,  that  the  supply  of  coal  in  this 
section  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  was  large  enough  to  make 
possible  the  development  of  an  important  coal  export  business. 
Although  a  large  part  of  the  coal  thus  far  discovered  and  worked  is 
either  lignite  or  low-grade  bituminous,  and  but  little,  if  any,  bitumi- 
nous coal  equal  to  the  best  bituminous  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States  has  yet  been  found,  the  best  coal  of  Vancouver  and  the  State  of 
Washington  is  satisfactory  for  steaming  purposes  and  is  now  employed 
for  both  industrial  and  commercial  uses.  There  is  no  genuine  anthra- 
cite coal  mined  in  this  district. 

For  many  years  Japan  has  been  developing  her  coal  mines,  with  the 
result  that  the  total  production  rose  from  1,102,000  tons  in  1886  to 
5,080,000  tons  in  1896.  During  this  decade  the  domestic  consumption 
rose  from  726,000 tons  to  2,936,000  tons.  Thus,  while  the  consumption 
grew  rapidly,  it  had  not  increased  so  fast  as  the  total  production,  and 
Japan  was  able  to  increase  her  exports  during  the  decade  from  776,000 
tons  to  2,144,000  tons.  Since  1896  the  coal  exports  from  Japan  have 
increased  largely.  The  tonnage  figures  for  the  recent  production  and 
exportation  are  not  available;  but  the  value  of  the  coal  exported  rose 
from  11,545,801  yen  (15,772,900)  in  1897  to  15,168,799  yen  ($7,584,400) 
in  1898.  Japan  supplies  a  large  quantity  of  coal  to  steamers  engaged 
in  the  oriental  trade,  and  also  sends  coal  to  Pacific  ports. 

Australia  is  a  country  producing  a  moderate  but  increasing  amount 
of  coal  of  good  quality,  the  total  production  growing  from  4,179,000 
tons  in  1888  to  6,313,000  tons  in  1898.  The  only  colony  of  Australia 
that  has  a  surplus  for  export  is  New  South  Wales,  whose  foreign  ship- 
ments in  1898  amounted  to  2,791,796  tons.  The  shipments  out  of  New 
South  Wales  are  larger  than  the  total  exportation  of  Australia,  which 
fact  indicates  that  some  of  the  New  South  Wales  exports  were  toother 
Australian  colonies.  The  total  coal  imports  of  the  Australian  colonies 
were  1,000,000  tons,  and  two-fifths  of  this  amount  was  drawn  from 
sources  outside  of  Australia.  Australian  coal  is  at  the  present  time 
distributed  quite  generally  throughout  the  Pacific,  the  shipments  being 
facilitated  by  the  cheap  transportation  available.  A  large  number  of 
vessels  leave  Australia  for  America  with  coal  as  ballast,  and  this  has 
enabled  Australia  to  market  her  coal  readily  in  Hawaii  and  in  both 
North  and  South  America.  For  the  last  decade  California  has  annu- 
ally procured  from  200,000  to  400,000  tons  of  Australian  coal,  and 
Australia  and  Japan  are  at  the  present  time  supplying  the  larger  part 
of  the  coal  to  be  found  in  the  tropical  and  southern  sections  of  the 
Pacific. 

Another  important  source  of  the  coal  used  in  the  Pacific  is  Great 
Britain.  The  vessels  which  carry  the  grain,  lumber,  and  nitrates  of 
the  west  coast  of  America  are  frequently  obliged  to  make  the  out- 
bound voyage  from  Europe  in  ballast.  This  enables  Wales  to  com- 
pete even  with  British  Columbia  and  Washington  in  the  California 
coal  trade.  A  part  of  the  coal  thus  imported,  a  portion  of  which  is 
Welsh  anthracite,  is  used  for  domestic  purposes.     The  continued  use 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  339 

of  British  coal  on  the  Pacific  i.s  due,  in  part,  to  its  superior  quality 
and  in  part  to  the  exceedingly  cheap  transportation  which  the  coal  is 
able  to  obtain. 

In  addition  to  the  coal  supply  mentioned  above,  California  annually 
purchases  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  a  limited  amount 
of  anthracite.  There  is  also  brought  from  the  Eastern  States  a 
limited  quantity  of  high-grade  bituminous  coal  for  smithing  purposes. 
This  anthracite  and  smithing  coal  are  obtained  from  Pennsylvania 
and  Maryland,  and  have  hot  amounted  to  50,000  tons  in  any  year 
during  the  past  decade. 

The  foregoing  survey  of  the  principal  sources  from  which  the  coal 
used  on  the  Pacific  is  now  secured  will  serve  to  show  that  the  coal  fields 
are  widely  scattered  and  are  by  no  means  so  productive  as  those  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States  or  in  Europe.  The  Australian,  Wash- 
ington, British  Columbia,  and  Japanese  coal  fields  are  all  capable  of 
development,  but  the  increase  in  their  output  will  be  only  moderately 
rapid.  Much  is  said  but  comparatively  little  is  known  in  regard  to  the 
coal  fields  of  China.  It  is  possible  that  within  the  next  decade  and  a 
half  railroads  will  have  been  constructed  from  the  Chinese  fields  to 
the  seaboard  and  that  foreign  capital  will  have  opened  up  the  Chinese 
mines.  Should  that  take  place,  the  largest  future  coal  supply  for  the 
Pacific  will  be  China.  Unless  that  does  take  place,  however,  the  Pacific 
coal  supply,  until  the  isthmian  canal  has  been  constructed,  will  be  drawn 
from  the  four  countries  mentioned  above,  unless  that  which  is  highly 
improbable  should  occur  and  there  should  be  found  in  Mexico  and 
western  South  America  richer  fields  of  available  coal  than  are  now 
known  to  exist. 

PUGET  SOUND  COAL. 

The  proximity  of  the  coal  resources  of  Puget  Sound  to  Oregon  and 
California  and  their  availability  for  the  use  of  the  steamers  engaged 
in  the  American-Asiatic  trade  of  the  North  Pacific  make  desirable  a 
further  inquiry  into  the  quantity,  quality,  and  marketability  of  the 
coal  of  this  section. 

Although  the  Canadian  coal  production,  most  of  which  is  to  be  accred- 
ited to  British  Columbia,  was  only  4,172,655  in  1898  and  had  increased 
only  a  little  over  1,000,000  tons  since  1890,  the  reports  of  our  consuls 
and  other  sources  of  information  indicate  the  existence  of  extensive 
deposits.  These  coal  beds,  however,  are  not  especially  thick,  and  the 
costs  of  mining  have  not  been  so  low  as  in  the  great  coal-mining  regions 
of  the  world.  The  best  mines  yet  developed  are  those  of  Vancouver 
Island  and  Crows  Nest  Pass,  both  of  which  produce  a  fair  grade  of 
bituminous  coal  from  which  coke  can  be  made.  The  Crows  Nest  Pass 
field,  at  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Cordillera  Mountains,  near  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway,  is  a  valuable  source  of  supply  for  the  metal-min- 
ing industries  of  the  mountain  district  and  for  the  section  of  the  country 
just  east  of  that  region,  but  is  too  far  from  the  coast  to  be  marketed 
profitably  at  tide  water.  The  Vancouver  coal  is  favorably  located  for 
transportation,  and  it  has  been  the  source  of  most  of  Canada's  exports 
of  the  mineral.  Most  of  the  foreign  sales  of  this  coal  have  been  in 
the  United  States,  where  it  has  competed  successfully  with  the  product 
of  other  countries,  without  being  able,  however,  to  monopolize  the 
market. 

The  coal  mines  of  the  State  of  Washington,  although  the  product  is 


340  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

somewhat  inferior  to  the  better  grades  of  the  British  Columbia  output, 
have  been  developed  more  rapidly  than  have  the  rival  Canadian  fields. 
The  figures  of  production  remained  nearly  constant  at  about  1,000,000 
tons  from  1886  to  1893,  but  for  the  five  years  ending  in  1899  there 
was  a  rapid  growth,  the  amounts  being,  in  short  tons,  for  1895, 
1,191,410;  1896,  1,195,504;  1897,  1,434,112;  1898,  1,884,571;  1899, 
2,020,260.  The  latest  report  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey, 
that  for  1899,  says: 

Washington  is  the  only  one  of  the  Pacific  coast  States  whose  coal  product  amounts 
to  as  much  as  1  per  cent  of  the  total  bituminous  output  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
also  the  only  State  on  the  Pacific  coast  producing  true  bituminous  coal,  the  entire 
product  of  California  and  Oregon  being  lignite  or  brown  coals.  Some  of  the  Wash- 
ington coals  are  true  coking  coals,  over  50,000  tons  in  1899  being  made  into  coke. 
Some  of  the  coals  produced  in  Washington  approach  anthracite  in  character,  and 
some  "natural  coke"  has  been  observed. 

These  fields  have  an  area  about  three  times  that  of  the  Pennsylvania 
anthracite  beds,  but  are  not  especially  rich  deposits  except  in  limited 
and  scattered  areas.  Like  those  of  the  Cordilleran  Mountains  gener- 
ally, they  have  suffered  badly  by  the  irregular  fracturing  of  the  earth's 
crust. 

As  regards  the  quality  of  the  Puget  Sound  coal  three  sources  of 
information  may  be  drawn  upon  in  this  discussion — the  studies  of  the , 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  to  which  reference  has   just  been 
made,  the  experience  of  those  using  the  coal  on  vessels  and  in  indus- 
tries, and  the  tests  made  by  the  United  States  Navy. 

Several  large  consumers  of  coal,  including  the  ocean  steamship  com- 
panies, report  that  the  Puget  Sound  coal  can  be  used  to  advantage  for 
steaming  purposes,  although  it  is  inferior  to  the  product  of  the  best 
bituminous  fields.  The  president  of  one  of  the  steamship  companies 
states: 

The  British  Columbia  coals  that  are  now  being  mined  are  considered  fair  average 
steam  coals.  The  Washington  coals  are  lignites,  semibituminous,  and  bituminous. 
The  lignites  are  used  principally  as  house  coals,  the  screenings  from  such  lignites 
being  used  at  points  close  to  the  mines  for  steam  purposes,  as  they  are  sold  at  a  very 
low  figure.  The  semibituminous  and  bituminous  coals  range  from  fair  to  good  steam- 
producing  coals. 

The  firm  using  as  much  coal  as  any  industrial  concern  on  the  Pacific 
ordinarily  secures  its  coal  from  the  Washington  mines,  and  an  authority 
regarding  the  sources  of  the  coal  used  in  California  wrote  in  reply  to 
the  question,  "  Is  the  coal  from  Washington  and  British  Columbia  good 
for  steaming  purposes?" — 

The  lignite  coals  are  not,  Those  of  a  more  bituminous  character  are  so  used,  but 
they  have  not  the  evaporative  power  of  the  better  grades  of  bituminous  used  on  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  nor  are  they  so  good  as  the  bituminous  grade  from  Australia  or 
the  semianthracite  coals  from  Cardiff  and  Wales. 

The  numerous  analyses  and  tests  made  by  the  United  States  Navy 
of  coals  mined  in  different  parts  of  the  world  indicates  that  the  bitumin- 
ous coals  of  West  Virginia  and  Wales  rank  highest,  that  the  Alabama 
coal  is  somewhat  better  than  the  Australian,  and  that  the  Australian 
product  is  superior  to  that  exported  from  Washington  or  British 
Columbia. 

On  account  of  their  different  qualities  these  several  coals  will  sell  in 
the  same  market  for  different  prices;  and  the  decision  of  the  question 
whether  the  Puget  Sound  mines  will  in  the  future  control  the  market 
in  which  the  ships  and  industries  of  the  Pacific  coast  will  secure  their 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


341 


coal  will  depend  both  on  the  relative  qualities  and  on  the  costs  of  min- 
ing and  delivering  the  competing  products.  The  foregoing  review  of 
the  present  sources  of  the  coal  used  in  Pacific  markets  shows  that  there 
are.  and  will  be,  several  regions  competing  for  this  coal  trade.  The 
nature  of  this  competition  can  be  shown  to  advantage  by  a  brief  refer- 
ence to  the  coal  trade  of  California  at  the  present  time. 


THE    FUEL   SUPPLY   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

The  sources  of  California's  coal  supply  constitute  one  of  the  inter- 
esting facts  of  the  world's  commerce.  Every  continent,  except  Africa 
and  South  America,  is  drawn  upon.  Europe,  Asia,  Australia,  and  both 
sides  of  North  America  export  coal  to  California.  The  annual  pro- 
duction of  the  State  being  only  160,000  tons  of  low-grade  coal,  nearly 
all  the  supply  has  to  be  imported.  At  the  present  time  about  half  the 
amount  consumed  is  received  from  foreign  countries  and  half  from 
the  United  States.  The  following  table  shows  the  origin  of  the  foreign 
and  domestic  imports,  and  indicates  that  the  American  product  is 
gaining  on  the  foreign: 

Coal  imports  of  California.  * 


1889. 

1894. 

1899. 

Tons. 

Per  cent. 

Tons. 

Per  cent. 

Tons. 

Percent. 

Foreign: 

417, 904 

408, 032 

45, 617 

1,340 

31.0 

30.0 

3.5 

647, 110 

211,733 

176, 198 

15, 637 

42.4 

13.9 

11.5 

1.0 

623, 133 

36.2 

Australia 

139,333                8.1 
93,263                5.4 

Japan 

9,390                  .6 

Total 

872, 893 

64.5 

1,050,678 

68.8 

865,059  !            50.3 

Domestic: 

Washington 

California  and  Oregon 

Pennsylvania  and  Maryland  .. 

372, 51* 
87,600 
18,950 

27.5 
6.5 
1.5 

395, 173 
65, 263 
16,640 

25.9 
4.2 
1.1 

627,450 
189, 507 
38, 951 

36.4 

11.0 

2.3 

Total 

479, 064 

35.5 

477, 076 

31.2 

855,908              49.7 

1,351,957 

100.0 

1,527,754 

100.0 

1  720  967             niii  ii 

a  In  addition  to  the  amounts  given  in  this  table  there  has  been  a  small  quantity  of  anthracite 
annually  obtained  from  Utah  and  Wyoming  since  1893.  The  figures  for  alternate  years  are,  for  1893, 
21,562  tons;  1895,  37,530  tons,  1897,  44,*343  tons,  and  1899,  19,000  tons.  The  anthracite  imported  from 
Wales  is  included  in  the  figures  for  Great  Britain  given  in  the  table, 

The  prominence  ot  the  United  Kingdom  as  an  ocean  carrier  and  the 
possibilities  of  her  foreign  trade  in  coal  are  well  illustrated  by  her  large 
shipments  of  that  bulky  commodity  halfway  around  the  world.  In 
past  years  California  has  received  a  part  of  her  coal  from  Australia 
and  Great  Britain  in  ships  that  carry  her  wheat  to  Europe.  The  coal 
from  Great  Britain  has  varied  from  3|  to  15  per  cent  of  the  total 
imports  during  the  last  dozen  years,  while  the  supply  obtained  from 
Australia  has  ranged  from  Hi  per  cent  to  30  per  cent  of  the  total.  In 
the  past  from  25  to  35  per  cent  of  the  California  supply  has  been 
drawn  from  these  two  foreign  sources.  For  several  reasons,  however, 
coal  shipments  from  these  countries  are  falling  off.  The  price  at  which 
British  and  Australia  coal  can  be  sold  in  California  fluctuates  sharply, 
and  rises  and  falls  according  to  the  prospect  of  the  cereal  crops  and 
the  expectation  on  the  part  of  shipowners  of  remunerative  homeward 
business.     Under  extremely  favorable  conditions  freights  on  coal  from 


342  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Great  Britain  have  been  as  low  as  8s.  per  ton,  while  during  the  suc- 
ceeding- year  they  have  reached  19s.  from  the  same  ports. 

When  California  was  largely  dependent  upon  Great  Britain  and 
Australia  for  her  coal  supply,  the  practice  was  common  of  importing 
the  coal  from  those  countries  on  a  speculative  basis,  the  coal  shippers 
sending  out  the  cargo  with  the  intention  of  selling  the  coal  on  or  before 
its  arrival  at  the  port  of  destination.  During  recent  years  California 
buyers  have  adopted  the  practice  of  making  contracts  for  the  delivery 
of  coal  at  fixed  prices  for  periods  of  time,  and  the  speculative  ship- 
ments have  nearly  ceased.  This  change  in  business  methods  has  given 
an  advantage  to  the  coal  miners  of  the  Puget  Sound  section. 

The  decline  of  the  Australian  and  British  coal  in  the  California  trade, 
and  the  concurrent  development  of  the  Puget  Sound  coal,  is  well  illus- 
trated by  the  statistics  of  the  coal  imports  of  that  State.  In  1889 
Australia  furnished  30  per  cent  of  California's  coal  needs;  in  1899 
the  Australian  shipments  formed  only  8  per  cent.  In  1899  but  a  small 
amount  of  coal  was  shipped  from  Great  Britain,  whereas,  in  1892,  15 
per  cent  of  the  coal  imports  of  California  came  from  the  United  King- 
dom. In  1899  the  supply  obtained  from  Great  Britain  amounted  to 
only  5£  per  cent.  The  State  of  Washington,  on  the  contrary,  sup- 
plied California  with  27i  per  cent  of  her  coal  in  1889,  and  with  36.4 
per  cent  in  1899.  In  1899  the  Puget  Sound  section,  including  British 
Columbia,  Vancouver,  and  the  State  of  Washington,  furnished  Cali- 
fornia with  nearly  three-fourths  of  her  coal  supply.  Ten  years  earlier 
the  amount  from  this  section  was  58£  per  cent  of  the  total. 

The  importations  of  coal  into  California  have  increased  very  slowly, 
the  present  amount  being  only  If  million  tons,  whereas  twelve  years 
ago  lir  million  tons  were  brought  into  the  State.  These  figures  show 
clearly  enough  that  California  has  not  yet  become  a  State  with  diver- 
sified manufacturing  industries,  her  principal  business  activities  being 
concerned  with  the  production  of  grain,  fruit,  and  wine,  the  sawing 
of  lumber,  and  the  mining  of  metals.  Most  of  the  manufacturing  is 
auxiliary  to  these  industries. 

As  has  been  stated  in  another  chapter  of  this  report,  the  auxiliary 
manufacturing  industries  of  California  are  making  an  increasing  use 
of  electrically  transmitted  water  power.  Electricity  thus  generated  is 
also  extensively  used  for  power  and  lighting  purposes  in  the  towns. 
Furthermore,  California  would  be  obliged  to  use  more  coal  than  she 
does  at  the  present  time  were  there  not  petroleum  oil  fields  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  State,  from  which  increasing  supplies  of  oil  are 
being  annually  taken  for  industrial  and  domestic  fuel  purposes  and  for 
use  in  railroad  locomotives. 

Concerning  the  value  of  oil  for  fuel  the  secretary  of  the  Los  Angeles 
Chamber  of  Commerce  makes  the  following  statement: 

At  the  present  time  it  is  estimated  that  4  barrels  of  oil  are  equal  to  1  ton  of  coal, 
and  the  expense  of  handling  the  same  is  so  much  less  that  3  barrels  of  oil  are  nearly 
equivalent  to  a  ton  of  coal.  As  the  development  of  the  oil  fields  continues  the 
price  of  oil  will  be  reduced,  ami  unless  the  present  price  of  coal  can  be  greatly 
reduced  coal  will  cease  to  be  a  factor  in  our  manufacturing  industries. 

This  statement  probably  overestimates  the  industrial  importance  of 
the  development  of  the  oil  fields  of  southern  California,  nevertheless 
the  opening  of  them  has  resulted  in  an  extensive  substitution  of  oil  for 
coal.  The  oil  is  not  adapted  to  lighting  purposes,  but  makes  a  good 
fuel. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  348 

The  foregoing  facta  indicate,  that  under  the  existing  conditions  of 
transportation  and  competition  the  coal  needs  of  the  west  coast  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  will  be  drawn  mainly,  and  within  a  few  years 
almost  entirely,  from  the  fields  near  Puget  Sound.  The  steamers  of 
the  north  Pacific,  excepting  such  as  make  the  trip  to  Australia,  will 
draw  their  chief  supply  from  the  same  section.  Will  the  opening  of 
an  isthmian  canal  enable  the  coal  of  the  eastern  and  southern  portion' 
of  the  United  States  to  enter  the  west  coast  markets  of  our  country? 
Will  this  coal  from  east  of  the  canal  be  able  to  compete  with  the  Puget 
Sound  product  in  the  markets  of  the  tropical  and  southern  sections  of 
the  Pacific?  In  order  to  answer  these  questions  it  will  be  necessary 
first  to  inquire  into  the  prices  at  which  Puget  Sound  coal  can  be  sold 
in  Pacific  markets,  and  then  to  examine  the  present  and  probable  future 
costs  of  delivering  our  eastern  and  southern  coal  at  tide  water,  and  to 
take  account  of  the  methods  that  will  probabl}7  prevail  in  the  transpor- 
tation of  coal  from  the  eastern  and  southern  mines  to  the  vicinity  of 
the  canal  and  beyond,  when  that  waterway  shall  have  become  available. 

PRICES   AND   COSTS   OF   COAL    IN    DIFFERENT    SECTIONS   OF    THE    UNITED 

STATES. 

The  prices  of  coal  on  the  Pacific  coast  range  higher  than  the  prices 
of  similar  grades  in  the  Atlantic  ports.  In  the  Puget  Sound  cities 
near  the  mines  "  good  steam  coals  "  range  in  price  from  $2.25  per  gross 
ton  for  the  lower  grades  to  $3.25  per  gross  ton  for  the  better  qualities, 
free  on  board  vessels.  Vancouver  coal  sells  for  $2.50  to  $3.50  per  ton, 
according  to  quality,  in  the  British  Columbia  coaling  stations.  Port- 
land and  Astoria  secure  their  coal  from  the  Washington  mines  at  a 
cost,  delivered,  of  $4.50  to  $5.25  per  ton.  The  authority  for  these 
figures  is  the  general  manager  of  a  steamship  compan}'  doing  a  large 
coasting  business,  and  he  also  states: 

San  Francisco  uses,  for  household  purposes,  a  large  quantity  of  Washington  lignite 
coals  and  British  Columbia  bituminous  house  coal.  For  steam  purposes  the  British 
Columbia  and  Washington  bituminous  coals  are  used,  rates  ranging  from  $4.80  to  $5.50 
per  gross  ton  at  the  wharf.  "■ 

Another  authority  says: 

The  San  Francisco  prices  are  variable.  Steam  coals  from  Washington  will  vary 
from  $5  to  $6  per  ton;  from  Vancouver  Island  from  $5.50  to  $7,  and  from  Australia 
from  $5.50  to  $7.50  (gross  tons  in  each  case). 

The  same  gentleman  reports  that  the  price  paid  by  a  San  Francisco 
firm,  whose  business  requires  a  large  amount  of  coal,  ranges  from  $4. 75 
to  $5.25,  delivered  from  the  ship.  This  coal  ordinarily  comes  from 
the  Puget  Sound  mines  in  Washington. 

The  superior  quality  of  the  Comox  and  other  British  Columbia  coal 
enables  them  to  command  a  somewhat  higher  price  than  the  Washing- 
ton product,  but  the  Washington  mines,  probably  on  account  of  our 
tariff  of  67  cents  a  ton  on  bituminous  coal,  have  been  annually  secur- 
ing a  larger  percentage  of  the  coal  business  of  California  and  Oregon. 
The  imports  of  the  British  Columbia  coai  into  California  have  remained 
about  constant  during  the  last  six  years. 

aThe  unavoidable  use  of  both  long  and  short  tons  in  this  discussion  may  be  con- 
fusing. Bituminous  coal  from  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia  and  Virginia  is  sold 
in  the  Atlantic  ports  by  the  ton  of  2,240  pounds;  in  the  Gulf  ports  by  the  ton  of 
2,000  pounds.     On  the  west  coast  coal  prices  are  quoted  on  the  ton  of  2,240  pounds. 


344  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  prices  just  cited  are  probably  not  the  lowest  ones  possible  in 
the  future.  When  the  market  shall  have  become  larger,  when  new 
mines  shall  have  been  developed,  and  those  now  in  operation  shall  be 
worked  on  a  larger  scale,  and,  what  is  most  important,  when  the 
means  of  land  and  ocean  transportation  shall  have  been  improved, 
enlarged,  and  cheapened,  the  Puget  Sound  mine  operators  can  doubt- 
less deliver  coal  in  California  and  elsewhere  considerably  cheaper  than 
at  present.     It  is  the  belief  of  one  competent  to  speak  that — 

The  foreign  sources  of  supply  are  becoming  less  important  to  us  (California)  with 
the  development  of  northern  mines,  and  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  the  north- 
ern capacity  will  be  equal  to  the  entire  demand.  At  the  moment  it  would  seem  to 
be  a  question  of  miners  and  water  transportation,  for  certainly  the  northern  coals  can 
be  laid  down  here  at  a  cost  so  far  below  that  of  coals  from  Great  Britain  and  Australia 
as  to  overcome  any  possible  difference  in  quality. 

The  coal  exported  from  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  will  be 
taken  mainly  from  two  sections,  the  Penns3>lvania  and  West  Virginia 
fields  in  the  Upper  Ohio  Valley  and  the  mines  in  north  central 
Alabama.  The  coal  from  the  Upper  Ohio  Valley  section  is  shipped  by 
rail  to  the  several  North  Atlantic  ports,  where  it  is  sold  in  large  amounts 
to  industrial  plants  and  ocean  vessels,  and  whence  a  limited  quantity 
is  now  exported  to  foreign  countries  for  naval  and  industrial  purposes. 
In  the  handling  of  coal,  both  for  domestic  coast-wise  distribution  and 
for  foreign  export,  Norfolk  and  Newport  News  have  some  advantages 
over  the  Atlantic  ports  north  of  them,  because  of  the  exceptionally 
high  grade  of  the  coals  handled  and  the  spacious  and  inexpensive  term- 
inal facilities  possible  in  their  harbors,  which  are  also,  because  of  their 
nearness  to  the  ocean,  convenient  stations  for  vessels  desiring  to  coal. 

The  railway  haul  from  the  mines  to  Baltimore  and  Philadelphia  is 
somewhat  shorter  and  more  economical  than  to  Norfolk  and  Newport 
News,  but  the  disadvantage  of  the  longer  railway  distance  to  the  ports 
at  the  mouth  of  the  James  is  counterbalanced  by  the  closer  proximity 
of  those  cities  to  the  sea  and  their  central  situation  on  the  Atlantic 
coast. 

The  Ohio  River  is  another  route  used  for  the  shipments  of  large 
quantities  of  coal  from  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia.  The  coal 
sent  down  the  Ohio  is  mainly  destined  for  Cincinnati  and  other  Ohio 
River  points,  but  a  considerable  share  of  the  total  is  distributed  along 
the  Mississippi,  about  3,000,000  short  tons  reaching  New  Orleans  each 
year.  The  distance  from  Pittsburg  to  New  Orleans  by  river  is  about 
2,200  miles,  and, as  will  be  shown  presently,  it  is  the  extraordinarily 
cheap  transportation  which  this  river  navigation  makes  possible  that 
will  in  the  future  give  importance  to  the  Upper  Ohio  Valley  as  a  coal- 
exporting  section  of  the  United  States. 

The  city  of  Birmingham,  in  the  Alabama  coal  and  iron  district,  is 
about  260  miles  by  rail  from  Mobile  and  Pensacola  and  350  miles  from 
New  Orleans.  The  deposits  are  rich,  the  costs  of  mining  are  compara- 
tively low,  and  the  distance  to  good  tide-water  harbors  is  short. 

The  prices  of  coal  have  recently  been  high  on  account  of  the  almost 
unprecedented  industrial  demands  of  the  past  two  years.  In  Septem- 
ber, 1900,  two  members  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  had  a  con- 
ference in  Pittsburg  with  persons  shipping  huge  quantities  of  coal 
down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers,  and  the  price  at  which  bitumi- 
nous coal  was  then  selling  in  New  Orleans  was  found  to  be  39  cents  a 
bushel,  or  $4.32  a  ton  of  2,000  pounds.  It  was  also  stated  by  a  prom- 
inent coal  merchant  that  $3.50  a  short  ton  in  New  Orleans  would  be  as 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  345 

low  a  price  as  would  be  accepted  at  that  time  even  on  a  contract  calling 
for  the  delivery  of  a  large  quantity.  In  reply  to  an  inquiry  addressed 
to  the  secretary  of  the  New  Orleans  Board  of  Trade  in  July,  1900,  the 
response  received  was: 

A  large  dealer  here  advises  that  $3.50  per  short  ton  would  about  cover  cost  of 
Pittsburg  coal,  and  Alabama  would  be  about  the  same. 

The  same  inquiry  was  made  of  the  general  freight  agent  of  one  of 
the  Gulf  railroads,  and  his  reply,  under  date  of  July  10,  1900,  was: 

I  have  addressed  dealers  in  coal  asking  for  their  prices  free  on  board  vessels  Pen- 
sacola  and  Mobile  for  export.  1  am  quoted  on  coal  free  on  board  vessels  at  Pensa- 
cola  $2.60  per  ton  of  2,240  pounds,  and  at  Mobile  $2.35'per  ton  of  2,000  pounds  ($2.64 
per  long  ton). 

There  is  no  export  business  moving  through  New  Orleans,  nor  had  it  moved  that 
way  for  some  time,  but  the  cost  of  coal  free  on  board  vessels  at  New  Orleans  would 
probably  be  at  least  75  cents  per  ton  higher  than  to  Mobile  and  Pensacola. 

The  price  of  coal  for  local  use  was  considerably  higher  at  that  time, 
because  the  railway  companies  regularly  make  a  large  rebate  in  their 
rate  when  the  coal  handled  is  exported  or  sold  to  vessels  other  than 
tugs  or  local  harbor  crafts.  The  export  price  for  the  best  Pocahontas 
coal  in  October,  1900,  was  $2.50  per  2,240  pounds.  The  bunker  price 
of  that  coal  was  then  $3.10  per  long  ton  trimmed  in  bunkers.  At  the 
same  time  the  price  of  bituminous  coal  in  vessel  cargo  lots  at  Phila- 
delphia was  $2.30  per  gross  ton.  The  price  paid  by  local  manufac- 
turers was  $3.75  per  long  ton. 

The  prices  just  quoted  are  so  much  above  ordinary  charges  that  it 
was  necessary  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  purposes  of  this  investi- 
gation to  inquire  what  price  conservative  business  men  considered 
would,  under  existing  conditions  of  transportation,  cover  the  costs  of 
mining  and  delivering  the  coal  at  the  seaboard,  including  adequate 
business  profits. 

Pittsburg  firms  mining  and  shipping  coal  by  rail  and  by  river  state 
that  the  price  of  the  coal  at  that  section  need  not  average  over  $1  per 
short  ton  on  the  barges  in  the  Monongahela  River,  and  that  under  the 
present  conditions  of  Ohio  River  navigation  a  rate  of  $1  per  short  ton 
would  yield  a  good  profit  to  the  vessel  men  for  transporting  the  coal 
from  Pittsburg  to  New  Orleans. 

One  of  the  Pittsburg  firms  doing  a  large  business  in  mining  coal  and 
shipping  it  down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers  prepared  the  follow- 
ing detailed  statement  of  the  cost  of  mining  coal  and  getting  it  to 
New  Orleans.  The  items  are  not  estimates,  but  are  the  costs  actually 
incurred.     The  word  'wton"  means  2,000  pounds: 

One  ton,  mine-run  coal,  f.  o.  b.  works per  ton. .  $0.  75 

Expense  of  transporting  same  to  Pittsburg do 10 

Transporting  from  Pittsburg  to  Louisville do 20 

Transporting  from  Louisville  to  New  Orleans do 37 

Cost  of  boat  containing  coal do 70 

Total  cost  of  coal  and  boat  at  New  Orleans do :  2. 12 

Only  about  30  per  cent  of  the  coal  barges  or  flats  sent  to  New 
Orleans  are  brought  back;  the  remaining  seven-tenths  are  sold  as 
rough  lumber  mainly  to  the  planters.  According  to  the  above  state- 
ment the  purchaser  of  the  coal  is  charged  70  cents  per  ton  of  coal  for 
the  boat  containing  the  coal.  The  firm  that  submitted  the  statement 
accompanied  the  list  of  costs  with  the  following  explanation: 

In  the  event  that  we  want  the  boat  back  after  having  been  unloaded,  we  buy  it 
back  from  the  customer  at  a  very  low  price,  thus  enabling  U9  to  get  the  boat  back 
home  with  a  profit  to  us. 


346  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  cost  of  coal  in  New  Orleans  is  the  same,  whether  the  barge  be 
towed  back  to  the  coal  mines  or  not. 

This  statement  as  to  the  cost  of  coal  on  the  barges  seems  to  be  cor- 
roborated by  the  fact  that  the  price  of  Pennsylvania  bituminous  at  the 
mine  has,  according  to  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey, averaged  76.4  cents  during  the  past  decade.  The  testimony  of 
the  above-mentioned  firm  and  of  other  Pittsburg  coal  merchants  is  that 
Pittsburg  coal  could  be  delivered  with  profit  in  large  quantities  on 
board  vessels  in  New  Orleans  at  a  total  charge  of  $2  to  $2.25  per  short 
ton,  or  $2.50  per  ton  of  2,240  pounds. 

In  Birmingham,  Ala.,  the  committee  of  the  Commission  was  informed 
in  September,  1900,  by  the  vice-president  of  one  of  the  large  mining 
and  transportation  companies  that  Alabama  coal  could  be  profitably 
sold  at  that  time,  free  on  board  vessels  at  Gulf  ports,  at  $2.50  per  short 
ton.  That  this  estimate  was  a  liberal  one  is  proven  by  the  fact  that 
for  the  last  ten  years  the  average  price  of  Alabama  coal  at  the  mines 
has  been  96  cents,  and  that  at  the  time  the  committee  visited  Birming- 
ham the  railroad  freight  rate  on  coal  for  export  from  the  Birmingham 
district  to  Mobile,  including  "the  cost  of  placing  the  coal  into  the 
ship's  hold  at  the  coal  chute,"  was  $1.10  per  ton  of  2,000  pounds. 

In  1898  the  average  mine  cost  of  Alabama  coal,  as  a  whole,  was  only 
75  cents,  according  to  the  report  of  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey, and  in  Jefferson  County,  where  57  per  cent  of  the  total  produc- 
tion of  the  State  originated,  the  average  mine  cost  was  but  69  cents 
per  ton  of  2,000  pounds.  The  railway  charges  in  1900  were  generally 
higher  than  they  were  in  previous  years,  and  more  than  they  need  to 
be  in  the  future  for  the  conduct  of  a  larger  volume  of  traffic  accord- 
ing to  the  most  improved  methods.  Indeed,  the  export  rate  on  pig 
iron  from  Birmingham  has  been  $1  per  ton.  In  view  of  these  figures 
and  of  the  testimony  of  several  Alabama  men  engaged  in  the  transpor- 
tation and  mining  business,  it  would  seem  certain  that  coal  from  the 
Birmingham  district  can  now  be  sold  free  on  board  vessels  at  Mobile 
and  Pensacola  for  $1.75  to  $2  per  short  ton  ($1.96  to  $2.24  per  long  ton). 

Under  the  present  conditions  of  mining  and  transportation  the  North 
Atlantic  seaboard  price  of  bituminous  coal  free  on  board  can  be  placed 
at  $2.25  to  $2.50  a  long  ton,  or  $2  to  $2.25  a  short  ton,  depending  upon 
the  quality  of  the  coal  and  the  ports  through  which  it  is  handled. 

Briefly  stated,  it  appears  that  the  price  of  bituminous  coal,  under 
existing  conditions  of  transportation,  may  be  expected  to  be  somewhat 
higher  on  the  North  Atlantic  seaboard  than  in  the  Gulf  ports  of  Pensa- 
cola and  Mobile;  and  that  in  the  New  Orleans  market  the  Upper  Ohio 
Valley  coal  will  normally  range  about  25  cents  above  the  price  of 
Alabama  coal  in  Pensacola  and  Mobile.  In  respect  to  the  quality, 
however,  the  coal  from  the  Pittsburg  section  is  somewhat  superior  to 
that  from  Alabama,  the  difference  probably  being  sufficient  to  offset 
the  greater  price  of  the  more  northern  product.  Speaking  generally, 
the  mine  operators  of  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the  United 
States  could  now  offer  bituminous  coal  for  export  for  $1.75  to  $2.25, 
or  nt  an  average!  price  of  about  $2  a  short  ton. 

RIVER   TRANSPORTATION   OF  COAL  FROM  PENNSYLVANIA,  WEST  VIRGINIA, 

AND   ALABAMA. 

The  Ohio  River  traffic  is  a  matter  of  such  importance  in  connection 
with  this  discussion  of  the  exportation  of  American  coal  to  and  beyond 
the  isthmian  canal  that  a  brief  description  ought  perhaps  to  be  given 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  347 

of  the  manner  in  which  the  coal  transportation  is  now  conducted  on 
the  river.  The  following  statement  of  the  methods  of  handling  the 
coal  traffic  originating  in  the  Monongahela  River  Valley  is  taken  from 
a  special  report  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Pittsburg.  After 
stating- that  the  Monongahela  River  has  been  made  navigable  102  miles 
above  Pittsburg  by  means  of  nine  locks  and  dams  constructed  and 
operated  by  the  United  States  Government,  and  that  the  river  flows 
through  the  center  of  rich  coal  fields,  the  secretary  says: 

Three  species  of  boats  loaded  on  the  Monongahela  River  for  the  Ohio  River  trade 
are  used  by  the  shippers,  viz:  Coal  boats,  drawing  8  to  8$  feet  and  carrying  1,000  to 
1,100  tons;  coal  barges,  drawing  6  to  7  feet,  carrying  500  tons,  and  coal  floats  carrying 
from  200  to  300  tons. 

The  tow  boats  usually  bring  from  the  mines  about  3,000  tons  of  coal  in  small  fleets, 
arranged  for  passing  the  locks  conveniently.  *  *  *  At  Pittsburg  *  *  *  the 
small  coal  fleets  are  moored  while  awaiting  rises  sufficient  for  navigation  on  the  Ohio 
River.  *  *  *  When  rises  of  10  feet  occur,  or  sufficient  for  8-foot  coal  barges, 
fleets  from  10,000  to  15,000  tons  are  made  up  for  shipment  to  Cincinnati  or  Louisville. 

At  Louisville,  two,  and  sometimes  three  of  the  Pittsburg  fleets  are  made  up  into 
monster  fleets  of  from  35,000  to  40,000  tons  and  towed  to  New  Orleans  by  powerful 
tow  boats.     A  fleet  conveying  40,000  tons  covers  about  10  acres. 

The  coal  fields  of  Alabama  lie  along  streams  capable  of  providing 
navigation  to  Mobile  for  barges  drawing  about  6  feet  of  water;  and 
these  rivers,  particularly  the  Warrior,  which  flows  through  the  most 
productive  coal  deposits,  are  being  improved  by  means  of  locks  and 
dams.  Coal  can  now  be  barged  from  a  few  miles  above  Tuscaloosa, 
Ala.,  through  the  Warrior  and  Tombigbee  rivers  to  Mobile,  and  when 
the  Warrior  River  improvements  shall  have  been  extended  15  miles 
farther  to  Jefferson  County  it  will  be  possible  to  ship  coal  in  barges 
carrying  from  400  to  500  tons  and  drawing  6  feet  of  water  directly 
from  the  mines  to  the  Gulf.  The  barges  can  be  constructed  of  the  low- 
priced  steel  obtainable  in  the  Birmingham  district,  and  by  means  of 
them  coal  can  be  profitably  transported  to  tide  water  for  50  cents  a  ton. 

The  coal  barges  now  so  extensively  used  on  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi rivers  are  made  of  wood.  Some  of  them  are  strongly  built,  and 
after  discharging  their  cargoes  are  towed  back  to  the  mines  for  reload- 
ing. A  large  share  of  the  coal  barges  (70  per  cent  of  those  used  for 
shipping  coal  to  New  Orleans)  are  constructed  as  cheaply  and  f ragilely 
as  possible,  and,  as  was  stated  above,  are  sold  for  rough  lumber  in  or 
near  New  Orleans.  That  these  types  of  barges  will  be  used  a  decade 
or  fifteen  }rears  hence  seems  improbable  in  view  of  the  increasing  costs 
of  lumber  and  the  present  and  declining  costs  of  steel.  The  pressed 
steel  car  is  rapidly  displacing  the  wooden  one  for  railway  coal  traffic, 
and  it  is  rational  to  expect  that  wood  will  give  place  to  steel  in  barge 
construction. 

Steel  river  barges  with  a  draft  of  6  to  10  feet  and  a  capacity  of  500 
to  1,000  tons  will  have  the  added  advantage  of  being  strong  enough  to 
be  towed  on  the  Gulf  and  Caribbean.  By  means  of  them  coal  can  be 
shipped  directly  from  the  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  and  Alabama 
mines,  not  only  to  the  Gulf  ports,  but  also  to  the  coaling  stations  of 
the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Central  America,  including  the  impor- 
tant stations  that  will  certainly  be  established  at  the  termini  or  along 
the  line  of  the  canal. 

It  is  possible  the  opening  of  an  isthmian  canal  will  lead  to  the  use 
of  a  special  type  of  river  barge  for  handling  coal  for  export.  A  barge 
capable  of  drawing  15  to  20  feet  of  water  might  be  loaded  to  a  draft 
of  9  feet  at  the  mines,  to  a  draft  of  12  feet  at  Louisville,  and  for  six 


348 


EEPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


months  of  the  year  to  15  or  20  feet  at  Vicksburg.  Barges  of  this  size 
and  type,  could,  of  course,  be  towed  through  to  any  desired  seaport, 
American  or  foreign.  The  suggestion  that  such  barges  might  be  used 
was  made  by  a  gentleman  who  has  had  large  experience  in  shipping 
coal  down  the  Ohio.  Under  these  conditions  of  transportation  coal 
costing  $1  per  short  ton  free  on  board  at  the  mine  could  be  sold  in 
Panama,  Greytown,  and  other  Caribbean  or  Gulf  ports  for  $3  or  less 
per  ton.  American  coal  at  $3  a  ton  of  2,000  pounds  in  these  ports  will 
not  onty  hold  the  market  against  all  foreign  competition,  but  will  be 
so  much  less  expensive  than  the  price  at  which  coal  can  be  obtained 
along  the  Suez  Canal  route  as  to  give  the  American  route  a  strong 
commercial  advantage  resulting  from  the  possession  of  cheap  coal  for 
steamers. 

In  1900,  when  the  prices  were  abnormally  high,  coal  was  selling 
from  $5.83  to  $8.63  a  gross  ton  under  yearly  contracts  along  the  Suez 
Canal  route,  the  price  increasing  with  the  distance  from  the  British 
mines.  The  following  average  contract  prices  of  coal  have  prevailed 
during  each  of  the  past  five  years  at  the  more  important  stations  along 
the  Suez  route,  the  figures  having  been  obtained  from  a  large  coal 
merchant  of  London  by  the  London  representative  of  an  American 
firm  of  shipbrokers. 

Contract  price*  in  shillings  and  pence  for  the  past  five  years. 
[London,  e  c,  October  31,  1900.] 


Coal  port. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

g.  d. 

22  6 
25  6 
16  6 
15  6-16 
15  6 
15  6 

S.  d. 
29  0 

(*) 
18  0 
15  6-16 
15  6 
15  0 

s.    d. 

26  6 

w 

19  6 

18  0 
18  0 
17  0 

8.  (/. 
29  0 
34  0 
23  0 
22  0 
22  6 
21  6 

g.  d. 

35  6 

36  6 

Port  Said 

26  0 

24  0 

25  0 

24  0 

»  No  contracts. 

Note. — The  above  are  prices  at  which  contracts  were  made  with  the  principal  shipowners  for  the 
years  named,  and  do  not  show  variations  in  "current  "  prices  that  occurred  from  time  to  time.  All 
large  shipowners  contract;  therefore  the  variations  in  the  respective  "current . "  prices  do  not  atlVct 
them.  The  contract  prices  in  the  autumn  of  1900 at  Port  Said  were  26s.,  but  current  prices  there  were 
40s.    The  contract  prices  for  1901  were  higher  than  those  for  1900. 

"During  the  years  1896  and  1897,"  according  to  the  London  inform- 
ant, "the  Welsh  coal  market  was  quiet  and  freights  were  much  lower 
than  for  the  past  two  years;"  but  even  during  those  years  the  coal 
costs  along  the  Suez  route  were  higher  than  the  probable  future  cost 
of  coal  in  the  stations  of  the  West  Indies  and  the  Caribbean.  More- 
over, every  indication  points  to  increasing  rather  than  diminishing 
costs  of  coal  in  Europe,  and  the  future  prices  of  European  coal  in  the 
Mediterranean,  Red,  and  Arabian  seas  can  hardly  be  expected  to  be  so 
low  as  they  have  prevailed  in  normal  times  in  the  past. 

CONCERNING    THE    MARKETING    OF    APPALACHIAN    COAL    WEST    OF    THE 

CANAL. 

Well-informed  men  engaged  in  mining  and  shipping  coal  testified 
in  September,  1900,  that  the  freight  rate  would  then  be  about  $3  per 
ton  for  shipping  coal  5,000  knots  in  chartered  vessels.     Assuming  a 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  349 

tide-water  price  of  $2.50  per  gross  ton,  a  canal  toll  of  45  cents  per 
cargo  ton  (this  would  be  about  equal  to  $1  per  vessel  net  register),  and 
a  freight  rate  of  $3  a  ton,  coal  from  the  mines  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River  would  have  sold  for  about  $5.95  a  long  ton  in  1900  in  Califor- 
nia, Hawaii,  and  the  east  coast  of  South  America.  This  price  of 
$5.95  is  not  suggested  as  the  probable  price  of  Eastern  coal  in  Pacific 
markets  after  the  opening  of  the  canal,  but  it  has  some  value,  inas- 
much as  it  represents  a  maximum,  and  shows  what  would  be  quoted 
were  the  present  conditions  as  regards  costs  of  coal  and  transportation 
to  prevail. 

After  the  canal  has  become  available  coal  can  be  shipped  through 
it  to  Pacific  ports  either  as  ballast,  as  berth,  or  part  cargo  freight,  as 
full  cargo  shipments  in  chartered  vessels,  or  in  towed  barges.  The 
rates  for  part  cargoes  or  berth  lots  will  in  all  probability  be  so  high  as 
usually  to  preclude  shipments  of  that  character,  but  there  will  be  a 
large  amount  of  steam  vessel  tonnage  going  in  ballast  or  with  light 
cargoes  westward  through  the  canal  for  the  Chilean  nitrate,  the 
Hawaiian  sugar,  and  the  grain  and  lumber  of  the  west  coast  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  Such  being  the  case,  there  will  naturally 
be  more  or  less  coal  carried  as  ballast  to  those  ports  of  the  Pacific  and 
at  a  very  low  freight  rate.  Moreover,  vessels  may  be  owned  or  char- 
tered by  coal  companies  for  the  purposes  of  taking  westward  full  car- 
goes of  coal  and  bringing  eastward  nitrates,  sugar,  grain,  or  lumber. 

It  is  furthermore  probable  that  the  steel  barges  described  above,  if 
they  are  adopted  for  river  traffic,  will  be  towed  with  their  cargo  through 
the  canal  to  Central  American  and  west  South  American  ports  within  a 
thousand  miles  of  the  canal.  The  smooth  water  of  this  part  of  the 
Pacific  coast  will  be  favorable  for  towing,  and  there  will  be  economy 
in  shipping  direct  from  the  mine  to  the  Pacific  port  without  transfer 
of  cargo. 

In  view  of  these  favorable  facilities  for  the  transportation  of  coal 
westward  it  would  seem  conservative  to  expect  the  freight  costs  of 
sending  coal  from  the  Gulf  ports  and  the  Atlantic  ports  of  Norfolk 
and  Newport  News  to  points  5,000  knots  distant — that  is,  in  general 
terms,  to  northern  Chile,  Hawaii,  and  our  west  coast — will  be  as  low 
as  $2  per  ton  of  2,240  pounds,  and  possibly  less  in  exceptional  cases. 
The  foregoing  estimates  regarding  the  cost  of  coal  were  that,  with 
tne  existing  transportation  agencies,  coal  can  be  sold  at  tide  water  on 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  for  an  average  price  of  $2  per  gross  ton,  and 
that  the  costs  of  shipping  coal  to  the  Gulf  will  probably  be  less  in  the 
future  than  they  now  are.  Assuming  that  the  cost  of  coal  at  Gulf 
and  Atlantic  ports  will  at  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  canal 
range  from  $1.50  to  $2.25  per  gross  ton  (depending  upon  the  quality 
of  the  coal,  the  port  of  shipment,  and  the  conditions  of  the  market), 
that  the  ocean  freight  will  be  $2  per  ton,  and  the  canal  tolls  45  cents 
per  cargo  ton,  the  cost  of  delivering  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  and 
Alabama  coal  in  the  ports  of  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States, 
Mexico,  Central  America,  South  America  as  far  south  as  northern 
Chile,  and  the  ports  of  Hawaii  will  be  from  $3.95  to  $4.70  per  ton  of 
2,240  pounds.  Having  made  this  detailed  inquiry  concerning  the 
present  and  probable  future  costs  of  delivering  Appalachian  coal  at 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  seaboards  and  the  cost  of  shipping  this  coal  to 
Caribbean  ports,  it  is  now  possible  to  consider  whether  and  to  what 
extent  the  Puget  Sound  coal  and  that  from  the  eastern  third  of  the 


350  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

United  States  will  compete  in  Pacific  markets,  particularly  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  this  chapter  the  present  prices  at  which  Puget 
Sound  coal  was  selling  in  California  and  Oregon  were  given.  Those 
prices  can  doubtless  be  reduced  during  the  coming  ten  or  fifteen  years. 
According  to  the  annual  report  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey, 
the  average  cost  of  Washington  coal  at  the  mines  was  $1.78  in  1899, 
and  for  the  ten  years  ending  in  1899  the  average  was  $2.16  per  short 
ton.  As  the  supply  of  labor  becomes  greater,  and  when  the  mining 
operations  are  conducted  on  a  larger  scale,,  the  wages  of  labor  will  be 
somewhat  lower  and  the  total  cost  of  mining  will  be  less  per  ton;  how 
much  it  is  impossible  to  say.  Possibly  $1.50  per  short  ton  would  be  a 
fair  estimate.  An  average  railway  rate  from  the  Washington  mines 
to  the  seaboard  of  $1  a  ton  is  as  low  as  may  be  expected. 

These  estimates  would  make  the  average  cost  of  Washington  coal  at 
the  seaboard  $2.50  a  short  ton  or  $2.80  a  ton  of  2,210  pounds,  except 
for  the  coal  from  those  mines  close  to  the  seaboard,  which  could  sell 
their  product  at  a  lower  price  because  of  the  cheap  railway  haul.  As 
was  stated  above,  the  prices  of  coal  in  the  year  1900  in  Puget  Sound 
cities  ranged  from  $2.25  to  $3.25  per  gross  ton.  The  Vancouver  coal 
cost  $3.50  per  ton  on  an  average  in  the  British  Columbia  coaling  sta- 
tions. The  ocean  freight  rates  in  1900  were  high,  and  this  accounts 
for  differences  of  $2.50  to  $3  per  ton  then  prevailing  between  the 
Puget  Sound  and  San  Francisco  prices.  It  would  seem  that  $1.50  per 
ton  would  ordinarily  be  a  remunerative  ocean  rate  to  San  Francisco 
and  also  to  Hawaii.  On  the  basis  of  these  estimates  a  possible  future 
price  of  $1  a  gross  ton  for  Washington  coal  in  California  and  Hawaii 
may  probably  be  predicted.  British  Columbia  coal  will  be  obliged  to 
pay  the  tariff  of  67  cents  unless  the  existing  law  is  changed.  These 
estimates  are  based  on  too  meager  data  to  make  it  safe  to  accept  them 
as  being  closely  accurate,  but  they  are  probably  approximately  correct; 
and,  if  they  are,  they  indicate  that  Puget  Sound  coal  will  be  sold  in 
California  and  Hawaii  at  from  $1  to  $5  per  long  ton  by  the  time  the 
isthmian  canal  shall  have  been  opened.  To  Central  and  South  Ameri- 
can ports  the  freight  rates  would  doubtless  be  50  cents  a  ton  more  than 
the  California  and  Hawaiian  points  and  a  selling  price  of  from  $4.50 
to  $5.50  per  ton  of  2,210  pounds  would  need  to  be  predicted. 

The  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  these  estimates  regarding  the 
prices  at  which  Appalachian  and  Puget  Sound  coal  can  be  sold  in  the 
Pacific  markets  are  that  the  Appalachian  coal  will  doubtless  have  an 
advantage  over  that  from  Puget  Sound  in  Central  and  South  American 
ports  and  that  in  California  and  Hawaii  the  two  coal-producing  sec- 
tions will  be  active  competitors;  the  Puget  Sound  mine  owners  will 
apparently  be  able  to  sell  at  a  somewhat  lower  price  than  their  Eastern 
rivals  can  afford  to  accept,  but  the  producers  of  the  Eastern  and 
Southern  States  will  have  an  article  of  slightly  better  quality  to  offer. 
The  two  chief  reasons  why  the  Appalachian  coal  can  compete  in  the 
markets  so  near  Puget  Sound  are  the  lower  mining  costs  in  the  East 
and  the  exceptionally  cheap  transportation  that  will  be  available  from 
the  Appalachian  mines  to  the  seaboard  and  from  the  seaboard  west, 
both  in  steel  barges  and  in  vessels  seeking  the  Pacific  coast  for  the 
eastbound  cargoes  of  lumber,  grain,  sugar,  and  nitrates. 

The  general  conclusions  to  this  investigation  of  the  probable  sources 
of  the  future  coal  supply  for  the  commerce  and  countries  of  the  Pacific, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  351 

and  of  this  inquiry  into  the  effects  which  the  isthmian  canal  will  have 
upon  the  coal  trade  of  the  United  States  are: 

1.  That  the  coal  consumed  for  commercial  and  industrial  uses  on  the 
west  coast  of  the  American  continents,  in  Hawaii,  and  in  the  coaling 
stations  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  will  be  supplied  in 
the  future  mainly  from  the  mines  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
unless  the  opening-  of  the  Chinese  mines  should  revolutionize  the  coal 
trade  of  the  Pacific.  It  is  not  probable  that  coal  from  the  Orient  or 
Australia  will  in  the  future  be  sold  on  this  side  of  the  Pacific.  In  this 
case,  however,  China  is,  as  usual,  the  uncertain  and  indeterminable 
factor. 

2.  The  isthmian  canal  will  enlarge  the  export  markets  for  American 
coal  both  by  creating  a  demand  for  coal  in  Gulf,  West  Indian,  and 
Central  American  stations  to  supply  the  steamers  that  will  be  engaged 
in  our  own  and  Europe's  commerce  through  the  canal,  and  also  by 
opening  in  the  Pacific  ports  of  the  American  continents  a  coal  market 
that  is  now  important  and  which  is  certain  to  grow.  We  shall  secure 
the  larger  share  and  probably  nearly  all  of  a  coal  trade  that  is  now 
possessed  by  Great  Britain  and  Australia,  and  the  industrial  progress 
that  will  result  from  the  use  of  the  canal  will  add  to  the  volume  of 
that  trade. 

At  the  present  time  the  United  States  occupies  an  unimportant  place 
as  an  exporter  of  coal  to  foreign  countries  other  than  Canada  and 
Mexico,  and  while  this  promises  to  become  less  true  in  the  future  as 
the  cost  of  our  coal  declines  and  that  of  the  British  product  rises,  and 
as  the  purchases  of  our  high-grade  steaming  coal  by  foreign  govern- 
ments for  their  navies  occur  more  frequently,  nevertheless  British  coal 
producers  will  continue  to  have  the  great  advantage  which  they  now 
possess  of  abundant  facilities  for  shipping  their  coal  to  all  parts  of 
the  globe.  The  volume  of  Great  Britain's  total  imports  is  so  much 
larger  than  the  volume  of  her  exports  that  a  large  number  of  vessels 
are  regularly  obliged  to  start  in  ballast  from  the  United  Kingdom  on 
their  outbound  voyages. 

This  enables  the  coal  exporters  of  that  country  to  secure  very  low 
rates  to  distant  and  widely  scattered  foreign  markets  and  accounts  for 
the  fact  that  the  foreign  coal  shipments  from  Great  Britain  have  aver- 
aged 35,000,000  gross  tons  annualty  for  the  past  five  years. 

While  the  total  exports  from  the  United  States  will  continue  to  be 
more  bulky  than  our  imports,  there  will  be  a  large  tonnage  movement 
westward  through  the  isthmian  canal  of  vessels  with  part  cargoes  or 
in  ballast,  and  the  canal  promises  to  develop  an  important  foreign  and 
domestic  market  for  American  coal.  The  ability  to  distribute  the 
excellent  coal  of  the  United  States  extensively  among  the  countries  of 
the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  will  be  of  great  benefit  to  the 
industries  and  commerce  of  those  countries,  and  will  redound  to  the 
advantage  of  our  naval,  maritime,  and  industrial  interests. 

Chapter  VII. — The  isthmian  canal  and  the  iron  and  steel  industries 

of  the  United  States. 

The  United  States  holds  first  place  among  the  countries  of  the  world 
in  the  amount  of  coal  and  iron  ore  mined.  In  1899  three-tenths  of 
the  world's  total  output  of  iron  ore  and  32  per  cent  of  the  total  coal 
supply  were  produced  in  the  United  States,  and  the  production  of  both 


352  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  these  minerals  is  being  increased  rapidly,  not  with  the  prospect  of 
exhausting  a  limited  supply  of  raw  materials,  but  by  drawing  upon 
abundant  resources  that  have  but  recently  been  put  under  requisition. 
In  no  other  country  has  the  increase  in  the  amount  of  iron  ore  mined 
been  so  rapid  as  in  the  United  States.  Great  Britain  is  now  mining 
no  more  iron  ore  than  she  did  thirty  years  ago.  Germany,  including 
Luxemberg,  ranks  next  to  our  country  in  the  amount  of  iron  ore  pro- 
duced, and  the  production  has  developed  rapidly  during  recent  years; 
but  although  the  German  output  was  18,000,000  tons  in  1899,  a  large 
quantit}^  of  ore  had  to  be  imported,  and  the  amount  of  pig  iron  turned 
out  by  German  furnaces  was  barely  two-thirds  the  pig-iron  product  of 
the  United  States,  whose  productions  of  iron  equaled  13,620,703  tons 
of  pig  and  25,000,000  tons  of  ore. 

THE  UNITED  STATES  AS  AN  EXPORTER  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  PRODUCTS. 

Iron  and  steel  and  their  manufactures  now  constitute  the  fourth 
largest  class  of  exports  from  the  United  States,  breadstuff's,  raw  cot- 
ton, and  provisions  being  the  only  categories  having  a  greater  value. 
For  the  year  ending  June  30,  1900,  the  values  of  these  commodities 
were — 

Breadstuffs $262,  734,  026 

Raw  cotton 241 ,  832,  737 

Provisions,  meat,  and  dairy  products 184,  431 ,  716 

Iron  and  steel,  and  manufactures  of 121,  858,344 

The  growth  in  the  exportation  of  iron  and  steel  in  crude  and  manu- 
factured form  has  been  very  rapid  during  the  past  four  years.  In 
1896  the  total  value  was  but  slightly  more  than  one-third  of  that  of 
1900.  This  rapidly  growing  trade  is  widely  distributed,  the  most 
promising  markets  being  in  North  and  South  America  and  the  Orient. 
Of  steel  bars  and  rails  British  North  America,  Japan,  and  Asiatic 
countries  were  large  buyers.  Builders'  hardware,  saws,  and  tools 
found  45  per  cent  of  their  market  in  Europe,  but  Australia  was  also  ;i 
large  purchaser.  Wire  is  very  widely  distributed.  Electrical  machin- 
ery, printing  presses,  and  pumping  machinery  have  been  sold  mainly 
in  Europe,  and  also  in  the  colonies  of  European  nations.  Our  best 
foreign  markets  for  locomotives  are  Japan,  Canada,  Mexico,  Brazil,  and 
Russia.  American  producers  are  finding  their  way  into  the  markets 
of  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Among  the  letters  received  from  the  manufacturers  of  iron  and  steel 
was  one  from  a  firm  whose  plant  is  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  This 
firm  reported,  among  other  things: 

At  present  25  to  30  per  cent  of  our  products  arc  exported.  We  expect,  however, 
by  reason  of  our  location  at  tide  water, "to  constantly  increase  this  proportion  ami 
ultimately  export  from  50  to  75  per  cent. 

In  the  year  L899  the  capacity  of  this  linn  was  about  $10,000,000 
worth  of  products  per  annum.  At  the  time  this  letter  was  written  the 
firm  was  rilling  a  foreign  order  for  70,000  tons  of  rails  for  the  trans- 
Siberian  railway,  and  also  an  order  for  30,000  tons  of  rails  received 
from  the  government  of  Victoria,  Australia.  A  Philadelphia  firm 
shipped  two  full  vessel  cargoes  of  locomotives  to  China  and  Siberia  in 
1898,  one  full  cargo  in  1899,  and  another  shipload  in  1900,  150  in  all, 
sent  out  in  two  years. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  353 

A  firm  iii  the  eastern  part  of  Pennsylvania  reported: 

We  shipped  3,000  tons  of  plates  to  Australia  early  this  year,  and  similar  quanti- 
ties to  various  points,  especially  to  China  and  Japan.  *  *  *  We  shipped  many 
thousands  of  tons  to  the  Pacific  coast,  a  part  of  which  goes  to  New  Orleans  and 
thence  overland.     Some  goes  by  way  of  Panama  and  some  around  Cape  Horn. 

A  firm  manufacturing  $750,000  worth  of  files  and  rasps,  one-third 
of  which  is  sold  outside  of  the  United  States,  reported: 

We  have  lately  developed  a  constantly  growing  business  in  all  the  Eastern  coun- 
tries, Japan,  China,  and  the  Straits  Settlements.  We  are  also  selling  to  some  extent 
on  the  west  coast  of  South  America. 

One  of  the  largest  manufacturers  of  bridge  material  in  the  United 
States  reports: 

Business  is  developing  throughout  the  world,  having  sold  bridges  for  many  years 
to  South  American  countries,  and  lately  to  China,  Japan,  and  Russia.  Probably  10 
per  cent  of  our  present  business  is  for  export,  with  every  evidence  of  large  increase 
in  the  future. 

Examples  of  this  nature  might  be  given  in  large  number.  The  fore- 
going, however,  are  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  truth  of  the  general 
proposition  that  the  present  exportation  of  iron  and  steel  products 
from  the  United  States,  although  large,  is  but  the  beginning  of  a  rap- 
idly increasing  business  that  is  certain  to  assume  great  proportions. 
The  great  iron  and  steel  manufacturers  of  Pittsburg,  Cleveland,  and 
Birmingham  expect  this,  and  a  visit  to  their  great  establishments  and 
an  inspection  of  their  methods  of  manufacturing  and  distributing  their 
products  will  convince  any  observer  that  the  feelings  of  these  manu- 
facturers are  well  founded. 

THE    CONDITIONS    OF    PRESENT    COMPETITION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 

WITH    EUROPE. 

The  chief  competitors  that  the  United  States  must  meet  in  exporting 
iron  and  steel  manufactures  are  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Belgium. 
In  selling  for  delivery  in  Europe  we  are  at  a  disadvantage  as  regards 
costs  of  transportation,  and  must  expect  to  overcome  the  handicap,  if 
at  all,  by  being  more  inventive  and  b^v  introducing  more  economical 
processes  of  production  than  are  employed  by  our  rivals;  that  is,  by 
making  a  better  article  at  a  lower  cost  of  manufacture. 

That  we  are  now  able  to  sell  many  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel 
and  even  pig  iron  in  Europe  shows  that  great  progress  has  been  made 
in  the  United  States  in  reducing  the  expenses  of  production;  indeed, 
we  are  able  to  enter  all  markets  where  the  competitor  does  not  have  a 
decided  advantage  in  lower  costs  of  transportation.  The  cost  of  man- 
ufacturing iron  and  steel  is  lower  in  most  of  the  centers  of  production 
in  this  country  than  in  Europe,  and  the  expenses  are  certain  to 
decrease  during  the  coming  ten  or  fifteen  years.  The  continuation  of 
the  present  rapid  growth  in  our  foreign  sales  of  iron  and  steel  products 
is  essentially  a  question  of  securing  cheaper  transportation,  and  espe- 
cially to  South  American  and  trans-Pacific  countries. 

Most  foreign  countries,  however,  can  be  reached  more  economically 
under  existing  conditions  by  European  producers  than  by  American. 
Not  only  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  but  also  the  east  side  of 
that  continent  south  of  the  equator  can  at  present  be  reached  more 
cheaply  from  western  Europe  than  from  the  iron-producing  sections 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 23 


354  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  the  United  States.  The  Suez  Canal  has  brought  Europe  nearer 
than  the  United  States  is  to  the  East  Indies,  Australia,  China,  Japan, 
and  oriental  countries  generally;  and  until  the  American  canal  route 
becomes  available  American  manufacturers  and  exporters  of  iron  and 
steel  and  other  articles  will  hnd  their  lower  costs  of  production  largely 
offset  by  the  greater  expenses  of  transporting  their  commodities  to 
these  promising  foreign  markets. 

AMERICAN    IRON    AND    STEEL   TRADE    WITH    PACIFIC   COUNTRIES. 

The  isthmian  canal  will  affect  the  iron  and  steel  industries  of  the 
United  States  chiefly  by  lessening  the  time  and  expense  of  reaching 
the  Pacific  markets  of  our  own  and  foreign  countries.  These  are  the 
markets  in  which  Europe  and  America  will  strive  for  supremacy,  and 
the  prize  is  worth}^  of  zealous  effort.  Though  now  at  a  disadvantage 
in  the  competitive  struggle  for  this  trade,  the  American  producers 
have  already  secured  a  desirable  trade.  The  direct  exports  of  our 
iron  and  steel  products  to  foreign  Pacific  countries  in  1900  were  a* 
follows: 

Chinese  Empire $822,  074 

Japan 5,  460,  205 

British  Australia 7,  386,  358 

Chile 655,  935 

Bolivia 23,  006 

Ecuador 292,  314 

Peru  495, 4 1 1 

Total 15, 1 35,  303 

The  principal  exports  from  the  United  States  to  Pacific  countries 
are  and  will  be  breadstuff's,  lumber,  raw  and  manufactured  cotton, 
petroleum,  and  iron  and  steel  products.  The  exportation  of  the  last 
three  of  these  five  classes  of  commodities  will  be  facilitated  by  the 
canal;  and  in  the  case  of  iron  and  steel  products,  which  have  to  meet  a 
specially  strong  competition  from  Europe,  the  isthmian  waterway  will 
be  of  great  assistance  to  American  exporters.  The  table  indicates  that 
the  canal's  influence  will  be  exerted  where  important  results  are  pos- 
sible. The  total  exports  of  iron  and  steel  products  from  the  United 
States  in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1900,  amounted  to  $121,858,344, 
and  the  exports  of  those  commodities  to  Pacific  countries  comprised 
one-eighth  of  the  total. 

THE  MANNER  IN  WHICH  THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  WILL  AFFECT  THE 
AMERICAN  IKON  AM)  STEEL  INDUSTRIES  AS  A  WrHOLE  AND  THOSE 
OF   THE    SOUTHERN    STATES   IN    PARTICULAR. 

Iron  and  steel  and  the  manufactures  of  them  being  heavy  commodi- 
ties, with  a  relatively  low  value  per  unit  of  weight,  they  constitute  a 
class  of  traffic  for  which  water  transportation  is  especially  well  adapted. 
They  will  naturally  seek  the  canal  route  to  Pacific  markets.  The  future 
exports  of  iron  and  steel  will  be  sent  out  both  from  the  Southern  States 
and  from  those  north  of  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  rivers.  Of  the  iron 
ore  mined  in  1899,  19  per  cent,  or  4,800,000  tons,  were  taken  from  the 
mines  of  the  Southern  Slates;  72.6  per  cent  came  from  the  Lake 
Superior  region,  and  8.4  per  cent  from  other  States. 

The  Southern  States  have  special  advantages  for  tin1  manufacture 
and  exportation  of  pig  iron   because  of  the  juxtaposition  of  the  coal, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  355 

iron  ore,  and  limestone,  and  the  comparatively  short  distance  of  the 
furnaces  from  the  seaboard.  In  shipping  pig-  and  other  forms  of  iron 
to  our  Western  States,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  the  Pacific  const  of 
Central  and  South  America,  by  way  of  an  isthmian  canal,  the  Southern 
producers  and  the  Gulf  seaports  will  have  the  advantage  of  being  nearer 
the  canal  than  the  producers  in  other  sections  of  the  United  States  will 
be,  and  this  will  probably  give  the  Southern  mines,  furnaces,  and  mills 
a  large  share  of  the  iron  and  steel  export  trade  to  Pacific  markets. 
The  Northern  producer  will,  however,  by  no  means  be  debarred  from 
successful  competition,  because  the  North  Atlantic  ports  will  have  a 
greater  volume  of  shipping  and  trade  with  the  East  than  the  Southern 
ports  will  have,  and  consequently  more  abundant  facilities  for  dispatch- 
ing their  exports. 

The  iron  and  steel  manufacturers  of  this  country  anticipate  a  large 
foreign  trade  with  Pacific  countries.  An  ironmaster  of  Birmingham, 
Ala.,  states: 

The  canal  would  open  to  this  district  a  demand  for  pig  iron  from  the  Pacific  eoasd, 
including  South  America,  now  filled  from  England  because  of  the  absence  of  freight 
communications  from  Birmingham,  which  could  otherwise  supply  it  more  cheaply. 
It  would  open  up  a  demand  for  pig  iron  in  Honolulu,  Japan,  China,  and  Australia, 
which  would  then  be  supplied  to  them  more  cheaply  than  from  European  markets. 
It  would  open  up  a  demand  in  the  last-named  countries  for  cast-iron  pipe,  which  at 
present  is  largely  supplied  from  Belgium,  which  could  then  be  more  cheaply  sup- 
plied from  this  district. 

In  Pittsburg  the  iron  and  steel  manufacturers,  who  already  ship 
extensively  to  Pacific  markets,  believe  that  the  present  business  could 
be  much  increased  by  the  use  of  an  isthmian  canal,  and  a  special  report 
prepared  for  the  canal  commission  by  the  chamber  of  commerce  of 
that  city  lays  stress  upon  the  possibility  of  exporting  from  the  section 
of  which  Pittsburg  is  the  industrial  center  large  quantities  not  only  of 
iron  and  steel  products  but  also  of  coal,  glass,  petroleum,  and  pottery. 
In  Cleveland,  Ohio,  one  firm  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  relatively 
high-priced  iron  and  steel  products  in  that  city  and  elsewhere  reported 
in  1900  that  it  was  shipping  annually  to  foreign  Pacific  markets  77,000 
net  tons,  and  was  doing  a  large  business  with  the  west  coast  of '  the 
United  States,  the  amount  of  which  was  withheld  for  special  reasons. 
Another  firm  having  headquarters  in  Cleveland  and  doing  an  annual 
business  of  over  $21,000,000  in  mining  iron  and  coal  and  manufactur- 
ing pig  iron  informed  the  committee  of  the  canal  commission  that— 

The  opening  of  a  canal  across  the  American  isthmus  would  prove  of  very  great 

benefit  to  the  iron  and  steel  industries  to  whom  we  sell  our  raw  materials hence  of 

great  benefit  to  us.  The  development  of  trade  in  the  Orient  promises  a  large  volume 
of  business  to  the  iron  and  steel  industries  of  the  world.  With  a  canal  the  United 
States  should,  and  in  our  judgment  would,  control  this  trade. 

From  the  reports  prepared  for  the  commission  by  the  commercial 
organizations  of  Pittsburg,  Cleveland,  and  Birmingham  it  is  believed 
that  these  statements  of  large  iron  and  steel  manufacturers  in  these 
cities  represent  the  views  held  by  practically  all  of  those  interested  in 
the  iron  and  steel  industries  of  the  United  States. 

Chapter  VIII. — The  canal  and  the  shipbuilding  and  maritime 
interests  of  the  United  States. 

The  shipbuilding  industry  and  the  merchant  marine  are  of  great 
importance  to  the  industrial,  commercial,  and  naval  welfare  of  our 
country.     There  are  few  industries  of  equal  magnitude  that  require  a 


356  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

larger  number  of  auxiliary  business  activities,  that  employ  so  large  a 
force  of  skilled  labor,  and  that  do  more  to  call  forth  inventive  genius. 
The  permanent  strength  and  efficiency  of  our  merchant  marine  and 
our  Navy  are  dependent  upon  our  having  well-equipped  yards,  owned 
by  trained  builders  with  inventive  capacity.  However  much  men 
may  differ  as  to  the  policy  to  be  adopted  for  building  up  our  merchant 
marine,  they  are  agreed  as  to  the  necessity  for  having  a  well-developed 
shipbuilding  industry. 

The  desirability  of  having  a  large  merchant  marine  under  the  Ameri- 
can flag  is  also  generally  acknowledged.  "The  more  facilities  the 
more  business."  The  existence  of  a  greater  number  of  vessels  con- 
necting our  leading  seaports  with  various  parts  of  the  world  would  be 
of  assistance  to  us  in  developing  our  foreign  trade.  It  is  possible  to 
secure  a  moderate  amount  of  trade  with  a  distant  section  of  the  world 
by  depending  entirely  upon  chartered  vessels,  but  much  more  can  be 
accomplished  with  the  aid  of  regular  lines  of  ships.  The  regular 
liners  are  needed  not  only  for  the  passenger  and  mail  services  between 
our  own  and  foreign  countries,  but  also  for  carrying  on  trade  at  scat- 
tered points  where  the  business  is  not  large  enough  to  warrant  the  use 
of  chartered  steamers.  In  building  up  our  trade  with  the  Far  East, 
and  with  South  America,  we  need  lines  of  vessels  as  well  as  chartered 
ships.     Neither  agency  is  sufficient  b}r  itself. 

The  value  of  a  large  merchant  marine  as  a  training  school  for  the 
Nav}r,  and  as  a  source  from  which  to  draw  both  men  and  vessels  when 
a  sudden  expansion  of  the  naval  fleet  becomes  necessary,  is  a  fact 
recognized  in  the  naval  andmiaritime  policy  of  many  countries. 

THE    CANAL    AND    SHIPBUILDING. 

The  isthmian  canal  will  operate  as  has  the  Suez  Canal,  and  hasten 
the  change  from  sail  to  steam  power  in  ocean  commerce.  By  doing 
this  the  isthmian  waterway  will  modify  both  the  shipbuilding  and  the 
ship-operating  industries.  Inasmuch  as  few,  if  any,  steamers  will  be 
constructed  with  wooden  hulls,  the  canal  will  necessitate  a  larger  and 
earlier  reorganization  than  would  otherwise  occur  in  many  of  the  ship- 
building plants  now  employed  in  constructing  wooden  vessels.  This 
change  from  wooden  to  steel  vessels  may  be  a  burden  to  some  builders, 
but  the  country  as  a  whole  will  be  benefited. 

One  sure  result  of  the  opening  of  an  isthmian  waterway  will  be  a 
larger  coasting  trade  between  our  two  seaboards.  A  larger  coasting 
fleet  will  be  required,  and  the  vessels  for  this  fleet  must  be  built  in 
American  yards.  The  coasting  fleet  engaged  in  traffic  through  a  canal 
will  consist  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  of  steamers."  A  part  of  our  pres- 
ent coasting  vessels  will  doubtless  use  the  canal,  but  it  is  probable  that 
a  large  number  of  ships  will  be  built  especially  for  the  long-distance 
traffic  that  will  be  carried  on  through  the  canal.  Most  of  them  will 
be  comparatively  large  ships,  and  will  be  freight  vessels  of  the  most 
modern  design.  The  use  of  steel  barges  on  the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  War- 
rior, and  other  rivers  promises  to  enlarge  the  demand  for  those  ves- 
sels, and  they  must  be  constructed  in  American  yards.  Likewise  an 
increase  in  the  exports  of  iron  and  steel  products  will  necessitate  the 

"Consult  following  chapter  <>n  "The  use  of  the  canal  by  sailiii!_r  vessels." 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  357 

handling  of  more  ore  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  thus  add  to  the  tonnage 
of  vessels  constructed. 

In  securing-  data  for  the  discussion  of  the  effect  which  the  canal 
would  have  on  the  shipbuilding  and  maritime  interests  of  the  United 
States  circular  letter  containing  six  inquiries  was  sent  to  the  Ameri- 
can firms  building  and  operating  ships.  Replies  were  received  from 
forty  of  the  persons  addressed,  and  in  most  of  the  communications 
received  each  question  was  carefully  answered.  One  of  the  interrog- 
atories was,  Will  the  opening  of  an  isthmian  canal  and  the  develop- 
ment of  its  traffic  stimulate  American  shipbuilding?  Will  the  larger 
demand  for  coasting  vessels  so  increase  the  output  of  American  yards 
as  to  enable  shipbuilders  to  construct  all  ships  more  economically,  and 
thus  to  compete  successfully  with  foreign  builders  in  the  construction 
of  vessels  for  the  foreign  trade? 

Nearly  all  the  responses  to  this  query  were  in  the  affirmative.  The 
genera'  character  of  the  answers  may  be  illustrated  by  quoting  from 
two  of  the  letters;  one  received  from  an  Eastern  shipbuilder  and  the 
other  from  a  west  coast  shipowner.  The  statement  of  the  shipbuilder 
was: 

In  my  judgment  the  opening  of  the  isthmian  canal  and  the  development  of  its 
traffic  would  stimulate  American  shipbuilding  to  the  extent  of  an  increased  demand 
for  vessels  to  be  used  in  trade  affected  by  said  canal.  As  a  rule  increased  demand 
develops  increased  sources  of  supply,  and  the  cost  of  product  is  invariably  reduced 
in  proportion  of  increased  business  to  fixed  expenses  of  any  manufacturing  establish- 
ment, and  therefore  the  canal  would  in  this  case  tend  to  enable  shipbuilders  to  con- 
struct ships  more  economically  and  more  surely  to  compete  with  foreign  builders. 

The  response  of  the  shipowner  was: 

The  increased  facility  afforded  for  the  transfer  of  American  vessels  from  ocean  to 
ocean  in  trading  between  American  ports  will  call  for  an  increased  number  of  vessels, 
which  undoubtedly  will  result  in  new  shipyards  being  established  (both  for  the 
building  and  repairing  of  our  vessels),  which  could  be  called  upon  when  needed  for 
the  construction  of  vessels  to  carry  on  our  foreign  import  and  export  trade.  We 
already  know  that  structural  steel  has  been  produced  in  the  United  States  cheaper 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world,  owing  to  the  almost  inexhaustible  beds  of  iron 
ore  in  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes,  as  well  as  in  other  sections,  and  the  skill  and 
economy  with  which  it  is  mined  and  worked.  When  we  combine  this  advantage 
with  the  facility  which  will  be  developed  by  a  large  increase  in  our  capacity  for 
building  coasting  vessels,  we  see  no  reason  why  in  the  future  ocean  carrying  vessels 
of  the  best  class  may  not  be  built  as  cheaply  here,  if  not  already  done,  as  in  any 
other  country. 

The  cost  of  building  ships  in  American  yards  has  declined  largely 
during  recent  years  with  the  fall  in  the  prices  of  iron  and  steel  and 
coal,  and  with  the  introduction  of  more  economical  processes  of  han- 
dling material  and  doing  work.  Most  of  the  large  American  shipyards 
are  new  and  are  equipped  with  the  most  approved  labor-saving 
machinery.  The  labor  costs  are  said  to  be  higher  in  American  than 
in  foreign  yards,  but  whether  the  cost  of  labor  per  unit  of  work  done 
is  greater  in  the  United  States  is  hard  to  determine.  In  most  lines  of 
iron  and  steel  manufactures  the  labor  costs  of  production  in  the  United 
States  can  hardly  be  higher  than  in  Europe.  For  many  commodities  the 
labor  outlay  is  undoubtedly  less,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  the  labor 
costs  of  building  ships  in  the  United  States  will  continue  permanently 
higher  than  in  Europe.  It  is,  however,  hardly  to  be  expected  that 
American  builders  can  construct  the  small  merchant  tonnage  now 
being  built  by  them  at  as  low  a  cost  per  ton  of  shipping  as  can  the 


358  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

foreign  builders.  Ships  are  built  by  retail  in  this  country  and  by  the 
wholesale  abroad.  "The  British  shipbuilders  build  many  vessels  from 
the  same  plans,  buying-  or  making  not  only  duplicate  or  triplicate  parts, 
shapes,  machines,  etc.,  but  like  parts  by  the  dozen  or  score." a 

The  tonnage  now  being  constructed  by  the  American  builders  is 
nearly  all  for  the  coastwise  and  inland  commerce,  from  which  foreign- 
built  vessels  are  excluded — that  is,  for  the  home  market.  It  is,  how- 
ever, probable  that  the  American  shipbuilding  industry  will  repeat  the 
history  which  other  iron  and  steel  manufactures  have  had  during  the 
past  ten  years.  From  importers  of  large  quantities  of  iron  and  steel 
products  we  have  become  large  exporters  of  them,  and  are  now  rapidly 
rinding  our  way  into  new  markets.  The  present  vigorous  growth  of 
the  shipyards  in  the  United  States  is  doubtless  but  an  earnest  of  a  much 
larger  future  output,  that  will  supply  not  only  the  home  market,  but 
will  find  its  way  largely  into  the  competitive  field.  The  increase  which 
will  occur  in  our  domestic  water  commerce  during  the  coming  decade, 
and  particularly  after  the  isthmian  canal  shall  have  been  opened,  will 
enlarge  the  tonnage  built  in  our  yards,  tend  to  lower  the  costs  of  con- 
struction and  to  induce  American  builders  to  seek  foreign  markets  for 
their  ships.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  vessels  built  will  be  accu- 
mulatively beneficial  to  American  builders.  A  larger  American  fleet 
means  more  repairing  in  the  United  States,  and  this  will  be  a  valuable 
aid  to  our  ship}^ards. 

THE    OWNERSHIP   OF   OCEAN   VESSELS   BY    EXPORTERS. 

During  the  investigation  of  the  relation  of  the  canal  to  the  maritime 
interests  of  the  United  States  some  gentleman  well  versed  in  maritime 
matters  expressed  the  opLi'.Dn  that  a  considerable  tonnage  was  to  be 
added  to  our  merchant  marine  engaged  in  foreign  commerce  by  the 
purchase  and  operation  of  vessels  by  the  large  American  manufactur- 
ing concerns  which  are  now  rapidly  developing  a  heavy  foreign  trade. 
Manufacturing  for  export  is  already  largely  concentrated  in  the  hands 
of  large  combinations  of  producers,  and  some  of  these  combinations 
now  mid  their  foreign  trade  so  important  that  they  are  considering  the 
desirability  of  providing  themselves  with  ocean  vessels.  One  of  the 
largest  firms  of  the  United  States  stated  in  a  letter  to  the  Commission 
that— 

The  export  business  of  our  company  has  <*rown  to  such  a  remarkable  extent  that 
we  have  found  it  Impossible  to  rely  upon  the  customary  means  of  transportation  for 
delivery  of  our  goods.  For  some  time  past  we  have  Ween  chartering  ocean  steamers 
for  varying  periods  of  lime,  and  have  found  it  quite  difficult  to  cover  our  require- 
ments even  by  this  method.  The  ships  we  have  so  far  built  for  the  lake  trade  are 
too  large  to  pass  through  the  present  canals  to  the  Atlantic,  but  we  have  used  some 
boats,  owned  by  other  companies,  by  the  Welland  ('anal  route,  and  find  this  practi- 
cable. The  matter  of  providing  proper  means  of  transportation  for  the  future  is  a 
very  important  one;  and  while  wo  have  not  as  yet  decided  the  question,  we  are 
seriously  considering  the  building  of  our  own  ships. 

A  report  lias  come  to  hand  that  this  question  was  decided  in  the 
affirmative. 

The  Northwestern  Steamship  Company  in  April  and  May,  1901, 
inaugurated  a  service  between  Chicago  and  Hamburg  and  Liverpool. 
Four  strainers  were  put  into  operation,  each  having  a  capacity  of  3,506 

Report  of  Commissioner  of  Navigation,  L900,  page  33. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  359 

tons  dead  weight.  Nineteen  days  will  be  taken  for  the  voyage  from 
Chicago  through  the  Great  Lakes,  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  and  across  the  Atlantic.  The  vessels  are  built  in 
Chicago,  and  their  cargo  will  consist  of  grain  and  the  manufactures  of 
that  city  and  the  country  commercially 'tributary  to  it. 

For  reasons  stated  in  another  part  of  this  report,  it  is  believed  that 
the  exportation  of  coal  from  the  United  States  is  going  to  increase 
and  that  it  will  assume  large  proportions  after  the  canal  is  opened. 
The  exportation  of  iron  and  steel  products  from  the  United  States  is 
growing  and  is  certain  to  increase.  The  large  corporations  engaged 
in  mining  and  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel,  as  well  as  those  in 
the  lumbering  business,  will  doubtless  tind  that  provision  must  be 
made  by  themselves  for  handling  their  water-borne  foreign  trade. 
To  a  considerable  extent  the  vessels  which  carry  the  exported  oil  are 
owned  by  the  manufacturers  of  the  oil.  A  part  of  this  exported  lum- 
ber is  handled  by  the  men  who  manufacture  the  commodity.  The 
heavy  purchases  of  European  vessels  by  American  capitalists  during 
the  spring  of  1901  was  doubtless  in  part  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
better  facilities  for  handling  the  export  trade.  The  purchasers  are 
also  largely  engaged  in  manufacturing  for  export. 

THE    CANAL   AND   THE    AMERICAN   MERCHANT   MARINE. 

The  owneiship  and  operation  of  ocean  vessels  by  the  large  industrial 
firms  as  a  part  of  their  business,  which  has  now  in  many  cases  come 
to  include  the  entire  process  of  obtaining  the  raw  materials,  convert- 
ing them  into  usable  commodities,  and  placing  them  in  the  hands  of 
the  consumer,  whether  foreign  or  domestic,  will,  to  some  extent,  solve 
the  question  of  our  securing  a  larger  merchant  marine  owned  by 
Americans.  Whether  these  vessels  owned  by  American  producers 
will  be  sailed  under  our  flag,  or  under  that  of  some  foreign  nation,  will 
be  determined  by  forces  over  which  the  isthmian  canal  will  have  but 
slight  influence. 

Some  of  the  vessels  employed  in  the  commerce  between  our  Eastern 
seaboard  and  the  trans-Pacific  countries  will  doubtless  desire  to  partici- 
pate in  the  interoceanic  coasting  trade  of  the  United  States,  and  in 
order  to  do  so  they  will  need  to  have  the  American  registry.  The 
action  of  Congress  in  restricting  the  commerce  of  Porto  Rico  and 
Hawaii  with  the  United  States  to  American  ships  suggests  that  our 
trade  with  the  Philippines  may  also  be  limited  to  the  vessels  flying 
our  flag.  Should  Congress  take  such  action  regarding  the  Philippines, 
a  considerable  share  of  the  commerce  of  our  Atlantic  and  Gulf  ports 
with  Japan  and  China  will  be  carried  in  American  vessels,  because 
such  ships  would  be  able  to  participate  in  both  our  Philippine  and 
foreign  trade. 

Any  benefit  conferred  upon  our  shipbuilding  industry  will  indirectly 
aid  in  the  enlargement  of  the  tonnage  of  American  vessels  engaged  in 
the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States.  If  the  American  purchaser 
could  secure  vessels  at  home  as  cheaply  as  in  foreign  yards,  one  of  the 
present  reasons  for  registering  his  ships  under  the  flag  of  some  other 
nation  would  be  removed.  The  future  growth  of  the  merchant  marine 
under  the  flag  of  the  United  States  will  depend  on  numerous  factors, 
some  economic  and  some  political.  The  construction  of  the  isthmian 
canal  will  apparently  affect  that  growth  favorably. 


360 


KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Chapter  IX. — Concerning  the  use  of  an  isthmian  canalhy  sailing  vessels. 

In  order  to  reach  intelligent  conclusions  regarding'  the  use  which 
sailing  vessels  will  make  of  a  canal,  there  are  at  least  three  questions 
that  must  receive  consideration.  The  first  general  question  is  con- 
cerning the  place  which  those  vessels  now  hold  in  the  commerce  of  the 
world  and  of  the  United  States;  the  rate  at  which  steam  has  been  dis 
placing  sail  tonnage  in  our  own  and  foreign  shipping  during  the  past 
twenty-five  years,  and  the  commercial  position  which  the  sailing  vessel 
will  occupy  fifteen  years  hence  should  the  present  tendency  to  substitute 
the  engine  for  the  sail  continue  to  prevail.  Another  subject  meriting 
careful  inquiry  is  whether  there  are  special  classes  of  traffic,  such  as 
lumber,  grain,  nitrates,  and  unrefined  sugar,  which  have  found  the 
steamer  the  more  economical  carrier.  If  there  are  commodities  that 
can  be  freighted  more  cheaply  by  sail  than  by  steam,  are  they  articles 
that  would  naturally  be  carried  through  the  canal?  The  third  general 
question  is  whether  an  isthmian  canal,  either  in  Nicaragua  or  at  Panama, 
is  a  waterway  adapted  to  navigation  by  sailing  vessels.  Are  the  con- 
ditions of  winds  and  currents  that  prevail  at  the  approaches  to  the 
canal  such  as  to  enable  the  sailor  to  use  the  waterway;  and  if  the  route 
is  possible  for  the  sailing  vessel,  will  the  economies  resulting  from  its 
use  be  sufficient  to  induce  the  owners  of  such  ships  to  adopt  the  trans- 
isthmian  route?  In  the  discussion  that  follows  these  three  general 
questions  will  be  considered  in  the  above  order  of  statement. 

THE   PLACE   OF   THE    SAILING  VESSEL  IN  THE   COMMERCE  OF  THE  WORLD 
AND   OF   THE    UNTIED    STATES. 

That  the  sailing  vessel  is  giving  place  to  the  steamer,  both  on  the 
high  seas  and  in  domestic  waters,  is  a  well-known  fact,  to  the  significance 
of  which  attention  has  been  drawn  on  many  occasions.  The  United 
States,  however,  having  certain  obvious  advantages  over  other  nations 
for  the  construction  of  wooden  ships,  has  given  up  tire  use  of  sails 
more  slowly  than  any  other  important  maritime  nation,  with  the  pos- 
sible exception  of  Norway.  In  the  enormous  traffic  of  our  Great 
Lakes  we  nave  come  to  use  steam  almost  exclusively,  but  this  is  not 
the  case  with  our  seagoing  marine. 

The  report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Navigation  for 
1899  contains  tables  showing  the  extent  to  which  the  world's  seagoing 
sail  tonnage  has  declined  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  and  the 
increase  which  has  taken  place  during  the  same  period  in  the  world's 
seagoing  tonnage.  The  tables  are  taken  from  the  records  of  the 
Bureau  Veritas.     The  table  regarding  the  sail  tonnage  is  as  follows: 

Seagoing  sail  tonnage. 


( tountrj . 


Great  Britain 
United  stairs 

Norway 

hilly 

Germany 

France 

All  others  ... 

Total  .. 


5, 320, 089 
2, 182,838 
1,187,177 
I.  126,032 
898,962 
768,059 
2,807,689 


6,696,018 

2,075,882 

1,874,824 

963,626 

914,674 

596,933 

2,796,524 


4,215,634 

L,  913, 090 

1,328,296 

718,889 

7:?7. 028 

::.vj.  us 

2,870,934 


14,185,836         14,317,430         Ll,636,289 


2,910,666 
1 ,  286, 869 

1,111,  1X2 

163,  767 
686,937 
279,412 

•2,  073,  767 


8,693,769 


Decrease 

from  1ST  I 

to  1899. 


Per  cent. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


oox 


The  world's  seagoing  tonnage  declined  40  per  cent  during  the  twenty- 
five  years  from  1874  to  1899,  and  the  decline  in  the  tonnage  of  the 
sailing  vessels  in  our  merchant  marine  has  proceeded  pari  passu  with 
the  change  occurring  in  the  world's  marine.  This  table,  however, 
presents  only  one  side  of  the  change  that  has  been  taking  place.  When 
we  come  to  study  the  figures  of  the  growth  of  steam  tonnage,  we  fin4 
that  the  United  States  has  fallen  far  behind  her  rivals.  The  following 
table  presents  the  gross  tonnage  of  the  seagoing  steamships  of  over 
100  gross  tons  operated  under  the  Hags  of  the  various  maritime  nations 
of  the  world.  For  purposes  of  comparison  there  are  appended  to  the 
table  the  statistics  of  the  tonnage  of  the  steamships  engaged  in  foreign 
trade  under  the  American  flag: 

Seagoing  tonnage  of  the  world. 


1873-74. 

1878-79. 

1888-89. 

1898-99. 

Country. 

Tonnage. 

Per 
cent. 

Tonnage. 

Per 
cent. 

Tonnage. 

Per 
cent. 

Tonnage. 

Per 
cent. 

1873-74  to 
1898-99. 

Great  Britain 

2,621,431 
483, 040 
316, 765 
204,894 
138, 675 
85,045 
72, 753 
67,522 
41,602 

CO.  4 
11.2 
7.4 
4.8 
3.3 
1.9 
1.7 
1.6 
.9 

3, 465, 187 
609, 101 
335, 219 
253, 667 
152, 708 

84, 421 
116, 149 
104, 702 

63, 331 

62.4 
10.8 
5.9 
4.5 
2.7 
1.6 
2.0 
1.8 
.9 

6, 873, 552 
535, 345 
752, 028 
662, 331 
395, 685 
276, 326 
197, 748 
163, 556 
160, 558 
115, 088 
913, 720 

62.3 

4.8 
6.8 
5.9 
3.5 
2.5 
1.8 
1.5 
1.4 
1.0 
8.3 

10,993,111 
810, 800 
952, 682 

1,625,521 
520, 847 
420, 880 
363, 200 
358, 415 
628, 493 
439, 609 

1,773,674 

58.5 

4.2 
5.1 
8.3 
2.7 
2.2 
1.9 
1.8 
3.3 
2.3 
9.5 

Per  cent. 
311 
68 
200 
693 
275 
395 
399 
430 
1,410 

Italy 

Japan  

293, 466 

6.8 

420, 690 

7.5 

504 

Total 

4,328,193  !  100.00 

5, 595, 175 

100.0 

11, 045, 937 

100.0   18,887,132 

100.00 

336 

Atlantic  coast 

Pacific  ci  inst 

165,280    

20,451  ' 

141,145  1 

20,010  j 

129, 961 
57, 144 

227, 731 
131,953 

38 
545 

The  world's  seagoing  steam  tonnage  has  grown  from  4,328,193  gross 
tons  to  18,887,132  gross  tons,  an  increase  of  336  per  cent,  during  the 
twenty-five  years.  Our  seagoing  steam  tonnage,  however,  has  risen 
only  68  per  cent,  the  percentage  of  increase  being  only  one-third  that 
of  France,  the  nation  next  above  us  who  are  the  lowest  on  the  list. 
While  we  have  been  raising  our  maritime  steam  tonnage  from  483,040 
gross  tons  in  1874  to  810,800  in  1899,  Great  Britain  has  lifted  her 
figures  from  2,624,431  gross  tons  to  10,993,111,  an  increase  of  311  per 
cent  over  a  tonnage  that  had  already  reached  large  proportions  at  the 
beginning  of  the  period. 

With  the  causes  of  our  decline  in  the  ocean-carrying  trade  we  are 
not  here  concerned.  It  is  evident  that  the  decline  in  our  seagoing  sail 
tonnage  presents  no  exception  to  the  tendency  of  all  countries  to  sub- 
stitute steam  for  sails.  Should  our  maritime  sail  tonnage  decline  only 
40  per  cent  during  the  coming  twenty-five  years,  it  will  be  reduced  to 
771,515  gross  tons;  but  there  are  strong  reasons  for  thinking  that  the 
substitution  of  the  engine  for  the  sail  will  proceed  more  rapidly  in  the 
future  than  it  has  in  the  past.  As  the  sailing  vessels  wear  out  they 
will  be  replaced  by  steamers.  The  American  merchant  marine  engaged 
in  the  foreign  trade  has  declined  to  small  proportions,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  economic  and  political  conditions  favorable  to  the  restora- 
tion of  our  carrying  trade  are  rapidly  developing,  and  that  our  new 
marine  must  almost  certainly  consist  of  steamships.  The  statistics  of 
the  tonnage  of  sailing  vessels  and  steamers  constructed  in  the  United 


362 


REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


States  during  the  five  years  from  1894  to  1899  tend  to  confirm  this  view. 
During  these  five  years  296,933  gross  tons  of  sailing  vessels  were 
built  in  American  yards  and  570,831  tons  of  steamers.  The  figures, 
moreover,  include  the  vessels  built  for  the  fleet  on  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  this  fleet  consists  partly  of  schooner-rigged  barges  that  are  class- 
ified as  sailing  vessels,  although  the}r  are  practically  always  towed. 

In  the  future  construction  of  ocean-going  vessels  it  is  probable  that 
we  shall  do  as  we  have  done  in  constructing  our  lake  fleet,  and  substi- 
tute steamers  for  sailing  vessels.  The  gross  tonnage  of  the  vessels  on 
the  Great  Lakes  in  1875,  1880,  1890,  and  1899  (not  including  canal 
boats  and  small  barges),  is  shown  by  the  following  table,  which  also 
indicates  the  division  of  the  tonnage  between  sailing  vessels  and 
steamers : 


Numbt  r  and  gross  tonnage  of  sailing  vessels  and  steamers  on  the  Great  Lakes,  1875,  18S0, 

1890,  and  1899. 


Year. 

Sailing. 

Steam. 

Number. 

Tons. 

Number. 

Tons. 

1875 

1,710 

1 ,  459 

1,272 

874 

339, 787 
304,933 
328,656 
318, 175 

891 

202. 307 

1880 

931             '21  2,  045 

1890 .                           

1,527            652,923 

]  899 .                                     

1,732         1.014. 501 

The  steam  tonnage  of  the  lakes  grew  from  203,29s  tons  in  1879  to 
1,011,561  tons  in  1899,  a  foretold  increase  in  twenty  years.  The  sail- 
ing vessels,  although  they  have  decreased  in  number,  have  apparently 
not  declined  in  tonnage.  This  is  more  apparent  than  real  because,  as 
was  stated  above,  a  part  of  the  tonnage,  classified  as  sailing,  consists 
of  schooner-rigged  barges.  The  sailing  vessel  has  ceased  to  be  an 
important  factor  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

It  may  probably  be  assumed  that  the  canal  across  the  Isthmus  will 
have  been  completed  and  put  in  operation  by  1911;  according  to  the 
foregoing  facts,  what  will  then  be  the  position  of  the  sailing  vessel 
in  our  maritime  fleet?  If  the  rate  of  change  from  sail  to  steam  that 
has  taken  place  during  the  ten  years  from  L889  to  1899  should  simply 
be  continued,  our  seagoing  sail  tonnage  will  have  declined  to  about 
650,000  gross  tons  by  1911,  and  our  seagoing  steam  tonnage  will  have 
grown  to  about  I, Hoi), 000  gross  tons.  But  the  increase  in  our  sea- 
going steam  tonnage  will  undoubtedly  be  much  more  rapid  during  the 
coming  fifteen  years  than  it  has  been  during  the  past  decade  and  a 
half.  During  the  fifteen  years  from  1884  to  L899  the  steam  tonnage 
on  the  Great  Lakes  increased  214  per  cent.  If  the  seagoing  steam 
tonnage  of  the  United  States  in  189!),  810,800  gross  tons,  should 
increase  by  a  like  percentage  during  fifteen  years,  it  would  amount 
to  2,546,000  gross  tons  in  1914.  The  assumption  of  such  a  growth  as 
this  in  our  seagoing  steam  tonnage  during  the  first  decade  and  a  half 
of  the  twentieth  century  does  not  seem  unwarranted.  An  estimate 
would  seem  to  be  conservative  that  placed  our  sail  tonnage  at  about 
one-sixth  of  our  total  tonnage  in  1914.  Should  the  sailing  vessel  after 
1914  continue  to  give  way  to  the  steamer,  the  Isthmian  canal  will  be 
used  by  sailing  vessels  only  to  a  limited  extent. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  363 

THE    FUTURE    USE  OF  SAILING  VESSELS  BY  SPECIAL  CLASSES   OF   TRAFFIC. 

There  are  some  kinds  of  freight,  such  as  coal,  lumber,  grain,  nitrate 
of  soda,  and  sugar,  especially  adapted  to  movement  by  sail  because 
they  are  shipped  as  full  vessel  cargoes  and  do  not  need  to  be  trans- 
ported rapidly  or  delivered  promptly.  Will  this  traffic  continue  to 
find  the  sailing  vessel  the  more  economical  carrier? 

If  the  sailing  vessel  is  to  be  used  for  the  carriage  of  commodities 
that  can  be  shipped  as  full  cargoes,  the  prevalent  type  of  vessel  will 
probably  be  large  five  and  six  masted  schooners  capable  of  carrying 
5,000  or  more  tons  of  cargo.  Two  six-masted  schooners  have  been 
built  on  the  Maine  coast  during  1899  and  several  other  large  four  and 
five  masted  sailing  vessels  have  been  built  during  the  past  two  years. 
One  of  the  two  six-masted  schooners  is  302  feet  11  inches  long  on  the 
keel  and  345  feet  long  on  deck.  She  has  48  feet  3  inches  beam  and 
is  22  feet  6  inches  deep;  her  gross  tonnage  is  2,974,  the  net  tonnage 
2,743,  and  she  will  carry  a  little  over  5,000  tons  of  coal.  According 
to  the  owner,  this  vessel  "was  built  expressly  for  the  coal  trade,  yet 
she  is  built  so  as  to  go  to  any  part  of  the  world  with  any  kind  of  cargo." 

During  1899  and  1900  there  was  a  revival  in  the  business  of  building 
sailing  vessels,  both  wooden  and  steel,  caused  by  the  great  scarcity  of 
ships,  the  high  ocean  freight  rates,  the  high  price  of  steel,  and  the 
unusual  price  of  coal  in  Europe;  but  this  was  probably  a  temporary 
increase  in  the  construction  of  sail  tonnage.  If  the  sailing  vessel  is  in 
the  future  to  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  ocean  marines  of  the 
world,  it  will  be  because  of  its  special  adaptability  to  the  transportation 
of  such  commodities  as  sugar,  coal,  nitrates,  grain,  and  lumber.  The 
best  basis  for  deductions  as  to  the  future  is  the  present  practice  of  the 
large  shippers  and  carriers  of  these  special  commodities. 

The  transportation  of  nitrates  from  Chile  to  Europe  and  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  of  the  United  States  is  well  adapted  to  the  sailing  vessel,  and 
it  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  steamer  could  not  compete  with  the 
sailing  vessel  in  this  traffic;  but  during  the  past  few  years  a  large  part 
of  the  nitrate  shipments  have  been  made  by  steamers.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  isthmian  canal  will  make  it  much  more  difficult  for  the  sailing- 
vessel  to  compete  with  the  steamer  for  this  traffic. 

As  regards  the  transportation  of  grain  and  lumber,  much  the  same 
change  seems  probable,  although  the  lumber  of  our  west  coast  is  at 
present  all  shipped  in  sailing  vessels.  If  sailing  vessels  can  not  advan- 
tageously use  the  canal  in  competition  with  the  steamer — a  question 
that  is  considered  at  length  in  the  latter  part  of  this  section — the  grain 
and  lumber  cargoes  will  certainly  be  taken  by  the  steamers.  The  action 
recently  taken  by  a  company  of  New  York  business  men  who  have 
acquired  a  large  tract  of  timber  in  the  Carolinas  is  significant  in  this 
connection.  The  lumber  gotten  out  by  this  company  will  be  shipped 
from  Georgetown,  S.  C,  by  two  large  steamers  built  especially  for 
his  business. 

Not  long  since  a  New  York  firm  operating  a  large  fleet  of  sailing 
vessels  between  the  two  American  seaboards  sold  out  the  entire  fleet 
and  in  1900  and  1901  put  in  its  place  seven  steamers  which  are  to  ply 
between  New  York  and  Pacific  Ocean  ports  and  Hawaiian  Islands  via 
the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

The  trade  between  the  North  Atlantic  countries  and  Australia  has 
long  been  considered  one  that  would  be  held  by  the  sailing  vessels 


364 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


against  steam  competition.  This  was  the  opinion  of  Lieutenant  Maury. 
Three  or  four  years  ago,  however,  this  business  was  invaded  by  steam- 
ers, which  now  carry  the  larger  percentage  of  the  traffic. 

The  facts  regarding  the  present  division  of  the  trade  between  the 
Suez  route  and  the  route  followed  by  sailing  vessels  are  especially 
important  in  connection  with  this  inquiry.  In  order  to  determine  the 
extent  and  nature  of  the  present  competition  of  sailing  vessels  with 
steamers  in  the  trade  between  Europe  and  the  East,  the  following  table 
has  been  compiled  from  British  reports.  It  gives  the  tonnage  of  steam 
and  sailing  vessels  cleared  from  British  ports  for  the  foreign  ports  of 
the  East  in  the  years  1893  and  1898.  While  it  does  not  include  the 
clearances  from  other  North  Atlantic  countries,  it  undoubtedly  repre- 
sents the  facts  for  the  entire  trade,  because  the  major  share  of  the  com- 
merce between  the  North  Atlantic  and  the  East  is  in  the  hands  of  Great 
Britain.  Moreover,  this  table  is  to  some  extent  supplemented  by  fig- 
ures regarding  the  sail  and  steam  tonnage  employed  in  the  trade  from 
Germany  to  the  East. 

Tonnage  of  steam  and  sailing  vessels  cleared  from  British  ports  for  the  East  in  1S9S  and 

1898. 


Deotmaticn  of  \  issel. 


Java 

Borneo  and  other  Dutch  pos- 
sessions in  the  Indian  Sea 

French  possessions  in  East 
Africa  and  Asia  and  Pacific 
islands 

Portuguese  East  Africa  and  India 

Philippine  and  Ladrone  Islands 

Abyssinia 

Madagascar 

Prussia 

Siam 

China,  exclusive  of  Hongkong.. 

Japan  

Pacific  islands 

Zanzibar 

Mauritius 

Aden   

British  possessions  in  India: 

Bombay  and  Scinde 

Madras 

Bengal  and  Burmah 

Ceylon 

Straits  Settlements 

Hongkong 

Australia  and  New  Zealand: 

West  Australia 

South  Australia 

Victoria 

New  SOUth  Wales 

Queensland 

Tasmania 

New  Zealand 

Total 


Steam  and  sail  combined. 


1893. 


194, 873 
10, 858 


3, 357 

8,118 

32,811 

2,743 

706 

4,047 

902 

34,027 

83, 401 

6,351 

6,416 

34, 920 

85, 183 

601,895 
128,050 

523, 569 

211,603 

297, 574 

10, 943 

43,692 
!:::>,  95:. 
148,309 
199,200 
50, 49(5 
31,419 

i  in,  ur.s 


3, 026, 486 


1898. 


182, 582 
2, 144 


12,  5M) 

346, 706 

33,  876 

6,  948 

7,054 

4,108 

966 

71,283 

413, 906 

10, 573 

8,683 

71,977 

96, 654 

485, 711 
19, 273 
695, 962 
116,875 
128,546 

55,  S28 
46, 216 

50, 353 
51,416 
73,  2 17 

898, 848 

96, 366 

6, 422 

209, 175 


3,594,273 


Increase 
in  five 
years. 


» 12, 291 

"8,714 


9, 223 

338,588 

1,065 

4,205 

6,348 

61 

64 

37, 256 

330, 505 

4, 222 

»  2, 733 

37, 057 

11,471 

'116,184 

'108,777 

189,268 

"83,057 

'241,746 

35, 273 

6,66] 

» SI,  53'J 
»  70, 062 
194,643 

45, 870 
»  24, 997 

09, 107 


567, 787 


1893. 


164,080 
2,034 


2, 481 


■l.sc.l 
12, 633 
85, 183 

593, 953 
125, 598 

426,201 

185, 100 

267,815 

5, 327 

22, 559 
82,439 
97,329 
122,658 

:;:;,  1 16 
29,088 

103,711 


170, 500 
10, 921 


11,023 

337, 645 

30, 680 

6,948 

2,186 

4,108 

476 

66, 441 

389, 900 


3,683 
55, 706 
96, 654 

485,711 
17, 874 
507,  761 
106, 916 
128,546 
46,815 
26, 148 

26,041 

9,721 

9, 328 

293, 952 

67,017 


176,  500 


Increase 
in  five 
•years. 


6, 420 

8,887 


•  2, 867 

329, 988 

»  666 

4,205 

2,  1S6 

1 ,  627 

476 

35.S51 

815, 256 


•1,178 
43,  073 
11,471 

'108,242 

'107,  724 


»56,6  .1 

'221,0311 

20,821 

:;,  (82 

»72,  7 is 
•  88,  ool 
171,291 

83,871 

•29, 088 
72.  756 


2,527,729  I    3,089,801        562,072 


.  Decrease. 


From  the  foregoing  table  it  appears  that  the  total  clearances,  steam 
and  sail,  from  British  ports  for  the  East  increased  567,781  tons  during 
the  five  years  from  1893  to  1898,  and  that  nearly  all  of  this  increase 
was   in   steam  tonnage,  the  growth  in  the  tonnage  of  steam  vessels 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  365 

being  562,072  tons,  or  all  but  5,716  tons  of  the  total  increase.  By 
making  the  proper  subtractions,  the  sail  tonnage  for  1893  is  found  to 
be  498,757  tons;  and  for  1898,  504,172  tons.  The  facts,  then,  are  that 
the  sailing  tonnage  has  remained  practically  stationary,  while  the  steam 
tonnage  has  considerably  increased.  The  sail  tonnage  has  not  fallen 
off  absolutely,  but  has  relatively  declined.  In  1893  the  sail  tonnage, 
constituted  16.1  per  cent  of  the  total  steam  and  sail,  whereas  in  1898 
the  sail  tonnage  constituted  only  11  per  cent  of  the  total,  the  decline 
having  been  nearly  2£  per  cent  in  five  years. 

The  clearances  from  Great  Britain  to  certain  special  ports  in  the 
East  present  figures  quite  as  significant  as  the  totals  referred  to  above. 
The  commerce  entering  Eastern  Africa  by  way  of  the  Portuguese  pos- 
sessions represents  a  comparatively  new  trade.  In  1893  the  trade  was 
ver}^  small,  but  in  1898  it  had  grown  to  large  proportions.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  practically  all  of  this  new  tonnage  consisted  of 
steamers.  Japan  presents  a  similar  showing.  The  recent  rapid 
growth  of  the  trade  of  Great  Britain  with  Japan  has  brought  into 
service  a  large  amount  of  steam  tonnage  and  but  a  very  small  number 
of  sailing  vessels.  The  figures  for  Bengal  and  Burmah  also  show 
that  nearly  all  of  the  large  increase  in  the  clearances  from  Great  Britain 
to  those  countries  has  consisted  of  steam  tonnage.  The  same  statement 
applies  to  New  South  Wales.  In  the  case  of  New  Zealand  the  increase 
in  the  steam  tonnage  during  the  five  years  under  consideration  has 
been  larger  than  the  total  increase  in  steam  and  sail  tonnage  combined. 
This  indicates  a  falling  off  in  the  use  of  sailing  vessels. 

In  the  trade  from  Germany  to  the  Far  East  the  change  from  sail  to 
steam  tonnage  is  taking  place  very  rapidly.  German  trade  directly 
with  the  East  has  largely  increased  during  the  past  decade,  and  this 
new  traffic  has  brought  steamers,  and  not  sailing  vessels,  into  use. 
The  following  figures  taken  from  the  German  report  indicates  this, 
and  also  show  that  sail  tonnage  has  fallen  off.  In  1890  there  cleared 
from  German  ports  for  British  India  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  sail  tonnage,  76,000  net  tons;  steam  tonnage,  219,000  tons.  In 
1897  the  figures  were:  For  sail  55,000.  and  for  steam  319,000.  That 
is  to  say,  during  those  seven  years  the  tonnage  of  sailing  vessels 
cleared  from  Germany  for  British  India  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  decreased  21,000  tons,  while  steam  tonnage  increased  100,000 
tons.  In  1890  there  cleared  from  Germany  for  China  sailing  vessels 
with  a  net  tonnage  of  9,000,  and  steamers  with  a  tonnage  of  70,000. 
In  1897  no  sailing  vessels  cleared  for  China,  but  the  tonnage  of 
steamers  had  grown  to  110,000  net  tons. 

MERITS   OF   THE    STEAMER   AND    SAILING    VESSEL   COMPARED. 

The  special  advantages  of  the  sailing  vessel  are  that  its  motor  power 
costs  nothing  and  that  it  requires  a  smaller  crew  of  men  than  is  neces- 
sary for  a  steamer  of  the  same  size.  The  British  reports  show  that  a 
typical  sailing  vessel  of  2,381  net  tons  is  manned  by  a  crew  of  34  men, 
22  of  whom  are  seamen.  A  steam  vessel  of  nearly  the  same  tonnage, 
2,315  tons  net,  has  a  crew  of  38  men,  of  whom  11  are  seamen  and  17 
are  engineers,  firemen,  and  coal  passers.  Taking  the  total  British 
merchant  marine,  the  number  of  men  was  15.8  in  1898  per  1,000  net  tons 
on  British  sailing  vessels,  while  on  the  steam  vessel  the  number  of  men 
was  22  per  1,000  tons. 


366  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

In  the  foreign  trade  of  Great  Britain  the  number  of  persons  employed 
on  sailing-vessels  for  each  ton  net  register  was,  in  1880, 2.32;  1890, 1.96; 
1898,  1.(55.  On  steam  vessels  the  number  emploved  for  100  tons  net 
register  was,  in  1880,  2.95;  1890,  2.73;  1898,  2.32.  These  figures  are 
sufficient  to  show  that  steamers  require  more  men  than  sailing  vessels 
for  an  equal  amount  of  tonnage.  In  large,  slow-going  steam  vessels 
the  number  of  men  required  is  relative^  small  and  may,  indeed,  not 
exceed  1  man  per  100  tons  net  register,  but  it  is  equally  true  that  a 
large  schooner  requires  a  very  small  crew  of  men — even  smaller  than 
is  needed  by  the  large,  modern,  slow  freight  steamer. 

There  seems,  moreover,  to  be  but  a  small  difference  in  the  size  of 
crews  required  by  the  more  recently  constructed  steamers  and  sailing 
vessels  of  equal  capacity.  A  steamer  of  3,000  tons  dead-weight  cargo 
capacit}T  (which  would  be  a  small  steamer)  and  a  sailing  vessel  of  equal 
capacity  (which  would  be  a  relatively  large  sailing  ship)  would  each 
have  a  crew  of  23  or  21  men.  The  sailing  vessel's  crew,  however, 
would  include  a  larger  number  of  unskilled  laborers — seamen — than 
would  the  steamer,  and  the  sailing  vessel's  expenses  for  labor  would  be 
somewhat  lower  than  the  steamer's. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  sailing  vessel  are  its  slow  speed,  its  depend- 
ence upon  the  winds  and  currents,  and  the  consequent  uncertainty  as 
to  the  time  of  delivering  the  cargo  assigned  to  it.  The  superiority  oi 
the  steamer  consists  in  its  speed  and  its  ability  to  assure  the  delivery 
of  its  freight  at  a  stipulated  time  unless  violent  storms  are  encountered. 
The  disadvantages  of  the  steamer  are  the  cost  of  coal,  the  large  amount 
of  space  taken  up  by  the  coal  bunkers  and  machinery — one-fourth  to 
one-third  of  the  huil  capacity — and  the  somewhat  larger  crew  ordi- 
narily required. 

As  regards  the  cost  of  coal,  mechanical  improvements  have  done  a 
great  deal  to  lessen  the  steamer's  handicap.  Some  of  these  new 
steamers  for  the  trade  between  our  two  seaboards  will  cany  10,000 
dead-weight  tons,  besides  2,500  tons  of  coal.  They  have  quadruple 
expansion  engines,  with  boiler  pressure  of  210  pounds  to  the  square 
inch.  These  vessels  will  consume  40  tons  of  coal  per  day,  running  at 
9  knots  per  hour.  It  is  planned  now  that  in  making  the  trip  via  the 
Straits  of  Magellan  they  will  coal  only  at  Coroncl,  Chile.  The  con- 
sumption of  coal  between  New  York  and  San  Francisco  via  the  canal 
will  be  about  1,000  tons  each  way.  This  will  make  the  consumption 
224  'pounds  per  ton  of  freight  each  one-way  trip.  Assuming  the  price 
of  coal  free  on  board  vessels  in  Atlantic  ports  to  be  $2.50  per  ton  of 
2,240  pounds,  it  would  take  one-tenth  of  a  ton  of  coal,  costing  25  cents, 
to  transport  one  ton  of  cargo  between  New  York  and   San  Francisco. 

The  data  presented  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  do  not  fully  demon- 
strate the  inability  of  the  sailing  vessel  to  compete  with  the  steamer 
in  the  future  for  the  transportation  of  special  classes  of  commodities, 
but  the  evidence  strongly  indicates  that  result,  That  the  sailing  ves- 
sel will  continue  to  be  used  for  some  time  to  come,  especially  by  the 
people  of  the  United  States,  seems  probable,  but  our  use  of  the  sailing 
vessel,  however,  will  be  restricted  mainly  to  two  classes  of  service. 
One  of  these  two  fields  of  usefulness  will  be  that  part  of  our  coasting 
trade  that  can  not  readily  be  so  organized  as  to  be  performed  by 
regular  lines  of  steamers.  The  other  use  to  which  we  shall  continue 
to  put  the  sailing  vessel  will  be  that  of  performing  the  irregular  or 
skirmish  work  of  international  trade.     There  is  at  the  present  time  an 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  367 

irregular  trade  developing  between  the  United  States  and  several  parts 

of  South  America  such,  for  instance,  as  that  being  carried  on  between 
the  Gulf  ports  and  the  River  Plata.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  the 
development  of  such  a  traffic  the  sailing  vessel  is  a  convenient  agent; 
but  when  the  trade  becomes  larger  and  the  exchange  of  commodities 
between  the  two  sections  becomes  regular  and  continuous,  a  line  of 
steamers  will  be  established,  and  most  of  the  sailing  vessels  will  Vie 
obliged  to  withdraw  from  the  business.  The  withdrawal  of  sailing 
vessels  from  the  trade  between  the  United  States  and  the  Orient  and 
the  substitution  of  steamers  for  the  greater  part  of  the  traffic  between 
our  two  seaboards  are  instances  of  the  substitution  of  the  steamer  for 
the  sailing  vessel  when  the  amount  of  business  to  be  done  had  become 
regular  and  large  in  volume. 

WOULD  SAILING  VESSELS  USE  A  CANAL  AT  PANAMA  OK  ACROSS  NICARAGUA? 

It  does  not  seem  probable  that  coal,  lumber,  grain,  nitrates,  and 
sugar — commodities  that  will  make  up  a  large  share  of  the  canal's 
traffic — will  in  the  future  be  carried  to  a  large  extent  in  sailing  vessels. 
Nevertheless,  the  sailing  vessel  will  be  a  carrier  of  some  importance 
when  the  canal  is  opened,  and  possibl}T  for  a  score  of  years  thereafter. 
Such  being  the  case,  the  relative  advantages  of  the  Panama  and 
Nicaragua  routes  for  sailing  vessels  should  be  compared.  The  extent 
to  which  sailing  vessels  will  use  an  isthmian  waterway  will  depend 
upon  the  actual  saving  in  time  which  a  sailing  vessel  could  make  by 
using  the  canal  instead  of  the  Cape  route,  and  upon  whether  sailing 
vessels  can  compete  with  steamers,  both  using  the  canal  route. 

In  the  year  1866  Lieut.  M.  F.  Maury,  in  a  letter  written  to  a  friend, 
made  the  following  statement: 

The  result  of  my  investigations  into  the  winds  and  currents  of  the  sea  and  their 
influence  upon  the  routes  of  commerce  authorize  the  opinion  which  I  have  expressed 
before  and  which  I  repeat,  namely,  if  nature,  by  one  of  her  convulsions,  should  rend 
the  continent  of  America  in  twain  and  make  a  channel  across  the  Isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama or  Darien  as  deep,  as  wide,  and  as  free  as  the  Straits  of  Dover  it  would  never 
become  a  commercial  thoroughfare  for  sailing  vessels,  saving  the  outward  bound  and 
those  that  could  reach  it  with  leading  winds.  *  *  *  You  will  observe  at  a  glance 
that  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  or  Darien  is,  on  account  of  these  winds  and  calms,  in  a 
purely  commercial  point  of  view,  the  most  out-of-the-way  place  of  any  part  of  the 
Pacific  coast  of  intertropical  America. 

Those  persons  who  have  endeavored  to  prove  that  the  Panama  route 
could  not  be  used  by  sailing  vessels  have  quoted  the  foregoing  state- 
ments of  Lieutenant  Maury  and  have  interpreted  his  statements  to 
mean  that  no  sailing  vessel  wTould  or  could  make  use  of  a  canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  It  is  well,  however,  to  note  the  exception 
which  Lieutenant  Mauiy  makes  at  the  close  of  his  general  statement. 
He  says  the  Panama  route  "would  never  become  a  commercial  thor- 
oughfare for  sailing  vessels,  saving  the  outward  bound  and  those  that 
could  reach  it  with  leading  winds  "  In  view  of  this,  limiting  clause,  it 
would  seem  that  Lieutenant  Maury  thought  sailing  vessels  outward 
bound  from  Europe  or  from  any  North  Atlantic  port  to  the  Pacific 
might  pass  through  a  Panama  canal.  His  statement  would  also  indi- 
cate him  to  think  that  vessels  bound  from  the  west  coast  of  the  United 
States  for  the  Atlantic  might  pass  through  a  Panama  canal  during  the 
winter  months,  when  the  winds  and  currents  are  favorable  for  vessels 
sailing  southward  toward  Panama.     When  we  consider  that  the  larger 


368  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

part  of  the  Pacific  coast  grain  would  be  exported  during  the  later 
autumn  and  winter  months  and  that  a  large  part  of  the  lumber  from 
the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  might  be  shipped  during  the  win- 
ter half  of  the  year,  we  must  conclude  that  Lieutenant  Maury's 
apparently  strong  statement  does  not  preclude  the  possibility  of  a  con- 
siderable traffic  in  sailing  vessels  through  that  waterway. 

Hydrographers,  ship  brokers,  and  sailing  masters  generally  disbe- 
lieve in  the  practicability  of  the  use  of  a  Panama  canal  by  sailing  ves- 
sels. There  is  no  doubt  that  sailing  vessels  can  enter  and  clear  the 
Bay  of  Panama — they  now  do  so  to  a  limited  extent — nor  would  it  be 
impossible  for  a  sailing  vessel  to  make  use  of  a  Panama  canal;  but 
there  is  little  reason  to  think  that  the  sailing  ship  would,  under  the 
conditions  of  competition  that  will  prevail  after  the  waterway  has 
been  opened,  pass  from  one  ocean  to  the  other  in  any  considerable 
numbers. 

It  perhaps  ought  to  be  stated  in  this  connection  that  sailing  vessels 
bound  from  Panama  either  to  the  north,  south,  or  west  arc  obliged  to 
work  their  way  southward  and  westward  to  the  Galapagos  Islands, 
and  usually  some  distance  west  of  that  group,  before  getting  the  winds 
and  currents  that  will  take  them  to  their  destination.  Vessels  bound 
from  Panama  to  San  Francisco  are  advised  by  Maury's  sailing  direc- 
tions to  work  their  way  down  the  Colombia  coast,  and  during  the 
months  from  June  to  January,  inclusive,  to  change  their  course  about 
latitude  2°  north,  standing  off  the  coast  to  the  westward,  passing  north 
of  the  Galapagos  Islands.  From  February  to  June,  inclusive,  it  is 
better  for  the  vessel  to  work  southward  across  the  equator  before 
turning  to  the  west.  The  course  toward  the  west  is  maintained  until 
the  one  hundredth  meridian  is  passed,  and  then  the  vessel  may  "edge 
away  for  Cipperton  Rock  (10°  18'  N.  and  109°  10'  W.),  after  passing 
which  they  may  push  to  the  northward  for  the  northern  trades." 

Before  Maury  worked  out  these  sailing  directions,  as  the  result  of 
his  study  of  winds  and  currents,  sailing  vessels  consumed  90  days,  on 
an  average,  in  sailing  from  Panama  to  San  Francisco  by  the  direct 
route.  According  to  the  geographer  Berghaus,  the  average1  time  taken 
to  make  the  voyage  by  Maury's  route  is  37  days.  The  distance  by  the 
circuitous  route  is  somewhat  more  than  5,000  nautical  miles.  The 
direct  route,  the  one  followed  by  steamers,  is  nearly  2,000  knots  shorter 
than  the  one  taken  by  sailing  vessels. 

A  most  careful  study  of  the  conditions  affecting  the  use  of  the  Pan- 
ama and  Nicaragua  routes  by  sailing  vessels  was  made  by  Lieut. 
Frederick  Collins,  U.  S.  Navy,  in  L872.  He  studied  the  winds  and 
currents  prevailing  at  different  seasons  of  the  year  in  each  part  of  that 
section  of  the  ocean  that  would  be  traversed  by  sailing  vessels  plying 
between  Panama,  Nicaragua,  and  other  Pacific  ports,  and  then  estimated 
the  number  of  days  that  it  would,  on  an  average,  take  a  sailing  vessel 
to  make  the  voyage  between  the  two  isthmian  ports  and  other  Pacific 
harbors.  The  general  conclusion  to  which  he  came  in  regard  to  the 
navigation  of  the  Bay  of  Panama  was  that  "no  great  difficulty  need 
be  experienced  in  getting  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Bay  of  Panama  to 
where  good  winds  might  be  found.  *  *  *  A  careful  computation 
gave  only  10  days  ;is  the  average  time  that  would  be  consumed  in  get- 
ting a  sufficient  offing  to  secure  good  winds,  provided  the  correct  route 
was  pursued."  The  route  considered  correct  by  Lieutenant  Collins 
was  the  one  adopted  by  Lieutenant  Maury,  to  which  reference  was 
made  above. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  369 

The  distances  which  Lieutenant  Collins  calculated  sailing  vessels 
would  have  to  travel  in  proceeding  from  Panama  and  from  Brito  to 
reach  San  Francisco,  and  the  number  of  days  which  each  of  these  trips 
would  require,  are  indicated  by  the  following  table: 


Miles. 


Panama  to  San  Francisco 5, 350 

Nicaragua  to  San  Francisco 3, 240 


Days.1 


Difference  in  favor  of  Nicaragua 2, 110 


The  table  makes  the  time  required  for  a  sailing  vessel  to  reach  San 
Francisco  to  be  14  days  less  when  the  trip  begins  at  Brito  than  when 
it  begins  at  Panama.  The  distances  and  time  required  for  the  return 
trip  from  San  Francisco  to  Panama  and  Brito  are  indicated  by  the 
following  table: 


JMiles. 

Days. 

October  to  April: 

3,600 
3,000 

26 

22 

600 

4 

April  to  October: 

4,000 
3,400 

31 

26 

600 

5 

According  to  the  calculations  of  Lieutenant  Collins,  the  time  re- 
quired for  a  sailing  vessel  to  make  a  round  trip  from  Nicaragua  to 
San  Francisco  would  be  nineteen  days  less  than  for  a  round-trip  voy- 
age between  Panama  and  San  Francisco.  These  figures  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  if  either  route  is  available  for  sailing  vessels,  the  Nica- 
ragua route  would  possess  decided  advantages  over  the  one  at  Panama. 
However,  other  authorities  differ  from  Lieutenant  Collins  as  to  some 
of  these  conclusions.  The  figures  given  for  the  length  of  the  average 
vo}7age  from  Nicaragua  to  San  Francisco  is  3,240  nautical  miles.  This 
seems  too  short;  indeed,  the  United  States  Hydrographic  Office  esti- 
mates the  distance  to  be  4,500  miles.  .  The  great-circle  distance,  or  the 
length  of  the  route  followed  by  full-powered  steamers,  is  2,700  miles. 
Furthermore,  experienced  navigators  assert  that  a  vessel  bound  for 
Brito  must  beat  up  and  down  the  coast  or  go  far  to  the  westward;  and 
that,  although  the  Nicaragua  route  is  more  advantageous  than  the  one 
from  Panama  for  sailing  vessels,  it  is  nevertheless  necessar}^  for  ves- 
sels to  make  a  long  detour  from  a  direct  course. 

The  distance  for  steamers  from  Panama  to  San  Francisco  being 
3,277  nautical  miles,  a  9-knot  steam  freighter  would  make  the  run  in 
15  days,  a  10-knot  ship  in  13.6  da}Ts,  and  a  vessel  of  12  knots  in  11.3 
days.  These  figures  are  to  be  contrasted  with  37  days,  the  average 
time  required  by  the  sailing  vessel.  From  Brito  to  San  Francisco  the 
distance  for  steamers  is  2.700  nautical  miles.  To  make  this  run  a 
9-knot  freighter  would  require  12^  days,  a  10-knot  ship  Hi  days,  and 
a  12-knot  vessel  9§  days.     Lieutenant  Collins  madie  the  time  by  sail 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 24 


370  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

between  Nicaragua  and  San  Francisco  vary  from  22  to  26  days,  but, 
for  reasons  just  stated,  his  calculations  underestimate  (possibly  by 
about  5  days )  the  time  that  would  actually  be  required. 

SATING    TO    SAILING   VESSELS    BY    USE    OF   ISTHMIAN    CANAL    INSTEAD   OF 

CAPE   ROUTE. 

Concerning  the  time  required  to  make  the  voyage  by  sailing  vessel 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco,  abundant  information  is  obtainable 
from  the  logs  of  the  many  sailing  vessels  that  are  now  navigated 
between  those  two  ports.  A  New  York  firm  operating  sailing  vessels 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  has  reported  the  time  taken  by  eleven 
different  sailing  vessels  that  made  the  trip  during  the  year  1898.  The 
average  time  for  these  vessels  was  138  da}Ts,  the  range  being  from  113 
to  151  days.  Another  New  York  firm  doing  a  large  business  with  the 
Pacific  coast  has  given  the  time  required  by  seven  sailing  vessels  whose 
voyages  were  made  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  The  time  taken 
ranges  from  118  to  169  days,  the  average  for  the  seven  being  139  days. 
Both  of  these  firms  report  that  they  consider  110  days  to  be  a  fair 
average  for  the  west-bound  passage.  For  the  return  trip  from  San 
Francisco  to  New  York  the  time  taken  is  somewhat  less,  and  is  said  to 
average  from  110  to  115  days. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  the  time  a  sailing  vessel  woidd  require  to  make 
the  trip  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  by  way  of  an  isthmian 
canal,  it  is  necessary  to  add  the  time  that  would  be  taken  for  the  voyage 
from  New  York  to  the  Isthmus,  the  time  that  would  be  required  for 
making  the  transit  through  the  canal,  and  the  number  of  days  neces- 
sary for  reaching  San  Francisco  after  leaving  the  Isthmus.  When 
Commander,  now  Rear-Admiral,  Selfridge  gave  Lieutenant  Collins 
instructions  to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  time  it  would  take  sail- 
ing vessels  to  make  a  voyage  between  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and 
various  Pacific  ports,  he  said: 

In  composing  the  table  you  will  allow  an  average  of  twenty  days  to  and  from  the 
United  States  and  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato;  thirty  days  from  the  English  Channel  to 
the  . same  point,  and  forty  days  homeward  to  Europe. 

It  would  take  a  sailing  vessel  practicall}T  the  same  time  to  reach 
Panama  or  Grey  town  that  it  would  to  reach  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato. 
On  the  basis  of  the  averages  accepted  by  Admiral  Selfridge  for  the 
Atlantic  part  of  the  voyage,  and  by  Lieutenant  Collins  for  the  Pacific 
portion  of  the  trip,  a  vessel  would  be  twenty  (lavs  from  New  York  to 
the  Isthmus,  thirty-eight  days  from  Panama  to  San  Francisco,  a  total 
of  fifty-eight  days,  to  which  should  he  added  one  day  for  the  passage 
of  a  Panama  canal.  Lieutenant  Collins  estimated  twenty-three  days 
as  the  time  required  by  a  sailing  vessel  to  reach  San  Francisco  from 
P>rito.  For  reasons  that  have  already  been  stated,  this  estimate  seems 
to  be  too  small.  If  twenty-eight  days  he  accepted  as  a  fair  estimate 
of  the  sailing  time  required  between  Brito  and  San  Francisco,  the 
time  required  for  a  sailing  vessel  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco 
would  he  twenty  days  for  (he  Atlantic  part  <>f  the  trip  from  New 
York  to  Greytown,  two  days  for  the  passage  through  tin1  canal,  and 
twenty-eight  days  from  Brito  to  San  Francisco,  a  total  of  fifty  days. 
The  probable  time  required  by  sailing  vessels  to  make  the  trip  from 
New  York  to  San  Francisco  by  way  of  the  Cape  and  through  the  two 

Canals  Would  then    he  as   follows: 

For  the  Cape  route  one  hundred  ami   forty  days;   for  the  Panama 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  37l 

route  fifty-nine  days,  and  for  the  Nicaragua  route  fifty  days.  Accord- 
ing- to  those  figures,  a  sailing-  vessel  could  save  on  an  average  eighty- 
one  days  by  using  a  Panama  canal  instead  of  making  the  trip  around 
the  Cape,  and  ninety  days  by  using  the  Nicaragua  canal  instead  of  the 
present  route. 

The  cast-bound  trip  from  San  Francisco  to  New  York  can,  on  account- 
of  the  more  favorable  winds  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  bo  made  in  a 
shorter  time  than  is  required  for  the  west-bound  trip.  One  hundred  and 
fifteen  days  can  probably  be  assumed  as  a  fair  average  for  the  trip  from 
San  1  rancisco  to  New  York  around  the  Horn.  Lieutenant  Collins  esti- 
mated that  a  vessel  would  on  an  average  require  twenty-six  days  from 
San  Francisco  to  Panama  during  the  winter  months,  and  thirty-one  days 
during  the  summer  months.  On  the  basis  of  these  estimates  the  time 
required  for  a  sailing  vessel  to  make  a  voyage  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco  by  way  of  a  Panama  canal  would  be  forty-seven  days  during 
the  winter  months  and  fifty-two  days  during  the  summer  season.  Thai, 
is  to  say,  a  general  average  of  about  fifty  days  for  the  year  as  a  whole. 
The  time  estimated  by  Lieutenant  Collins  for  a  sailing  vessel  starting 
from  San  Francisco  to  reach  Nicaragua  was  twenty-two  days  in  the  win- 
ter months  and  twenty-six  days  in  the  summer  season.  This  would 
make  the  time  from  San  Francisco  to  New  York  forty-four  days  for 
half  of  the  year  and  forty-eight  days  for  the  other  half,  or  an  average 
for  the  year  of  forty-six  days. 

In  view  of  the  uncertainties  attending  the  navigation  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  near  the  American  coast,  where  sailing  vessels  are  obliged  to 
beat  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  distance,  it  would  seem  conservative 
to  add  five  days  to  each  of  the  foregoing  averages  and  assume  fifty-five 
days  for  the  trip  by  way  of  Panama  and  fifty-one  davs  for  the  voyao-e 
by  the  Nicaragua  route.  Assuming  that  one  hundred  and  fifteen  days 
is  the  average  time  required  for  a  vessel  to  make  the  east-bound  trip 
around  Cape  Horn,  the  Panama  route  would  enable  the  vessel  to  save 
sixty  days  and  the  Nicaragua  Canal  sixty-four  days. 

Vessel  owners  report  that  $75  per  day  will  cover  all  the  expenses  of 
operating  a  sailing  vessel  of  2,000  tons  net  (including  wages,  interest, 
repairs,  insurance,  and  all  other  items  of  expense).  The  foregoing 
reduction  in  length  of  voyage  would  effect  the  following  net  saving  in 
the  cost  of  moving  a  cargo  of  freight  by  such  a  sailing  vessel  between 
New  York  and  San  Francisco,  which  may  be  taken  as  typical  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  ports.  A  sailing  vessel  bound  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco  could  save  eighty-one  days  by  way  of  the  Panama  route, 
which  would  be  equivalent,  at  the  rate  of  $75  per  day,  to  a  saving  of 
$6,075.  If  we  assume  a  toll  of  $1  per  net  ton  and  a  towage  cost  of 
$450  for  a  Panama  canal,  the  saving  effected  by  the  vessel  would  be 
as  follows: 

Eighty-one  days,  at  $75  per  day $6  075 

Toll  at  $1  per  ton ' $2  000      ' 

Towage '///."'."'.['.'/.'.'.."'.     "'450 

2, 450 

Net  saving _         8>  625 

For  the  Nicaragua  canal  the  account  would  stand  as  follows: 
Ninety  days,  at  $75  per  day $6j750 

Towage 600 

—     2,  600 

Net  saving 4  j^q 


372  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  towage  costs  adopted  in  the  foregoing  estimates  are  on  the  basis 
of  a  charge  of  30  cents  per  net  register  ton  for  towage  through  a 
Nicaragua  canal  and  22?  cents  per  net  register  ton  for  a  Panama  canal. 
In  order  to  secure  a  reliable  estimate  of  the  probable  cost  of  securing 
towage  through  each  of  the  proposed  canals,  a  score  of  large  towboat 
companies  were  requested  to  submit  an  estimate  of  the  charges  that 
would  need  to  be  made  for  the  service  of  towing.  The  letter  request- 
ing the  information  stated  that — 

The  total  length  of  a  canal  at  Nicaragua  would  lie  about  11*0  miles.  Of  this  distance 
about  70  miles  will  consist  of  excavated  channel,  about  50  miles  of  improved  river 
navigation,  and  about  70  miles  of  lake. 

And— 

The  distance  from  anchorage  at  Colon  to  anchorage  at  Panama  is  about  47  miles, 
only  a  short  distance  being  open  for  navigation.  It  is  also  probable  that  sailing  ves- 
sels would  usually  desire  to  be  towed  about  100  miles  from  Panama  out  to  sea,  and  in 
making  your  estimate  of  the  cost  of  towage  for  the  Panama  Canal  we  should  be 
pleased  to  have  you  give  both  the  cost  of  towage  between  Colon  and  Panama  and  the 
cost  of  towing  100  miles  on  the  Bay  of  Panama. 

The  replies  received  in  response  to  this  request  varied  so  largely 
that  they  did  not  furnish  the  basis  for  so  close  an  estimate  as  it  was 
hoped  might  be  made.  The  estimate  adopted  was  one  of  those  mid- 
way between  the  higher  and  lower  extremes,  and  one  submitted  by  a 
well-informed  gentleman  who  was  known  to  have  given  the  question 
careful  consideration.  His  estimate  of  the  cost  of  towing  loaded  sail- 
ing vessels  through  a  Nicaragua  canal  was  30  cents  per  net  ton  register, 
and  for  towing  loaded  ships  through  a  Panama  canal  and  100  miles  to 
sea — 147  miles  altogether — was  22^  cents  per  net  ton  register. 

Provision  was  made  in  the  Panama  estimate  for  towing  vessels  100 
miles  out  to  sea,  because  it  was  believed  that  a  sailing  ship  would  ordi- 
narily save  more  than  enough  in  the  time  of  getting  to  sea  to  pay  the 
additional  charges.  Indeed,  it  is  probable  that  a  tow  of  several  hun- 
dred miles  would  at  times  be  found  profitable. 

The  foregoing  estimates  of  the  savings  possible  for  a  sailing  vessel 
to  effect  by  using  a  Panama  of  a  Nicaragua  canal  instead  of  the  Horn 
route  do  not  take  into  consideration  the  saving  in  insurance  that  would 
be  effected  by  the  reduction  in  insurance  charges  that  would  result  from 
the  use  of  an  Isthmian  instead  of  a  Cape  route.  This  reduction  would 
bo  about  50  per  cent  of  the  existing  insurance  charges,  and  would  be 
the  same  for  each  of  the  two  routes. 

The  foregoing  calculations,  it  may  be  well  to  repeat,  are  based  upon 
the  estimated  saving  which  a  sailing  vessel  could  ordinarily  make  by 
the  use  of  each  of  the  proposed  waterways.  It  is  well  known  that 
sailing  vessels  require  very  different  times  for  making  the  run  between 
the  same  ports.  The  foregoing  estimates  are  intended  only  to  repre- 
sent the  average  savings  possible. 

Among  I  lie  genera]  deductions  that  seem  warranted  by  the  facts  set 
forth  in  the  preceding  pages  are  the  following: 

1.  A  canal  across  Nicaragua  would  enable  a  sailing  vessel  to  accom- 
plish a  greater  net  saving  over  tin1  expenses  of  the  present  route  around 
the  Horn  than  could  be  effected  by  using  ;l  Panama  canal.  The  differ- 
ence in  the  advantages  of  the  two  routes  for  sailing  vessels,  while  not 
large,  is  sufficient  to  be  made  a  factor  of  some  importance  in  deciding 
which  route  should  be  adopted  were  it  probable  that  either  route  would 
be  largely  used  by  sailing  ships. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  373 

2.  Neither  the  Nicaragua  Canal  nor  the  one  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  would  be  much  used  by  sailing  vessels.  The  unmistakable 
tendency  of  commerce  is  to  use  steamers  instead  of  sailing  vessels  for 
all  classes  of  traffic.  The  sailing  vessel  would  compete  with  the  steamer 
for  the  traffic  through  either  of  the  canals  under  conditions  so  unf avoid- 
able as  to  make  practically  certain  the  general  substitution  of  the. 
steamer  for  the  sailing  vessel  for  all  lines  of  trade  through  the  isth- 
mian waterway. 

The  consideration  of  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  Canal  routes  from 
the  standpoint  of  their  relative  usefulness  as  commercial  highwa}Ts 
becomes  mainly  a  question  of  determining  which  is  the  more  advan- 
tageous route  for  the  steamers  engaged  in  the  maritime  commerce  of 
the  United  States  in  particular  and  of  the  world  in  general. 

Chapter  X. — The  canal  and  tJie  traffic  of  American  railways. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  the  isthmian  canal  may  affect  the 
traffic  of  the  railwa3rs  serving  the  different  sections  of  the  United 
States.  The  canal  will  introduce  a  new  and  competing  route  for  traffic 
between  our  two  seaboards  and  between  the  eastern  half  of  the  United 
States  and  Pacific  foreign  countries.  There  may  result  from  this  one 
or  all  of  four  consequences: 

1.  The  railwa}r  lines  competing  with  the  new  water  route  ma}7  reduce 
their  rates,  and  thus  be  able  to  hold  their  traffic  against  the  new  com- 
petitor. Should  this  be  the  result,  the  effect  of  the  canal  upon  the 
freight  of  the  railroads  might  be  small;  their  rates  would  be  reduced, 
but  the  traffic  secured  by  the  water  route  would  consist  of  new  busi- 
ness developed  because  of  the  water  route,  instead  of  traffic  diverted 
from  the  other  transportation  lines. 

2.  The  waterway  may  divert  from  the  railway  lines  a  greater  or 
less  share  of  their  through  business.  Should  this  be  the  result  of  the 
waterway,  the  railways  will  be  obliged  to  secure  a  compensating  amount 
of  new  business  or  suffer  a  shrinkage  in  their  traffic  as  the  result  of 
the  competition  of  the  waterway. 

3.  The  canal  may  bring  new  business  to  the  railways  by  making 
them  collectors  and  distributors  of  the  commodities  carried  between 
our  eastern  and  western  seaboards  by  the  way  of  the  Isthmus.  In  our 
country  of  great  distances  and  of  diversified  industrial  activities,  gen- 
erally distributed  throughout  our  wide  territory,  the  origin  and  desti- 
nation of  but  a  small  portion  of  the  water-borne  commerce  of  the 
United  States  can  be  at  seaboard  points.  The  collection  and  distribu- 
tion of  commodities  for  traffic  by  water  is  and  must  remain  mainly 
the  work  of  the  railwa}T  line.  The  major  part  of  the  traffic  of  the  canal 
must  be  rail  traffic  previous  to  or  subsequent  to  being  handled  by  the 
ocean  vessels. 

4.  The  canal  may  make  possible  the  establishment  of  new  industries 
along  the  railway  lines  or  cause  an  expansion  of  activity  in  the  busi- 
ness of  existing  plants,  and  thus  add  to  the  local  traffic  of  the  railways. 
In  general,  whatever  facilitates  commerce  establishes  the  most  impor- 
tant prerequisite  to  industrial  development. 

The  traffic  whose  routes  may  be  modified  by  the  opening  of  the 
interoceanic  waterway  is: 

1.  That  originating  and  terminating  at  or  near  the  seaboard  points 
of  our  eastern  and  western  coasts.     The  traffic  between  the  territory 


374  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

east  of  Buffalo  and  Pittsburg  and  that  west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
Cascade  Mountain  ranges  will  be  most  directly  subject  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  new  waterway. 

2.  The  trade  of  the  central  section  of  the  United  States  with  our 
Pacific  slope  and  with  foreign  Pacific  countries  will,  after  the  canal 
has  been  opened,  be  able  to  leave  or  enter  the  United  States  either  by 
an  Atlantic,  a  Gulf,  or  a  Pacific  port.  If  it  passes  in  and  out  by  an 
Atlantic  or  Gulf  gateway,  it  will  be  canal  traffic;  if  by  a  Pacific  port, 
it  will  not. 

CONCERNING   THE    STATISTICS   OF  TRANSCONTINENTAL  RAILWAY  TRAFFIC. 

Statistics  are  not  kept  of  the  traffic  which  the  railways  now  carry 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  sections  of  the  United  States  and 
between  the  Pacific  and  central  parts  of  the  country — the  rail  traffic 
that  would  be  subject  to  canal  competition  were  the  waterway  now  in 
use.  Some  years  ago  the  transcontinental  freight  bureau,  whose 
offices  are  in  San  Francisco,  compiled  figures  of  the  through  business 
of  the  transcontinental  lines,  but  the  chief  of  that  bureau  reports: 

This  office  has  compiled  no  statistics  whatever  for  several  years  past,  neither  have 
they  been  furnished  with  any  reports  of  the  movements  of  business. 

The  managing  editor  of  Poor's  Manual  of  Railways  says: 

This  matter  [the  statistics  of  transcontinental  railway  traffic]  has  been  the  subject 
of  inquiry  for  some  time,  and  without  any  result. 

The  officials  of  the  Pacific  railways  who  were  conferred  with  in 
regard  to  the  volume  of  business  that  would  be  affected  by  the  canal 
were  unable  to  supply  the  information.  The  traffic  manager  of  one 
of  tin1  lines  reported  : 

So  fur  as  our  line  is  concerned,  would  say  that  we  have  virtually  discontinued  com- 
piling statistics  of  this  nature,  finding  after  many  years'  experience  that  the  expense 
incurred  in  compiling  these  figures  was  unwarranted. 

One  of  the  Pacific  railway  companies  furnished  the  Canal  Commis- 
sion with  a  statement  of  the  tonnage  east  and  west  bound  for  each  of 
the  important  commodities  comprising  its  total  through  traffic.  By 
through  traffic  was  meant  that  originating  anywhere  on  the  lines  of 
the  company  and  turned  over  by  the  company  to  some  connecting  rail- 
road; also  the  freight  received  from  some  connecting  road  and  carried 
to  sonic  point  along  its  own  system  of  lines.  This  classified  statement 
comprises  a  total  of  nearly  2,000,000  tons  of  freight  and  gives  an 
interesting  expose  of  the  nature  and  volume  of  business  being  done  by 
this  important  Pacific  railway  system.  The  figures,  however,  reveal 
but  little  information  concerning  what  portion  of  this  total  traffic 
would  be  subject  to  canal  competition  were  the  isthmian  waterway  now 
in  existence. 

While  information  concerning  the  present  volume  of  traffic  of  the 
Pacific  railroads  that  would  be  subject  to  the  competition  of  an  isth- 
mian canal  were  the  waterway  now  open  would  be  interesting  and 
possess  some  value,  it  would  not  throw  very  much  light  upon  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  business  of  the  transcontinental  railways  will  be 
affected  some  ten  or  fifteen  years  hence  by  the  competition  of  an  inter- 
oceanic  canal.  Between  now  and  the  opening  of  the  canal  the  position 
of  the  railways  as  carriers  will  have  become  stronger,  and.  whatever 
their  business  may  be  at  the  time  of  the  completion  of  the  waterway, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  375 

their  policy  with  reference  to  the  retention  and  development  of  their 
business  will  doubtless  be  much  modified  by  the  inauguration  of  water 
competition  by  the  new  route. 

NATURE   OF   THE   COMPETITION   OF   THE   CANAL   WITH   THE    RAILWAYS. 

In  addition  to  finding  it  impracticable  to  determine  the  amount 
of  railway  business  that  would  be  subject  to  competition  by  a  canal 
were  it  in  existence  at  the  present  time,  it  has  likewise  been  impossible 
to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  the  classes  of  commodities  that  would 
be  liable  to  move  by  water  and  those  that  will  move  by  rail  after  both 
agencies  have  become  available  to  the  shipper.  An  intelligent  rail- 
way official  replied  in  response  to  the  question:  What  kinds  of  traffic 
would  be  diverted  from  the  railways  to  the  canal? — 

All  kinds  of  traffic  would  be  diverted  except  that  which  is  perishable  or  which 
demanded  dispatch,  unless  the  railroads  met  the  competition  of  the  canal  by  a  reduc- 
tion in  rates. 

Similar  opinions  were  expressed  by  several  other  railway  officials 
who  were  conferred  with. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  competition  of  the  canal  route  will  not 
be  confined  entirely  to  the  bulkier  commodities  of  comparatively  low 
value  per  unit  of  weight  or  bulk  articles  universally  recognized  to 
be  especialty  adapted  to  water  transportation,  but  that  the  isthmian 
route  will  be  available  for  the  shipment  of  practically  all  articles 
except  those  whose  perishable  nature  or  whose  unusually  high  value 
demand  a  quick  service  and  a  prompt  delivery.  The  distance  between 
our  two  seaboards  by  the  isthmian  canal  will  be  about  5,000  nautical 
miles  and  the  time  required  to  make  the  run  will  be  about  three  weeks 
for  the  slow  freight  steamers  of  10  knots  an  hour,  and  about  two 
weeks  for  the  15-knot  vessel.  The  ordinary  freight  service  of  the 
railroads  will  be  only  a  few  days'  shorter  than  the  service  by  the 
faster  steamers  using  the  water  route. 

At  the  present  time  the  American  Hawaiian  Steamship  Company, 
which  is  running  steamers  between  New  York  and  San  Francisco 
through  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  is  carrying  a  large  variety  of  com- 
modities. The  time  required  for  the  passage  between  the  two  sea- 
boards by  this  route  is  from  sixty  to  sixty-three  days,  but  even  this 
length  of  time  does  not  restrict  the  freight  to  a  limited  number  of 
articles. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  practice  of  a  New  York  firm  that  manufac- 
tures a  large  quantity  of  structural  steel  and  iron  work  for  buildings 
and  bridges  and  all  classes  of  ornamental  steel  and  iron  shows  that 
heavy  freight  must  frequently  be  shipped  by  the  quickest  route.  The 
firm  states: 

It  costs  about  $8  per  ton  to  ship  from  New  York  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands  around 
the  Horn,  $12  per  ton  to  send  the  freight  by  way  of  Panama  and  San  Francisco  to 
Honolulu,  and  about  $19  per  ton  to  ship  across  the  United  States  by  rail  to  San  Fran- 
cisco or  Vancouver  and  thence  to  Honolulu.  The  first  way  of  shipping  takes  about 
four  to  five  months;  the  second  way  of  shipping  about  three  months,  and  the  third 
way  of  shipping  takes  at  least  two  months.  The  element  of  time  very  often  enters 
into  the  question  of  whether  it  is  possible  to  build  buildings  in  the  time  for  the 
requirements,  and  often  parties  are  compelled  to  ship  by  the  most  expensive  lines  in 
order  to  gain  time.  In  fact,  probably  seven  or  eight  thousand  tons  of  materials  will 
be  shipped  by  us  in  this  season  via  the  transcontinental  lines,  and  only  two  or  three 
thousand  tons  around  the  Horn. 


376  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

When  the  canal  has  been  opened  the  railways  will  not  permit  their 
traffic  to  be  taken  away  from  them  if  they  can  hold  it,  and  they  will 
unquestionably  so  adjust  their  business  as  to  retain  the  maximum 
amount  of  business.  It  is  the  belief  of  many  railway  officials  that 
they  will  be  able  to  hold  most  of  their  traffic  against  water  competi- 
tion. Whether  that  is  so  or  not  is  not  just  now  under  consideration, 
the  present  purpose  being-  to  illustrate  the  nature  and  extent  of  the 
competition  that  the  opening-  of  the  canal  will  inaugurate.  The  com- 
petition will  be  keen  and  will  not  be  restricted  to  a  limited  number  of 
commodities. 

THE  CANAL  AND  THE  TRAFFIC  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  ROADS. 

From  the  nature  of  the  subject  under  discussion  the  treatment  can 
not  be  statistical.  The  only  bases  upon  which  rest  conclusions  are 
theoretical  analysis  and  the  opinions  of  traffic  experts.  The  main  pur- 
pose of  the  following  pages  will  be  to  present  impartially  the  views  of 
transportation  experts  whose  opinions  are  worthy  of  consideration. 
Several  officials  of  the  Atlantic  lines  were  asked  the  following  question: 
"Will  the  canal  promote  the  commerce  and  industries  of  the  Atlantic 
slope  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  railway  lines  to  the  Atlantic  a  larger 
traffic  in  coal,  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  machinery,  and  other 
commodities '. " 

Two  traffic  managers  of  the  Atlantic  railroad  handling  the  largest 
volume  of  freight  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  opening  of  the  canal 
by  giving  American  manufactures  readier  access  to  western  South 
America  and  the  Far  East  would  largely  increase  the  exports  of  manu- 
factured commodities.  The  major  share  of  the  manufacturing  done 
in  the  United  States  is  carried  on  within  the  territory  of  the  lines  lead- 
ing to  the  North  Atlantic  ports;  and  those  roads,  accordingly,  expect  to 
secure  a  greater  volume  of  traffic  when  the  canal  has  become  available. 
It  was  said  that  the  amount  of  freight  that  now  moves  from  seaboard 
to  seaboard  by  rail  is  comparatively  small;  consequently  the  trunk 
lines  to  the  Atlantic  will  receive  more  than  they  will  lose  from  the 
operation  of  the  isthmian  waterway.  Much  the  same  view  was  ex- 
pressed by  a  traffic  manager  of  one  of  the  Pacific  railways. 

Some  railway  officials,  particularly  those  whose  roads  lead  to  the 
Gulf  ports,  believe  that  one  effect  of  the  canal  on  the  railway  traffic 
in  the  United  States  will  be  to  divert  a  considerable  share  of  the  busi- 
ness at  present  done  through  the  Atlantic  ports  to  the  cities  situated 
on  the  Gulf.  This  view,  however,  seems  not  be  shared  by  the  officials 
of  the  North  Atlantic  trunk  lines,  for  the  reason  that  the  railway  lines 
to  the  Atlantic  are  shorter  from  points  east  of  Chicago  and  north 
of  Kentucky  and  Virginia  than  those  to  the  Gulf  are,  and  for  the 
reason  that  the  ocean  rates  from  Atlantic  ports  to  the  Pacific  coast  of 
the  United  Slates  and  (he  foreign  Pacific  countries  will  be  practically 
the  ^aniens  those  from  Gulf  ports. 

Officials  of  the  Atlantic  lines  were  also  asked  whether  "one  result 
of  the  canal  will  be  to  cause  a  larger  share  of  total  imports  of  the 
United  States  to  enter  the  country  through  the  Gulf  ports;1'  and 
whether  "the  canal  will  divert  to  the  Gulf  gateways  imports  that 
would  otherwise  enter  through  the  Atlantic  ports."  The  opinion 
seemed  to  be  that  the  Atlantic  lines  will  be  able  to  retain  their  present 
strong  position  in  the  import  traffic,  in  competition  with  the  Gulf  lines, 
partly  because  most  of  the  export  business  will  continue  to  be  handled 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  377 

at  the  Atlantic.  Both  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  roads  load  light  from  the 
seaboard  to  interior  points,  the  heavier  volume  of  traffic  being  out- 
bound. The  North  Atlantic  ports  have  a  much  larger  ship  tonnage  at 
their  service  than  the  Gulf  cities  now  have  or  will  secure.  The  North- 
eastern section  of  the  United  States  being  the  most  important  manu- 
facturing region  will  continue  to  be  the  chief  importing  section. 
Thus,  while  it  was  believed  that  the  imports  by  way  of  the  Gulf  cities 
will  probably  be  larger  after  the  canal  has  been  constructed  than  they 
can  be  before  that  event,  it  was  not  thought  that  this  larger  trade 
would  be  secured  by  drawing  traffic  away  from  the  North  Atlantic 
cities  and  to  the  railroads  serving  them. 

Another  question  asked  the  officials  of  the  North  Atlantic  lines  was 
whether  "the  roads  to  the  Atlantic  will  exchange  less  traffic  with  the 
Pacific  lines  as  the  result  of  the  canal."  The  replies  indicated  that 
the  Atlantic  lines  did  not  expect  the  canal  to  have  the  effect  of  redu- 
cing the  volume  of  business  exchanged  between  Atlantic  lines  and 
Pacitic  roads.  The  railways  will  not  permit  their  business  to  be  taken 
away  without  an  effort  to  retain  it,  and  wherever  possible  arrangements 
will  be  made  for  transcontinental  shipments  on  through  bills  of  lading 
to  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States  and  to  countries  beyond.  The 
present  volume  of  business  exchanged  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
roads  is  comparatively  small.  It  will  not  be  less  after  the  canal  has 
been  put  into  operation. 

While  the  officials  of  the  Eastern  roads  are  by  no  means  unanimous 
in  their  opinions,  the  foregoing  statement  of  their  opinions  is  believed 
to  represent  fairly  their  views. 

THE  CANAL  AND  THE  TRAFFIC  OF  THE  GULF  ROADS. 

It  seems  uncertain  how  much  of  the  import  and  export  business  of 
the  section  north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Mississippi  will  be  done 
by  way  of  the  Gulf  ports;  the  testimony  is  not  unanimous.  Probably 
some  of  the  trade  of  this  region  will  be  handled  by  the  Gulf  ports; 
and  the  competition  of  the  Gulf  lines  will  affect  the  rates  on  a  large 
share  of  the  business  that  is  handled  by  the  Atlantic  roads  and  ports. 
The  opening  of  the  isthmian  canal  will  give  the  people  of  the  States 
north  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Missouri  rivers  the  choice  of  three  routes 
for  their  trade  with  our  west  coast  and  Pacitic  countries,  and  the 
volume  of  their  trade  will  be  a  prize  for  which  the  Atlantic,  the  Gulf, 
and  the  Pacitic  lines  may  be  expected  to  strive  with  zeal. 

There  can  be  little  uncertainty  as  to  the  general  effect  of  the  canal 
upon  the  traffic  of  the  railways  located  in  the  Southern  and  South- 
western States.  The  railways  serving  the  Southern  States  will  have 
the  same  measure  of  benefits  that  may  come  to  the  industries  and  trade 
of  the  region.  The  canal  can  take  no  business  away  from  the  South 
or  the  Southern  railways.  It  can  only  increase  existing  railwa}^  busi- 
ness and  draw  new  industries  and  trade  to  the  section. 

The  import  business  handled  by  the  Gulf  lines  is  small  at  present, 
and  it  will  doubtless  always  remain  less  than  the  volume  of  outbound 
traffic,  although  the  opening  of  the  canal  may  be  expected  to  increase 
the  amount  of  inbound  business  handled  by  the  Gulf  cities.  The 
officials  of  the  Gulf  lines  who  were  consulted  believe  that  the  canal 
will  cause  a  moderate  though  not  a  large  volume  of  imports  to  enter 
through  the  Gulf  cities. 


378  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

THE    CANAL   AND    THE    TRAFFIC    OF    THE    RAILWAYS    OF    THE    CENTRAL 

WEST. 

In  that  large  stretch  of  country  north  of  the  Ohio  and  Missouri 
rivers  and  west  of  Chicago,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  region  west  of  the 
territory  served  by  the  trunk  lines  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  north 
of  the  States  occupied  by  the  railway  systems  terminating  at  Gulf 
ports,  there  is  a  network  of  important  railways  having  a  large  volume 
of  traffic.  Until  recently  the  traffic  of  these  railways  in  the  central 
West  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  agricultural  products,  but  the 
diversification  of  industries  in  that  part  of  the  United  States  is  now 
proceeding  with  great  rapidity.  There  is  an  immense  volume  of 
export  business,  the  major  part  of  which  is  now  handled  by  the  lines 
leading  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  although  latterly  the  lines  to  the  Gulf 
have  handled  a  portion  of  this  traffic,  and  the  volume  of  business 
handled  from  the  central  West  b}T  the  transcontinental  railways  has 
grown  to  considerable  dimensions.  The  imports  brought  into  the 
central  West  from  foreign  countries  come  mainly  by  way  of  the 
Atlantic  gateways.  A  certain  amount  of  fruit  comes  through  the  Gulf 
cities,  and  an  appreciable  volume  of  oriental  goods  is  brought  in  by 
way  of  Pacific  ports. 

As  to  the  effects  of  the  canal  upon  the  railway  traffic  in  the  central 
West  opinions  are  not  unanimous.  Manufacturers  and  most,  though 
not  all,  railway  officials  anticipate  that  the  canal  will  develop  a  large  vol- 
ume of  new  business.  The  views  of  those  railway  officials  who  expect 
but  small  results  from  the  canal  were  well  summarized  by  a  prominent 
official  of  one  of  the  strongest  roads  of  the  central  West—  a  system 
that  ramifies  in  seven  States.  He  said  that  inasmuch  as  the  industries 
of  the  territory  served  by  this  road  were  chiefly  agricultural,  no  large 
volume  of  traffic  would  ever  be  exchanged  with  the  agricultural  States 
of  our  own  Pacific  slope.  This  gentleman  said  that  if  the  canal  were 
to  affect  the  business  of  railroads  situated  as  his  system  is,  it  must  be 
accomplished  Ity  the  creation  of  manufacturing  industries,  and  it  was 
his  opinion  that  the  volume  of  this  kind  of  business  would  not  and 
could  not  become  very  large.  If  the  canal  should  divert  this  now  busi- 
ness from  the  Pacific  roads  to  the  Atlantic  trunk  lines,  or  to  the  roads 
leading  to  the  Gulf,  that  result  would  not  affect  the  roads  of  the  cen- 
tral West,  because  this  diversion  would  do  little  more  than  to  change 
the  direction  in  which  the  traffic  was  hauled  by  his  and  similarly  situ- 
ated roads.  Believing  that  the  development  of  manufacture  would  be 
limited  to  small  proportions,  and  that  any  diversion  of  traffic  would 
simply  change  the  direction  in  which  the  outbound  and  inbound  busi- 
ness was  handled,  it  was  the  opinion  of  this  gentleman  that  the  canal 
could  not  affect  the  business  of  his  railway  and  other  similarly  situated 
systems  to  any  large  extent. 

The  traffic  manager  of  another  equally  strong  railway  system  in  the 
central  West  was  of  the  opinion  that  an  isthmian  canal  would  help 
build  up  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley  and  be  a  benefit  to  the  railways 
of  that  section.  As  a  general  pioof  of  this  proposition  he  cited  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  Railway  as  one  that  was  particu- 
larly subject  to  water  competition,  and  which  was  nevertheless  one  of 
the  most  profitable  freight  roads  in  the  United  States.  The  canal,  he 
said  in  substance,  wdl  doubt  less  take  from  the  railroads  some  ship- 
ments they  would  otherwise  secure,  but  by  increasing  the  total  volume 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  379 

of  business  by  causing  the  centers  of  distribution  and  manufacturing 
to  grow  and  multiply,  and  population  to  increase,  the  water  route  will 
add  to  the  traffic  seeking  transportation  by  the  railroads.  This  gentle- 
man believes  that  water  competition  is  a  help  instead  of  an  injury  to 
the  railroad  because  of  the  larger  industrial  development  made  possi- 
ble by  the  cheaper  water  transportation.  He  called  attention  to  some 
of  the  large  wholesale  and  jobbing  houses  in  St.  Louis,  and  said  that 
the  prominence  of  that  city  as  a  wholesale  jobbing  center  was  partly 
due  to  the  cheap  transportation  from  the  East  by  way  of  the  Gulf  and 
the  Mississippi  River.  This  official  also  laid  down  the  proposition 
that  the  best  conditions  for  a  heavy  railway  traffic  are  produced  by  the 
existence  of  a  large  number  of  manufacturing  and  distributing  centers. 
Some  railway  officials,  he  said,  seem  to  believe  it  better  for  the  rail- 
roads to  favor  the  concentration  of  business  in  a  few  large  centers; 
but  such  a  policy,  he  said,  experience  had  shown  would  restrict  the 
possible  development  of  railway  traffic  within  unnecessarily  narrow 
limits.  Believing  that  the  canal  will  develop  the  territory,  diversify 
and  distribute  industry,  he  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  effect  of  the 
waterway  upon  the  business  of  the  railway  lines  situated  in  the  central 
West  would  be  beneficial. 

While  these  views  regarding  the  efficacy  of  water  competition  to 
develop  the  industries  of  the  interior  part  of  the  United  States  and  to 
increase  the  traffic  of  the  railways  of  that  part  of  the  country  are  not 
shared  by  all  the  railway  officials  that  were  consulted,  the  history  of 
transpoitation,  the  evidence  afforded  by  a  study  of  business  conditions 
in  different  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  the  opinions  entertained  by 
the  manufacturers  and  large  shippers  of  commodities  tend  to  substan- 
tiate th<i  accuracy  of  the  position  taken  by  those  railway  officials  who 
expect  their  lines  to  profit  rather  than  suffer  injury  by  the  opening  of 
the  proposed  isthmian  canal.  No  one  can  visit  the  great  industrial 
centers  of  the  central  West,  study  the  vast  resources  of  the  States  of 
that  section,  and  acquaint  himself  with  the  activities  of  the  business 
men  without  feeling  certain  that  increased  transportation  facilities  are 
certain  to  result  in  a  very  large  expansion  of  industry.  The  history 
of  the  great  central  West  shows  that  the  measure  of  its  industrial 
development  has  always  been  the  measure  of  its  transportation  facili- 
ties. New  facilities  mean  new  business;  and  this  is  more  true  to-day 
than  it  was  twenty-five  or  even  ten  years  ago. 

EFFECT  OF  THE   CANAL  UPON   THE  TRAFFIC  OF  THE  PACIFIC  RAILWAYS. 

The  railway  systems  that  will  feel  the  competition  of  the  new  water 
route  across  the  Isthmus  most  severely  are  those  whose  lines  connect 
the  Mississippi  Valley  with  the  Pacific  coast.  This  competition  may 
apply  to  nearly  all  kinds  of  traffic.  The  only  articles  wholly  exempt 
will  be  the  perishable  fruits  and  those  goods  of  high  value  sent  by 
express  and  as  fast  freight.  The  more  southerly  Pacific  lines  will  feel 
this  competition  more  keenly  than  will  those  situated  farther  north. 
The  northern  lines,  moreover,  will  be  able  to  meet  the  canal  competi- 
tion more  readily  than  will  those  farther  south,  because  the  territory 
crossed  by  the  southern  roads  includes  such  a  wide  belt  of  relatively 
unproductive  country.  The  northern  half  of  the  Cordilleran  highland 
is  not  only  rich  in  mineral  resources,  but  is  also  capable  of  raising 
considerable  quantities  of  agricultural   products.     In  some  parts  of 


380  KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

this  region  irrigation  is  necessary  and  in  others  not.  The  southern 
part  of  this  great  highland,  however,  is  capable  of  but  a  limited  devel- 
opment. The  mineral  resources  are  less  extensive.  Wherever  agri- 
culture is  possible  it  is  dependent  upon  irrigation,  and  the  irrigable 
areas  are  very  limited.  Thus  the  northern  lines  have  a  territory 
capable  of  producing-  a  much  larger  amount  of  local  traffic  than  can  be 
secured  by  the  southern  lines  from  the  country  across  which  they  are 
located. 

Traffic  officials  of  the  three  southern  lines  tothe  Pacific  stated  their 
views  with  frankness  and  in  some  detail.  The  opinions  of  these  gen- 
tlemen, however,  differ  largely.  The  views  of  those  who  believe  that 
the  effect  of  the  canal  will  not  be  to  create  business,  but  that  it  will 
compel  a  large  reduction  in  railway  rates  without  affording  compensa- 
tion to  the  railroads,  were  fully  stated  by  an  official  in  charge  of  the 
traffic  business  of  one  of  the  Pacific  roads.     He  said  in  substance: 

During  the  early  years  of  the  transcontinental  railways  the  traffic  from  the  Atlan- 
tic section  of  the  United  States  to  the  Pacific  section  was  drawn  almost  entirely  from 
the  Atlantic  seaboard.  Before  the  railways  were  built  the  traffic  was  all  handled  by 
the  sea  route,  and  the  costs  of  transportation  from  the  interior  to  the  ocean  were  such 
that  the  traffic  was  drawn  almost  entirely  from  the  seaboard  cities.  The  effect  of  the 
transcontinental  railways  has  been  to  cause  a  large  part — three-fourths,  it  is  estimated — 
of  the  business  carried  across  the  country  westward  by  the  transcontinental  railways, 
to  originate  in  and  west  of  Pittsburg.  The  effect  of  the  canal  will  be  to  tend  to 
cause  traffic  to  originate  nearer  the  Atlantic  seaboard  again,  and  thus  affect  deleteri- 
ously  not  only  the  business  of  the  transcontinental  railways,  but  the  general  indus- 
tries of  the  middle  section  of  the  United  States. 

The  traffic  of  a  canal  will  consist  of  all  kinds  of  commodities  except  those  of  a  per- 
ishable nature.  The  competition  of  the  waterway  with  tin-  railway  lines  will  be  very 
severe,  but  the  railways  will  not  permit  their  traffic  to  be  taken  away  from  them  by 
the  canal.  The  competition  will  necessitate  a  reduction  in  rates — such  a  reduction 
as  may  throw  the  transcontinental  railways  into  insolvency  and  require  the  scaling 
down  of  capital.  The  railways  will  continue  in  business,  however,  after  the  owners 
of  the  property  have  suffered  a  great  reduction  in  the  value  of  their  holdings. 

As  far  as  the  export  trade  across  the  Pacific  is  concerned,  the  canal  would  be  an 
injury  to  the  Pacific  coast  seaboard,  because  the  export  traffic  very  largely  originates 
in  the  central  and  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  That  traffic  would  he  carried 
directly  to  the  Eastern  and  South  American  countries  by  way  <>t'  the  canal. 

The  establishment  of  industries  along  the  transcontinental  railway  lines  as  a  result 
of  the  opening  of  the  canal  was  held  to  be  possible  only  to  a  small  extent  by  any  of 
the  transcontinental  railways  south  of  the  Northern  Pacific.  The  Southern  roads 
cross  such  a  long  stretch  of  arid  country  that  general  industries  can  not  be  developed 
except  relatively  near  the  termini.  California  and  the  Pacific  coast  generally  do  not 
constitute  a  manufacturing  section,  nor  will  they  become  such. 

Before  criticising  the  remarks  contained  in  the  foregoing  statements, 
the  views  of  ;i  traffic  manager  of  one  other  Pacific  line  may  be  stated. 
This  traffic  manager  says  that  the  canal  will  compel  a  reduction  in  rail 
rates  to  Pacific  terminal  points  below  the  charges  that  would  otherwise 
prevail^  and  that  the  adjustment  of  charges  will  probably  result  in  the 
establishment  of  blanket  or  identical  rates  between  Pacific  ports  and 
all  points  in  the  central  and  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  The 
effect  of  this  will  be  to  take  from  the  cities  in  the  central  part  of  the 
United  States  the  advantages  which  they  have  over  the  Eastern  cities 
for  trade  with  the  Pacific  coast.  This  official  does  not  believe  that  the 
canal  will  be  of  much  help  to  California,  because  the  trade  in  grain, 
which  is  and  will  always  be  the  principal  item  of  export,  is  going  to  be 
carried  on  less  with  Europe  ami  more  and  more  with  China  and  Japan, 
where  the  consumption  of  wheat  is  even  now  taking  the  place  of  rice. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  381 

He  believes  that  the  surplus  grain  products  of  the  Pacific  coast  will 
be  milled  and  shipped  to  the  Orient,  and  that  the  canal  will  not  be  of 
benefit  to  this  industry.  Concerning  the  general  effects  oi  a  canal 
upon  the  commerce  and  industry  of  the  United  States  as  a  whole,  this 
traffic  official  is  more  optimistic  than  the  others  above  quoted.  He 
says,  and  very  accurately,  that  the  transportation  business  of  this 
country  is  so  organized  that  if  touched  at  one  point  the  effect  is  felt 
eveiy where.  The  opening  of  the  canal  will  afford  a  new  transporta- 
tion agent  of  importance,  and  while  it  will  compel  an  adjustment  of 
business,  a  revision,  and  in  some  cases  a  reduction,  of  rates,  the  rail- 
roads will  nevertheless  find  business  to  do,  and  the  travel  and  traffic 
of  this  country  and  the  business  done  at  home  and  abroad  will  so 
increase  as  ultimately  to  make  both  the  railways  and  the  canal  a  neces- 
sity. The  construction  of  the  canal  is  regarded  by  this  traffic  official 
as  inevitable,  as  something  which  the  American  people  have  decided  to 
be  necessary  for  naval  reasons  and  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the 
quickest  and  best  transportation  facilities  for  their  domestic  and  for- 
eign trade.  The  transcontinental  railwa}xs,  in  his  opinion,  would  tem- 
porarily suffer  from  the  reduction  in  rates,  but  the  growth  of  the 
country  will  be  such  that  twent}r-five  years  from  now  the  railways 
will  have  nothing  to  fear  from  the  canal. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  Pacific  railwa}^  officials  above  quoted,  and  of 
others,  the  isthmian  canal  will  be  an  active  and  rate-controlling  com- 
petitor. That  this  is  true  will  hardly  be  questioned,  and  if  the  canal 
can  not  compensate  the  railways  with  a  larger  volume  of  business  they 
will  not  share  with  the  producing  and  manufacturing  interests  in  the 
benefits  accomplished  b}r  the  water  route.  Whether  the  canal  will 
give  the  Pacific  railroads  a  larger  traffic  than  they  would  otherwise 
have  is  partly  a  matter  of  judgment  and  partly  a  question  of  safe 
deduction  from  past  experience. 

The  belief  entertained  by  one  of  the  officials  above  referred  to  that 
the  isthmian  canal  will  draw  traffic  and  the  centers  of  industry  back 
from  the  central  section  of  the  United  States  to  the  Eastern  States  is 
based  on  an  inadequate  conception  of  the  industrial  strength  of  the 
Central  States  as  compared  with  the  Eastern.  The  Central  States  pos- 
sess vast  stores  of  coal,  iron,  and  timber,  and  these  and  their  other 
natural  resources  are  causing  the  population  and  industrial  activities 
of  our  country  to  become  generally  distributed.  The  railwa}7s  that 
serve  the  Central  States  are  wisely  fostering  this  tendenc}r,  and  these 
railway  systems  are  among  the  strongest  and  most  efficient  of  an}^  in 
the  United  States.  After  ten  or  twelve  years  more  of  progress  on  the 
part  of  the  industries  and  railway  systems  of  the  central  portion  of  the 
country,  they  will  be  quite  secure  against  defeat  from  competition 
with  the  East.  Indeed,  the  canal  will  so  facilitate  the  foreign  trade  of 
the  Central  States  as  to  make  them  stronger  than  they  now  are  as  com- 
pared with  the  Eastern  section. 

It  is  asserted  by  one  of  the  railwa}^  officials  whose  opinions  are  given 
above  that  the  isthmian  canal  will  injure  the  Pacific  States  b}r  divert- 
ing from  them  the  imports  destined  for  points  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  present  volume  of  these  imports  by  way  of  the  Pacific 
coast  cities,  however,  is  small  and  will  probably  remain  so.  Without 
an  isthmian  canal  the  goods  brought  in  from  foreign  Pacific  countries 
will  be  imported  into  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States,  as  most  of 


382  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

them  now  are,  by  way  of  New  York  and  other  Atlantic  ports.  The 
importations  of  teas,  silks,  mattings,  and  curios  by  way  of  our  Pacific 
ports  and  the  transcontinental  railroads  is  increasing,  it  is  true,  and 
may  be  expected  to  grow  in  volume  as  the  costs  of  railway  transporta- 
tion decline.  After  the  canal  route  has  been  opened  the  railways  will 
be  obliged  to  share  this  traffic  with  the  steamers  using  the  canal.  Here 
again,  however,  it  is  probable  that  additional  facilities  for  transporta- 
tion will  be  accompanied  by  a  larger  demand  for  commodities  and  an 
increased  traffic  for  the  old  routes  as  well  as  the  new.  If  the  isthmian 
canal  produces  any  changes  of  importance,  one  effect  will  be  to  give 
greater  prosperity  to  the  western  third  of  the  United  States,  where 
the  Pacific  railroads  must  alwaj^s  perform  the  transportation  service, 
to  stimulate  the  growth  of  population  there,  and  to  increase  the  con- 
sumption of  such  articles  as  are  imported  from  the  Orient. 

One  of  the  witnesses  above  quoted  thinks  that  the  wheat  exported 
from  the  Pacific  coast  will,  within  a  few  years,  be  sent  entirely  to 
Pacific  instead  of  Atlantic  markets.  There  is  a  growing  trans -Pacific 
trade  in  flour  and  an  increasing  quantity  is  required  at  home  oy  the 
growing  population  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  slope  States. 
This,  moreover,  is  being  accompanied  by  a  diversification  of  agricul- 
ture and  the  production  of  other  cereal  crops  and  of  fruits  and  veg- 
etables. Nevertheless,  the  western  section,  particularly  the  States  of 
Washington  and  Oregon,  may  be  expected  to  remain  large  exporters 
of  wheat  and  also  of  barley  to  Atlantic  countries  for  several  decades 
to  come. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The  competition  of  the  canal  will  affect,  first,  the  volume  and  rates  of 
the  through  business  of  the  Pacific  railroads,  and  secondly,  the  amount 
of  their  local  traffic.  At  the  beginning  of  their  existence  these  rail- 
wa}Ts  depended  almost  entirety  upon  their  through  traffic;  but  their 
chief  aim  throughout  their  history  has  been  to  increase  the  local  busi- 
ness, which  is  always  more  profitable  than  the  through  traffic;  and 
although  the  great  stretch  of  country  crossed  by  them  is  still  in  the 
infancy  of  its  industrial  development,  the  local  traffic  of  some,  if  not 
all,  of  the  Pacific  roads  has  already  become  of  chief  importance.  A 
vice-president  of  one  of  the  railway  s}\stems  states  that  since  lS(X-> 
"the  increase  in  business  of  the  transcontinental  lines  has  not  come 
from  the  seaports,  but  from  the  development  of  the  intermediate 
country."  The  canal  can  certainly  in  no  wise  check  the  growth  of  this 
local  traffic,  and  the  evidence  strongly  supports  the  belief  entertained 
by  many  persons  that  the  canal  will  assist  largely  in  the  industrial 
expansion  of  the  territory  served  by  the  Pacific  railways. 

If  this  be  true,  the  proximate  effect  of  the  isthmian  canal  in  com- 
pelling a  reduction  and  readjustment  of  the  rates  on  the  share  of  the 
transcontinental  railway  business  that  will  be  subject  to  the  competition 
of  the  new  water  route  will  be  more  than  offset  by  the  ultimate  and 
not  distant  expansion  of  the  through  and  local  traffic  that  must  neces- 
sarily be  handled  by  rail.  It  seems  probable  that  the  increase  in  the 
population  of  the  country  and  the  growth  in  our  home  and  foreign 
trade  will  early  demonstrate  the  need  of  the  transportation  service  of 
both  the  canal  and  the  railways. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  383 

CiiArTER  XI. — The  trade  and  industries  of  western   South   America 
and  tin-  effect  of  the  canal  upon  than. 

The  benefits  of  an  isthmian  waterway  will  be  felt  in  varying  degrees 
by  more  than  half  the  countries  of  the  world.  In  some  regions  this 
influence  will  be  slight  and  indirect,  or  will  modify  only  a  small  part 
of  the  trade,  while  in  others  it  will  affect  the  greater  part  of  the  com- 
merce and  will  work  changes  that  will  be  almost  revolutionary.  The 
United  States  will  obtain  the  most  direct  and  far-reaching  results 
from  the  canal;  South  America  will  probably  be  the  second  greatest 
recipient  of  its  advantages. 

AREA    AND    POPULATION    COMPARED    WITH    NORTH    AMERICA. 

South  America  is  but  slightly  smaller  than  North  America.  It  is 
wider  between  Pernambuco  and  Guayaquil  than  the  United  States 
between  Oregon  and  Maine,  long  enough  to  reach  from  the  isthmian 
canal  to  Baffin  Ba}T,  a  thousand  miles  beyond  the  southern  point  of 
Greenland,  yet  none  of  her  shores  are  frozen.  These  rather  surpris- 
ing dimensions  are  seen  more  clearly  by  a  glance  at  the  globe,  which 
will  correct  the  erroneous  impressions  that  flat  maps  make  by  exag- 
gerating the  size  of  countries  of  high  latitude  and  diminishing  the 
area  of  equatorial  regions.  Viewed  on  a  wall  map,  North  America 
appears  much  larger  than  South  America,  when,  in  reality,  there  is 
but  slight  difference  in  the  area  of  the  continents.  B}T  drawing  a  map 
on  the  polyconic  projection,  as  has  been  done  in  plate  75,  the  relative 
areas  of  the  two  continents  can  be  shown. 

Brazil  alone  is  larger  than  the  combined  area  of  England,  France, 
and  the  United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska,  while  each  of  five  other 
South  American  Republics  exceeds  in  area  the  original  thirteen  States 
of  North  America  with  Maine,  Vermont,  and  Florida  added,  and  the 
State  of  Massachusetts  with  its  irregular  shape  could  be  completely 
hidden  away  by  being  put  down  in  the  midst  of  the  unexplored  areas 
of  the  great  forests  of  the  Amazon  Valley.  Although  large,  South 
America  does  not  have  a  greater  proportion  of  worthless  territory 
than  have  most  of  the  other  continents.  There  are  deserts  in  Peru  and 
and  Chile,  and  mountain  wastes  and  swampy  forests  in  the  center  of 
the  continent;  but  these  areas  are  small  compared  with  the  unoccu- 
piable  parts  of  North  America.  Canada  and  Alaska,  comprising  a 
third  of  the  continent,  are  largely  uninhabitable  because  of  the  cold  cli- 
mate. The  plains  and  plateaus  west  of  the  Missouri  River  embrace  a 
third  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States  that  can  be  only  sparsely 
inhabited  because  of  its  aridity.  The  proportion  of  arid  land  in  Mexico 
is  greater  than  in  the  United  States. 

In  South  America  the  present  sparse  population  has  but  touched  the 
resources  that  can  support  commonwealths  as  populous  as  those  of 
Europe  when  immigration  and  settlement  shall  have  occupied  the 
country.  The  present  sparseness  of  population  and  backward  devel- 
opment of  South  Amertca  are  due  to  three  causes.  The  first  is  the 
difference  in  character  of  the  races  inhabiting  England  and  Spain — a 
difference  as  marked  in  their  colonies  as  in  the  mother  countries. 
England  and  her  colonies  have  prospered,  while  Spain  and  her  depend- 
encies have  languished.  Had  England,  not  Spain,  possessed  South 
America  after  the  sixteenth  century,  the  continent  would  now  be  more 


884  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

highly  developed,  although  its  social  institutions  might  have  differed 
from  those  of  North  America,  as  the  result  of  climatic  dissimilarities. 
South  America's  sparse  population  is  furthermore  due  to  the  fact 
that  Europe  has  not  jret  needed  South  America  as  a  home  for  over- 
crowded peoples.  Canada  is  still  giving  away  farms,  the  United  States 
has  scarcely  ceased  doing  the  same,  and  in  the  old-settled  common- 
wealths of  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States  hardty  more  than  half  of 
the  available  area  is  cultivated.  The  United  States  is  still  a  compara- 
tively empty  country.  The  emigrating  races  of  Europe,  which  have 
been  chiefly  the  Teutonic,  have  found  stable  and  friendly  governments, 
fellowship  of  race,  and  familiar  climate  in  the  United  States,  Canada, 
and  Australia.  These  attractions  were  not  offered  by  South  America. 
Settlement  there  was  impeded  by  the  tropical  climate  of  a  large  part 
of  the  continent,  and  by  the  fact  that  the  most  suitable  districts  for 
white  colonization  were  on  the  inland  plateaus,  separated  from  the 
ocean  by  unhealthy  lowlands  which  must  be  crossed  by  railroads  before 
commercial  relations  could  be  established  with  the  rest  of  the  world. 
Under  these  conditions  an  extensive  occupation  of  the  country  has 
waited  for  corporate  enterprises  to  provide  the  needed  transportation 
facilities.  There  have  been  no  large  European  emigrations  except  to 
Argentina  and  southern  Brazil,  where  the  climate  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  temperate  latitudes  of  North  America,  and  where  the  governments 
have  been  fairly  stable,  and' have  provided  the  political  prerequisites 
for  industrial  growth. 

THE   TRADE   ZONES   OF   SOUTH    AMERICA. 

In  discussing  the  industries  and  trade  of  South  America,  and  the 
manner  in  which  they  will  be  affected  by  an  isthmian  canal,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  divide  the  continent  into  trade  zones.  The  various  countries 
do  not  form  a  satisfactory  division,  because  in  some  cases  two  or  three 
adjoining  States  have  similar  climate,  resources,  and  trade  connections. 
Nor  is  a  separation  of  the  continent,  into  zones  or  latitude  helpful, 
because  very  disimilar  regions  are  found  in  the  same  latitude.  The 
shape  of  the  continent  and  the  lack  of  internal  communication  make  it 
necessary  to  treat  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  sections  separate!}',  and 
each  of  these  sections  has  a  temperate  and  a  tropic  division  calling  for 
separate  treatment.  In  the  discussion  that  follows  the  continent  has 
been  divided  into  (1)  the  Temperate  Pacific  section;  (2)  the  Tropic 
Pacific  section;  (3)  the  Temperate  Atlantic  section,  and  (4)  the  Tropic 
Atlantic  section.  The  political  divisions  comprised  in  each  section 
are  shown  in  the  accompanying  map  of  South  America. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  world's  trade,   the  Atlantic  sections  of 

South  America  are  more  important  than  the  Pacific  side,  but  as  regards 
the  traffic  and  effects  of  an  isthmian  canal  the  western  third  of  the  con- 
tinent is  of  greater  consequence.  The  effect  of  the  canal  en  the  trade 
of  the  Atlantic  region  will  be  slight,  but  on  the  Pacific  side  the  canal 
will  change  the  routes  and  in  some  measure  the  destination  and  origin 
of  the  larger  part  of  its  foreign  commerce.  The  references  to  the 
Atlantic  sections  will  he  brief  in  the  following  discussions,  the  space 
given  to  the  four  trade  divisions  of  South  America  being  in  propor- 
tion to  the  importance  of  the  canal  to  the  economic  development  of 
each. 


S  Doc^/^57    1 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  385 

Western  South  America  will  be  considered  first."  This  section  of 
the  continent  includes  the  Pacific  coastal  strip  and  also  the  Andean 
plateau,  and  reaches  from  the  southern  limits  of  the  habitable  part  of 
the  temperate  zone  northward  well  into  northern  tropical  latitudes. 
The  Republic  of  Chile,  in  the  temperate  zone,  is  as  large  as  our  New 
England  and  middle  Atlantic  States  with  Maiyland  and  the  Virginias' 
added.  Northward  in  Peru  and  Bolivia  the  ranges  of  the  Andes 
broaden,  so  that  in  addition  to  the  coastal  plain,  often  60  miles  across, 
there  is  an  extensive  plateau  a  thousand  miles  long  and  in  places 
several  hundred  miles  wide.  On  this  broad  highland  is  the  Titicaca 
Basin,  with  a  system  of  rivers  flowing  into  a  lake  about  half  the  size  of 
Lake  Erie,  and  furnishing  hundreds  of  miles  of  navigable  waterways. 

INADEQUATE  TRANSPORTATION   FACILITIES  OF  WESTERN   SOUTH  AMERICA. 

The  Pacific  frontage  of  South  America  has  more  than  double  the 
population  and  area  of  our  Pacific  coast  States  of  California,  Oregon, 
and  Washington.  The  western  sections  of  the  two  American  conti- 
nents are,  however,  very  differently  situated  commercially.  Our 
Pacific  slope  has  the  advantage  of  seven  transcontinental  railroads;  the 
Pacific  coast  of  South  America  has  but  one,  and  that  is  incomplete. 
The  foreign  commerce  and  to  a  large  extent  the  domestic  trade  of  the 
west  coast  of  South  America  is  dependent  upon  inadequate  and  cir- 
cuitous water  transportation.  The  building  of  the  Panama  Railroad 
has  been  of  comparatively  small  importance  to  the  trade  of  South 
America.  The  costs  of  transshipment  at  the  Isthmus  and  the  high 
freight  rates  charged  limit  the  use  of  this  route  mainly  to  passenger 
traffic  and  the  freighting  of  articles  that  need  quick  transportation. 
Cheaper  commodities  take  the  longer  route  around  the  continent.  A 
prosperous  industrial  growth  requires  transporting  agencies  that  can 
profitably  and  cheaply  move  such  commodities  as  coal,  iron  and  other 
ores,  grain,  etc.  This  the  Panama  Railroad  can  not  do,  and  such  com- 
modities, if  moved  at  all,  must  go  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan  or 
around  the  Horn. 

The  great  distance  that  must  be  traversed  by  the  ship  passing  between 
the  commercial  countries  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  the  west  coast  of 
South  America,  has  caused  the  commerce  of  those  countries  until 
recently  to  be  chiefly  dependent  upon  the  sailing  vessel.  The  intro- 
duction of  regular  steam  connection  promises  better  transportation 
facilities  for  the  future,  especially  after  the  canal  shall  have  been  com- 
pleted. Callao,  Peru,  is  now  farther  b}T  steam  from  New  York  than 
is  the  South  Pole,  but  an  isthmian  canal  will  bring  the  city  1,000  miles 
nearer  to  New  York  by  steam  than  San  Francisco  will  then  be. 

The  present  difficulties  of  transportation  restrict  travel,  and  thus 
prevent  the  people  of  the  United  States  and  Europe  from  becoming 
acquainted  with  the  people  and  trade  conditions  of  western  South 
America.  Commercial  exchanges  prosper  only  when  knowledge  and 
intimacy  break  down  mistrust  and  reveal  the  commercial  needs  of  the 
trading  nations. 

In  Pacific  South  America  generally,  as  in  other  Latin  American 
countries,  the  difficulties  of  inland  transportation  are  a  great  hindrance 

"Consult  Pis.  76,  77,  and  78,  upon  which  are  located  the  places,  resources,  and 
industries  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 25 


386  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

to  industrial  and  commercial  progress.  Excepting  a  few  lines  of  rail- 
roads, there  are  practically  no  means  of  communication  in  western 
South  America  save  the  pack  mule.  This  state  of  affairs  makes  the 
commerce  of  the  interior  districts  similar  to  that  of  Europe  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  international  trade  was  limited  to  silks  and  spices 
and  other  light  commodities  of  high  value  that  could  be  carried  long 
distances  by  caravan  and  to  the  few  bulkier  articles  produced  along 
the  seacoast  and  navigable  rivers.  The  inland  districts  of  England, 
France,  and  Germany  then  had  considerable  populations,  but  each 
community  raised  its  own  food,  made  its  own  clothing,  and  knew  little 
of  the  products  of  other  countries.  The  improvements  that  have  trans- 
formed the  European  countries  have  not  yet  had  much  effect  upon  the 
tropic  section  of  Pacific  South  America.  Only  a  small  proportion  of 
the  population  contributes  an}Tthing  to  the  foreign  trade.  The  rest 
live  in  isolated  communities,  each  of  which  is  practically  self-supporting. 

DEPENDENCE    OF     WESTERN     SOUTH     AMERICA    UPON    FOREIGN    CAPITAL 
AND   LARGE    ORGANIZATIONS   OF   CAPITAL. 

The  nineteenth  century  witnessed  an  enormous  expansion  of  com- 
merce throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  world,  largely  because 
industries  developed  in  new  countries  b}T  means  of  the  capital  that 
Europe  had  slowly  accumulated  through  several  preceding  centuries. 
The  foreign  trade  which  South  America  now  has  is  almost  entirely  the 
result  of  European  investments.  Foreign  capital  has  worked  the  cof- 
fee plantations  of  Brazil,  and  built  her  railroads  and  those  of  Argen- 
tina. The  flocks  of  Argentina  are  owned  by  Englishmen  and  Scotch- 
men, the  nitrate  works  of  Chile  are  in  the  hands  of  English  and 
German  owners,  and  the  sugar  plantations  of  Peru  are  the  property  of 
Americans  and  other  foreigners. 

The  capitalistic  development  of  western  South  America,  particu- 
larly the  northern  part,  has,  however,  not  yet  progressed  very  far. 
It  has  great  stores  of  natural  wealth,  but  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
their  utilization  have  not  been  overcome.  Large  organizations  of 
capital  are  especially  necessary  in  the  Andean  region  and  on  the  west 
coast.  In  Argentina  the  European  owner  can  cultivate  his  grain  and 
pasture  his  flocks  in  a  level  country  watered  by  rainfall,  but  in  Peru 
irrigation  is  necessary  to  agriculture.  The  building  of  a  railroad 
across  the  level  pampas,  to  carry  away  the  wool  and  grain  of  Argen- 
tina, is  a  very  much  easier  task  than  building  a  line  up  the  denies  ol* 
the  Andes  to  tap  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  plateau.  Operation  on  the 
east  side  can  be  conducted  with  moderate  capital,  but  on  the  west  side 
the  large  capitalist,  the  mining  expert,  and  the  complicated  machine 
are  necessary.     The  return  to  capital,  however,  promises  to  be  liberal. 

Foreign  capital  has  made  less  headway  than  would  otherwise  have 
been  made  in  western  South  America,  because  of  the  frequency  of 
political  disturbances  and  civil  wars.  The  deleterious  effects  of  fre- 
quent revolutions  and  unstable  political  conditions  are  known  to  be 
great,  and  are  felt  even  more  by  the  merchant  than  by  the  capitalist 
who  is  engaged  in  mining,  agriculture,  or  transportation.  The  mana- 
ger for  a  strong  corporation,  which  has  for  years  operated  a  large 
sugar  plantation  in  the  Peruvian  irrigated  belt,  reports  that  the  per 
cent  of  loss  that  has  actually  occurred  from  civil  wars  has  been,  on  the 
whole,  surprisingly  small.  'I  he  country,  however,  suffers  greatly 
because  capitalists  are  deterred  from  making  investments. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  387 

The  western  part  of  South  America  has  been  lying  idle  while  more 
accessible  resources  elsewhere  have  been  levied  upon.  But  a  new  era 
seems  to  be  at  hand.  The  constant  tendency  everywhere  is  to  organize 
capital  on  a  large  scale,  and  it  seems  probable  that  the  development 
of  western  South  America  will  be  undertaken  by  organizations  of 
capital  similar  to  those  that  are  giving  the  United  States  its  industrial 
preeminence.  In  fact,  a  substantial  beginning  has  already  been  made, 
and  that  beginning  is  responsible  for  the  present  importance  of  western 
South  America  to  the  world's  trade.  In  1899  Chile  exported  more 
tons  of  nitrate  of  soda  than  the  port  of  New  York  exported  tons  of 
wheat.  This  nitrate  was  produced  by  large  foreign  corporations  own- 
ing their  own  nitrate  beds  and  reducing  plants,  the  railroads  to  carry 
the  product  to  the  seacoast,  and  the  piers  and  warehouses  from  which 
to  ship  it.  In  1899  Peru  exported  110,000  tons  of  sugar,  which  had 
been  produced  by  firms  that  could  irrigate  their  plantations,  install 
expensive  machinery,  build  lines  of  railway  to  the  port  or  to  some 
main  line,  and,  in  some  cases,  the  product  was  exported  in  the  ships 
of  the  producers.  By  the  increase  of  enterprises  of  this  character 
the  west  coast  can  double  and  treble  the  amount  of  her  contributions 
to  international  trade. 

The  first  step  to  be  made  in  the  direction  of  these  changes  will  be  in 
bettering  the  means  of  transportation  by  the  building  of  railways,  or 
starting  industrial  undertakings  which  include,  as  a  part  of  the  enter- 
prise, an  improvement  in  the  existing  method  of  transportation.  This 
will  come  about  easier  after  the  opening  of  an  isthmian  canal,  which 
will  tend  to  quicken  the  industrial  and  commercial  life  of  the  west 
coast  of  South  America.  Cheaper  freights  will  enable  the  com- 
modities now  exported  to  be  marketed  more  cheaply  and  other  articles 
not  now  utilized  will  find  their  way  into  commerce.  With  the  greater 
possibilities  of  securing  freight  will  come  new  inducements  to  build 
railways  and  make  other  improvements  in  transportation.  Railway 
materials  and  the  machinery  necessary  for  the  equipment  of  industrial 
plants  will  be  cheaper  because  of  lower  freight  rates  from  the  iron- 
producing  countries  north  of  the  Isthmus. 

The  supply  of  capital  for  South  America  will  in  the  future  come 
from  the  United  States  as  well  as  from  Europe.  We  have  become 
large  exporters  of  the  iron  and  steel  and  machinery  needed  b}^  new 
countries.  Our  increasing  wealth  and  population  will  furnish  money 
and  men  for  industrial  enterprises  in  foreign  lands.  American  own- 
ership and  direction  of  railroads,  mines,  and  other  enterprises  in  Mex- 
ico have  been  chiefly  responsible  for  the  industrial  revolution  in  that 
country  during  the  past  twenty  years  and  for  the  accompanying 
expansion  of  her  commerce,  the  chief  part  of  which  has  been  with  the 
United  States.  This  work  is  still  going  steadily  forward  in  Mexico, 
but  we  shall  probably  welcome  opportunities  lying  beyond  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama. 

DISADVANTAGES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    IN    TRADING    WITH    WESTERN 
SOUTH    AMERICA — EFFECT   OF   THE    ISTHMIAN   CANAL. 

With  very  few  exceptions  the  industries  of  western  South  America 
may  be  classed  as  mining  and  agricultural.  This  is  the  case  even  in 
the  seacoast  regions  engaging  in  foreign  trade.  There  are,  of  course, 
local  manufactures  of  various  articles  in  the  towns  and  villages,  such 


388  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

work  as  is  done  locally  in  any  community,  but  the  nature  of  the 
resources  of  western  South  America  is  such  that  the  region  is  likely 
to  continue  permanently  in  the  extractive  stage  of  mdustry,  or  at 
least  until  a  period  too  remote  for  consideration  here.  Pacific  South 
America  is  now  but  half  of  an  industrial  unit;  the  other  half,  the  man- 
ufacturing- complement,  is  in  Europe  and  the  United  States.  Each 
one  of  these  industrial  half  units  needs  better  facilities  for  marketing 
its  produce  in  the  other.  One  important  service  of  an  isthmian  canal 
will  be  to  bring  these  separated  commercial  and  industrial  comple- 
ments into  closer  relation. 

The  west  coast  of  South  America  bears  a  relation  to  the  manufac- 
turing centers  of  Europe  and  the  United  States  similar  to  that  which 
Montana,  Colorado,  and  Texas,  with  their  raw  products,  bear  to  the 
manufacturing  States  of  the  East.  The  countries  of  the  North  Atlan- 
tic need  and  are  buying  the  export  products  of  the  west  coast  of  South 
America — the  nitrate  and  the  ores  of  copper,  silver,  and  gold,  the 
grain,  sugar,  cotton,  cocoa,  coffee,  wool,  hides,  rubber,  and  woods. 
In  return  for  this  export  these  South  American  Republics  are  import- 
ing from  many  countries,  but  chiefly  from  the  United  Kingdom,  all 
kinds  of  manufactures,  from  steel  rails  to  jewelry  and  tine  clothes. 
Both  parties  will  be  benefited  by  increasing  this  trade.  The  produc- 
tion of  raw  material  will  be  stimulated  no  less  than  the  production  of 
manufactures.  For  any  gain  that  comes  to  South  America  the  rest  of 
the  world  must  receive  an  accompanying  or  complementary  advantage. 

The  United  States  will  derive  especial  advantage  from  the  shorten- 
ing of  the  roundabout  path  of  this  large  and  increasing  commerce. 
Because  of  the  present  route  around  the  continent  the  trade  of  the 
west  coast  is  mainly  with  Europe,  but  on  the  opening  of  the  canal 
there  will  be  a  change  of  front  toward  the  United  States.  Both 
European  and  American  traders  will  have  greatly  improved  opportu- 
nities, but  the  larger  relative  improvement  will  come  to  the  east  coast 
of  North  America.  Our  ports  will  then  have  from  2,000  to  3,000 
miles  advantage  over  Europe  in  the  journey  to  the  west  coast,  whereas 
at  present  the  distance  from  New  York  and  the  ports  of  the  English 
Channel  to  that  section  of  the  world  are  nearly  equal,  the  southern 
cities  of  Europe  having  a  slight  advantage  over  the  ports  of  the  United 
States.  Nearly  all  of  South  America  Lies  east  of  North  America.  The 
meridian  of  Washington  is  that  of  Callao.  on  the  coast  of  Peru. 
Antofagasta  and  Lquique,  the  chief  nitrate  ports  of  Chile,  have  the 
longitude  of  Boston.  Valparaiso  is  71  40'  west  longitude  and  New 
York  74"  03'.  The  eastern  point  of  Brazil  lies  2,600  miles  east  of 
New  York,  and  is  equidistant  from  New  York  Bay  and  the  English 
Channel. 

The  sailing  vessels  bound  from  New  York  for  the  west  coast  of  South 
America  must  go  eastward  nearly  to  the  Canaries  so  as  to  be  able  to 
take  advantage  of  the  trade  winds  and  get  past  Cape  St.  Roque,  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil.  The  European  sailer  goes  directly  past  the  Canaries 
and  has  an  advantage  of  ten  days  over  the  American  in  a  voyage  to 
any  part  of  South  America  south  or  west  of  the  eastern  point  of  Brazil. 
For  many  decades  our  direct  commerce  with  South  America  has  been 
chiefly  by  sail,  and  we  have  competed  with  Europe  under  most  unfa- 
vorable conditions.  The  small  part  of  our  trade  that  has  not  gone  by 
sail  has  gone  by  steamers  to  Panama  for  transshipment  to  the  two 
lines  of  steamers  going  down  the  west  coast.     These  lines  have  com- 


RKPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  389 

bined  to  keep  the  rates  at  such  a  figure  that  for  most  of  the  time  during 
the  last  thirty-five  years  it  has  been  cheaper  to  ship  American  goods 
to  South  America  via  England  or  German}'.  Jt  has  often  cost  the 
American  shipper  from  30  to  50  per  cent  more  to  send  freight  3,500 
miles  direct  to  western  South  America  by  Panama  than  to  send  it 
14,000  miles  indirectly  by  way  of  Europe.  Shipping  around  the  Horn 
by  sail  is  such  :i  slow  and  irregular  means  of  reaching  the  markets  as 
to  prevent  the  development  of  a  satisfactory  commerce  in  these  modern 
times,  when  expedition  is  the  order  of  business.  Our  share  in  the 
trade  of  the  west  coast  of  South  America  has  not  been  gratifying  to 
national  pride;  indeed,  we  have  done  little  more  than  to  sell  in  those 
countries  the  commodities  that  they  could  not  secure  elsewhere. 
Europe  has  taken  nearly  all  of  their  exports  and  supplied  them  with 
most  of  their  imports. 

Since  1890  two  American  companies  have  been  running  chartered 
British  vessels  around  to  Guayaquil,  and  during  this  period  the  value 
of  our  exports  to  the  west  coast  has  increased  16  per  cent;  this,  how- 
ever, is  less  than  one-third  the  rate  of  the  increase  of  our  total  exports. 
Fortunately  the  steamer  is  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  the  sailing 
vessel.  In  1890  steam  vessels  carried,  largely  via  Panama,  36  per  cent 
of  our  exports  to  the  countries  of  western  South  America.  In  1900 
81  per  cent  of  our  exports  to  those  countries  went  by  steam,  a  gain  of 
225  per  cent  in  the  proportion  carried  by  steam. 

The  starting  of  the  lines  of  steamers  from  New  York  has  not,  how- 
ever, given  our  manufacturers  an  even  chance  with  those  of  Europe. 
American  merchants  and  consuls  on  the  west  coast  complain  that  the 
steamers  from  New  York  charge  higher  rates  than  those  from  Europe, 
and  nearly  as  high  as  the  Panama  lines.  Nevertheless,  these  steam- 
ers always  leave  New  York  full  loaded  with  export  freight  and  the 
profitableness  of  the  business  is  attested  by  the  frequent  addition  of 
more  vessels  to  the  fleets.  This  suggests  what  may  be  expected  to 
occur  when  the  isthmian  canal  and  more  lines  of  steamers  give  us 
shorter  and  better  means  of  communication  with  Pacific  countries. 

We  have  a  thriving  trade  with  the  American  countries  near  to  us. 
Fifty-nine  per  cent  of  Canada's  imports  come  from  the  United  States. 
The  ocean  route  to  Mexico  is  longer  than  to  Canada,  and  the  railroad 
connections  over  the  land  frontier  are  much  less  satisfactory,  }?et  we 
furnish  49  per  cent  of  the  Mexican  imports.  The  northern  countries 
of  South  America  are  about  2,000  miles  from  New  York,  but  we  have 
fairly  good  steamship  connection  and  a  growing  trade,  Colombia  and 
Venezuela  drawing  about  30  per  cent  of  their  imports  from  this  coun- 
try. In  contrast  with  this,  however,  the  United  States  furnishes  less 
than  10  per  cent  of  the  imports  into  the  countries  of  the  west  coast  of 
South  America;  and  our  trade  there  has  increased  slowly  at  a  time 
when  the  growth  of  our  exports  as  a  whole  has  been  rapid.  Under 
the  present  adverse  conditions  our  share  in  the  trade  of  the  west  coast 
of  South  America  is  only  one-third  as  great  as  it  is  in  the  South 
American  countries  bordering  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  one-fifth  as 
great  as  in  Mexico,  and  only  one-sixth  of  the  percentage  which  we 
control  of  the  trade  of  Canada.  An  isthmian  canal,  and  the  lines  of 
communication  that  it  will  open  up,  may  be  expected  to  give  this 
country  a  larger  share  in  the  trade  of  the  Pacific. 

This  conclusion  is  strengthened  by  some  incidents  in  the  history  of 
the  foreign  trade  of  Chile.     In  years  past,  the  British  share  of  that 


390  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

trade  was  greater  than  it  is  at  the  present.  Her  commissioners  sent 
in  1898  to  investigate  the  cause  of  this  decline  reported  as  the  first 
cause  that  British  merchants  did  not  secure  as  good  freight  rates  for 
their  commodities  as  were  obtained  by  their  continental  rivals,  the 
difference  in  favor  of  Antwerp  and  German  ports  being  sometimes 
25  per  cent.  It  was  found  that  English  merchants  sometimes  sent 
British  goods  to  those  ports  for  reshipment  to  Chile.  The  lower  rates 
from  Germany  were  due  to  the  nitrate  trade.  Germany  being  the 
largest  importer  of  Chilean  nitrate  of  soda,  the  ships  returning  from 
that  country  to  Chile  could  offer  the  best  rates  on  outgoing  freight, 
and  this  was  one  of  the  causes  that  had  enabled  the  German  merchant 
to  build  up  a  large  South  American  trade. 

A  similar  advantage  will  come  to  the  traders  of  this  country  when 
the  canal  has  been  opened.  B}T  that  time  the  United  States  will  have 
a  larger  consumption  of  nitrate,  our  vessels  will  go  directly  down  the 
South  American  coast,  and  the  favorable  shipping  facilities  that  are 
now  giving  Germany  an  advantage  over  the  United  Kingdom  will  be 
possessed  in  a  more  marked  degree  by  American  merchants.  More- 
over, it  is  probable  that  the  vessels  en  route  from  Europe  to  South 
America  will  aid  our  exporters  by  calling  at  our  ports  for  coal  and 
other  cargo. 

The  advantage  of  cheaper  transportation  is  already  shown  in  the 
export  cotton  trade  of  the  United  States  to  Chile.  At  certain  times 
nitrate  ships  returning  to  South  America  offer  Arery  favorable  rates 
from  New  York,  and  exporters  then  dispose  of  cotton  cloth  in  large 
lots  at  Chilean  ports,  thereby  securing  a  trade  which  the  regular  con- 
ditions of  freight  would  not  permit. 

The  future  trade  between  our  east  coast  and  the  west  coast  of  South 
America  will  have  the  advantage  of  a  heavy  traffic  both  ways,  a  phe- 
nomenon rarely  met  with  in  international  commercial  movements. 
Our  east  coast  trade  with  Europe  consists  mainly  in  the  exchange  of 
large  quantities  of  agricultural  and  other  heavy  produce  for  a  small 
quantity  of  manufactured  products,  and  this  necessitates  a  large  ballast 
movement  westward  across  the  North  Atlantic.  Our  exports  from 
New  York  to  Australia  are  but  partly  balanced  by  the  small  return 
trade.  Our  exports  to  the  Orient  of  iron,  cotton,  and  foodstuffs  are 
exchanged  for  light  curios,  tea,  and  mattings.  Our  trade  to  South 
America  is  certain  to  give  rise  to  an  increasing  exportation  of  articles 
similar  to  those  we  art1  sending  to  China  and  Australia,  with  the  prob- 
able addition  of  coal,  and  these  commodities  will  be  exchanged  for 
Peruvian  sugar,  Chilean  nitrate,  ores,  and  heavy  produce,  so  that 
vessels  will  readily  secure  cargoes  both  ways.  This  will  be  an  advantage 
both  to  the  steamship  companies  and  the  shippers. 

GEOGRAPHY,   RESOURCES,  AND    INDUSTRIES   OF   CHILE.* 

Having  discussed  the  general  industrial  and  commercial  conditions 
of  Western  South  America  as  a  whole,  it  will  be  profitable  to  examine 
tin,  temperate  and  tropical  regions  separately  and  with  some  detail. 
The  temperate  division  of  the  continent,  for  the  purposes  of  this  dis- 
cussion, may  be  considered  practically  coextensive  with  Chile;  for 
although  the  northern  boundary  of  Chile  extends  beyond  the  Tropic  <>t' 

"Consult  Pis.  7f>  and  77. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN     CANAL    COMMISSION.  391 

Capricorn  the  aridity  of  that  part  of  the  country  makes  mining  the 
only  industry.  Mining  industries  being  independent  of  climate,  the 
activities  of  Chile  that  are  determined  by  climate  are  located  within 
the  temperate  zone.  Chile  is  long  and  narrow,  but  her  area  is  large — 
larger,  in  fact,  than  that  of  France,  Germany,  or  the  United  Kingdom, 
or  the  combined  area  of  the  New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  States 
with  Maryland  and  the  Virginias  added.  Her  length  of  2,600  miles 
would  reach  from  New  York  to  Utah.  The  country  extends  from  a 
tropic  district  to  Tierra  del  Fuego,  where  the  latitude  and  climate  are 
like  those  of  Scotland.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  the  chief  product  of  the  arid 
northern  part  of  Chile,  which  is  the  source  of  supply  for  the  entire 
world.  The  agricultural  districts  and  the  center  of  population  are 
farther  south,  the  products  being  similar  to  those  of  our  Pacific  Coast 
States,  with  which  Chile  possesses  many  points  of  similarity. 

The  temperate  shores  of  the  Pacific  show  a  succession  of  similar 
geographic  and  climatic  features  in  both  North  and  South  America. 
These  resemblances  would  appear  plainly  if  Chile  could  be  inverted 
and  placed  beside  the  coast  of  North  America.  The  lower  end  of 
the  inverted  Chile  would  be  opposite  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  Tierra  del 
Fuego  would  be  about  the  latitude  of  Sitka,  Alaska.  The  800  miles 
of  Chilean  desert  with  its  nitrate  beds  would  lie  against  the  arid  coast 
of  Mexico  where  its  silver  is  mined.  Patagonia  would  be  opposite 
British  Columbia  and  Alaska,  both  regions  being  damp,  fringed  with 
rugged  islands,  and  cut  into  sharp  fiords  walled  in  by  forest-clad 
mountains  having  snowfields  on  their  summits  and  glaciers  on  their 
sides.  The  tropical  and  cold  sections  are  unproductive  agriculturally, 
but  in  the  temperate  belt  of  each  region  civilization  and  diversified 
industry  are  possible.  The  climate  is  that  of  western  Europe  and  the 
United  States. 

It  is  by  comparing  the  productive  region  of  the  north  temperate 
Pacific  with  the  south  temperate  Pacific  that  the  greatest  resemblances 
and  likewise  the  difference  of  the  two  coasts  appear.  Their  difference 
is  due  to  the  absence  of  a  South  American  duplicate  for  the  State  of 
Washington.  California  and  Oregon  are  reproduced,  but  the  Antarctic 
current,  sweeping  up  the  coast  of  South  America,  shortens  the  tem- 
perate section  of  Chile  so  much  that  the  region  corresponding  to  the 
State  of  Washington  is  replaced  by  a  longer  continuation  of  the  rugged 
and  forest-clad  coast  similar  to  that  of  Alaska  and  British  Columbia. 

Near  the  Mexican  boundary  of  the  United  States  the  resemblances 
to  the  corresponding  agricultural  parts  of  Chile  are  obvious.  In  Chile 
the  arid  country,  by  means  of  irrigation,  produces  grapes  and  raisins, 
citrus  and  other  fruits,  and  alfalfa,  the  alfalfa  being  used  as  a  supple- 
mentary fodder  for  the  cattle  pasturing  on  the  higher  hills.  The  arid 
belt  extends  several  hundred  miles,  and  is  succeeded  on  the  south  b}r 
wheat  fields  and  general  agriculture.  The  Chilean  forests  correspond- 
ing to  those  of  central  and  northern  California,  Oregon,  Washington, 
and  British  Columbia  exist  in  the  lower  half  of  the  Chilean  agricul- 
tural region  and  along  the  extensive  coast  of  Patagonia. 

The  best  section  of  the  western  slope  of  both  Chile  and  the  United 
States  is  found  in  a  large  interior  valley.  The  valley  of  California, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  on  the  west  by  the  Coast 
Range,  and  drained  by  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin  rivers,  is  of 
high  fertility.  Chile  also  has  a  valley  similar  to  this,  but  larger  and 
superior  to  it  in  several  particulars.     It  is  inclosed  by  the  Andes  on 


392  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

the  east  and  by  a  coast  range  near  the  shore  of  the  Pacific;  but  this 
coast  range  is  not  so  continuous  as  that  of  California,  being  broken  at 
frequent  intervals  where  rivers  make  their  way  to  the  ocean.  Instead 
of  being  drained  by  two  rivers  flowing  lengthwise,  and  having  outlet 
to  the  sea,  the  Chilean  Valley  has  several  small  rivers  flowing  across 
it  and  discharging  into  the  ocean.  The  basins  of  these  rivers  are  not 
separated  b}T  high  divides,  but  are  practically  continuous,  so  that  the 
whole  district  is  properly  spoken  of  as  one  great  valley.  The  Andes 
are  higher  than  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  and  westerly  winds  bring  a  larger 
amount  of  moisture  than  California  has.  The  streams  have  a  larger 
and  more  constant  flow  of  water  from  the  mountain  snows  and  furnish 
an  abundant  supply  for  irrigation,  and  in  some  places  provide  good 
power. 

As  in  most  arid  countries  where  irrigation  can  be  practiced,  the  soil 
is  fertile.  The  crops  produced  are  identical  with  those  of  California. 
All  of  the  cereals,  vegetables,  and  fruits  thrive  and  provide  a  food 
supply  sufficient  both  for  the  present  and  prospective  home  demands 
and  for  a  large  export  trade.  This  valley  is  about  700  miles  in  length — 
a  distance  equal  to  that  from  New  York  to  Charleston — and  is  divided 
into  thirteen  prosperous  provinces,  which  had  a  population  in  1895  of 
2,400,000  people — as  many  as  there  were  in  California,  Oregon,  and 
Washington  in  the  census  year  1900.  California  has  less  than  ten 
persons  to  the  square  mile,  while  the  Chilean  Valley  has  from  three 
to  five  times  as  many,  and  is  about  equal  in  density  of  population  to 
Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont,  or  to  our  Southern  States, 
exclusive  of  Florida. 

The  great  trunk  line  of  the  Government  railway  goes  through  most 
of  this  region  from  north  to  south.  It  is  being  extended  in  both  direc- 
tions, and  will  eventually  connect  Coquimbo,  in  latitude  29°,  with 
Porto  Montt,  in  latitude  41°.  The  line  to  the  last  point  is  already  sur- 
veyed. This  road,  most  of  which  is  now  completed,  will  be  about 
1,300  miles  long,  and  will  connect  with  many  branches  and  private 
lines  from  the  various  mining  and  agricultural  centers.  The  several 
rivers  breaking  through  the  coastal  mountain  range  make  it  easy  for 
the  railroad  to  connect  with  seaports,  and  there  are  now  railway  lines 
to  six  harbors  giving  the  producing  centers  of  the  country  opportunity 
to  take  advantage  of  the  water  transportation  supplied  by  the  lines  of 
coasting  steamers  that  are  doing  a  large  business  in  both  directions. 
In  the  valley  of  California  the  coast  ranges  make  necessary  a  much 
longer  railway  haul  to  reach  the  ports. 

The  northern  part  of  the  agricultural  region,  the  district  around 
Valparaiso  and  Santiago,  is  older  and  more  fully  developed.  Of  this 
section  the  Aconcagua  Valley,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  type,  is  a  plain 
highly  irrigated,  famed  for  its  agriculture.  The  grape  crop  of  this 
valley  alone,  it  is  estimated,  would  make  1,000,00(1  gallons  of  claret 
wine  were  it  so  used  instead  of  being  manufactured  into  the  local  drink 
called  "chica."  Potatoes  are  exported  to  the  nitrate  deserts  of  the 
North  and  to  Panama,  alfalfa  hay  to  Brazil,  and  honey  and  wax  are  sent 
to  Europe.  Local  canneries  preserve  the  fruit  crop,  which  is  mainly 
marketed  in  other  sections  of  the  country.  There  is  pasturage  on  the 
neighboring  hills  above  the  level  of  irrigation,  where  a  peculiar  kind 
of  wiry  grass,  well  adapted  to  its  dry  surroundings,  grows  for  months 
after  a  soaking  rain. 

The  sides  of  the  Andes  throughout   this  whole  belt  are  forest  clad. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  393 

In  latitude  37  south  the  forest  growth  becomes  general,  and  the  coun- 
try is  similar  to  many  parts  of  the  eastern  United  States.  This  lati- 
tude is  now  the  Chilean  industrial  frontier,  the  opening  up  of  the 
region  having  been  recently  begun  as  the  result  of  the  advent  of 
better  means  of  transportation.  New  railroads  are  being  built,  for- 
ests are  being  cleared,  and  stock  raising  and  cereal  agriculture  are 
increasing.  The  forest  regions  have  tanning  industries,  sole  leather 
being  exported  to  Europe. 

The  agricultural  and  mining  regions  of  Chile  are  north  of  40 
degrees.  South  of  that  there  is  as  yet  practically  nothing  of  commer- 
cial importance  except  the  sheep  pastures  of  Terra  del  Fuego.  The 
1,000' miles  of  intervening  coast  is  as  little  known  as  is  the  coast  between 
the  port  of  Vancouver  and  the  mainland  of  Alaska.  Nearly  all  of  the 
present  and  prospective  Chilean  commerce  and  population  are  from 
1,000  to  2,000  miles  north  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  through  which 
their  commerce  must  find  its  way  to  the  Atlantic  until  the  canal  pro- 
vides a  shorter  outlet. 

Chile  exported  something  over  3,000,000  bushels  of  grain  to  Europe 
in  1898-99,  but  the  larger  part  of  the  exports  of  the  country  consists 
of  the  minerals  mined  in  the  northern  and  arid  part  of  the  State.  The 
agricultural  part  of  the  country  sends  large  quantities  of  food  products 
to  the  mining  regions  of  the  northern  provinces.  The  greater  part  of 
Chile's  export  wealth  originates  in  regions  that  are  almost  a  desert. 
Their  dryness  causes  their  richness;  indeed,  a  moist  climate,  instead  of 
being  a  blessing,  would  cause  the  disappearance  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  wealth  of  this  section,  which  consists  of  such  soluble  minerals  as 
nitrate  of  soda,  iodine,  borax,  and  common  salt. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  the  chief  export  of  Chile,  lies  in  a  nearly  continuous 
deposit  parallel  to  the  seacoast,  extending  150  miles  from  north  to 
south,  with  scattering  deposits  reaching  250  miles  farther,  the  total  cov- 
ering 220,356  acres,  and  estimated  to  contain  about  228,000,000  long 
tons,  a  quantity  sufficient  to  last  the  world  for  many  decades  to  come. 
The  nitrate  is  found  under  the  surface  layer  of  sand,  and  when  shov- 
eled out  has  the  consistency  of  cheese.  It  is  refined  in  numerous  and 
extensive  plants  requiring  large  capital.  The  crude  product  is  dis- 
solved, chemically  treated,  and  crystallized  to  get  rid  of  the  impurities. 
Among  these  impurities  are  iodine  and  common  salt,  which  are  sepa- 
rated for  export. 

The  city  of  Iquique,  the  most  important  nitrate  port,  may  be  taken 
as  a  type  of  the  towns  that  depend  upon  the  nitrate  industry  for  their 
existence.  Here  30,000  people,  having  the  conveniences  of  a  modern 
city,  live  in  the  desert,  where  every  supply  for  man  and  beast  must  be 
imported  from  other  ports  of  Chile  or  from  foreign  countries.  Water 
for  the  city  is  brought  by  pipe-line  200  miles  from  the  Andes.  A 
railroad  zigzags  up  to  the  plateau  and  winds  around  among  numerous 
nitrate  works  situated  in  the  desert.  The  railroad  company  is  Eng- 
lish, and  most  though  not  all  of  the  nitrate  plants  are  owned  by  for- 
eigners. Borax  is  obtained  in  the  dry  districts,  and  in  some  places 
common  salt  is  taken  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  by  sawing  it  out 
in  cakes  that  are  handled  like  ice.  Besides  these  desert  mineral  prod- 
ucts the  same  region  contains  a  large  amount  of  copper,  silver,  and 
lead.  Antofagasta  is  the  port  of  this  section  and  is  also  the  outlet 
for  the  mines  of  Bolivia,  which  ship  their  antimony,  bismuth,  tin, 
mercury,  and  sulphur  over  the  Antofagasta  railroad."    Most  of  these 


3VI4  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

products  are  in  the  form  of  ores,  some  of  which  are  refined  at  Anto- 
fagasta  and  the  rest  exported,  mostly  to  Europe,  for  treatment. 

The  rise  in  the  price  of  copper  has  greatly  increased  the  copper 
mining  industry  of  Chile,  and  the  deposits  of  copper  promise  to  con- 
tribute largely  to  the  world's  supply  of  this  metal.  Low-grade  copper 
ores  have  been  found  in  abundance  in  the  district  near  Santiago,  near 
to  the  ocean.  Copper  now  ranks  second  among  Chile's  exports, 
amounting  in  LS91*  to  25,400  tons.  In  coal  Chile  has  an  asset  that 
will  assist  with  the  development  of  other  resources,  although  she  has 
small  prospects  of  ever  becoming  a  coal  exporter.  In  the  south, 
about  latitude  37°,  the  ports  of  Coronel  and  Lota  are  the  points  of 
shipment  for  mines  located  near  by.  The  deposits  are  large,  but  the 
quality  is  inferior  to  English  and  American  coal,  and  the  output  is 
insufficient  for  home  demands,  although  it  is  largely  used  by  steamers 
going  up  and  down  the  coast  and  to  Europe. 

THE    CANAL   AND   THE    TRADE   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES   WITH    CHILE. 

The  interest  of  the  American  people  in  the  commerce  of  Chile  is 
greater  than  our  present  share  of  that  trade  would  indicate.  The 
foreign  commerce  of  Chile  now  amounts  to  about  $100,000,000  and 
is  increasing.  In  1899  the  exports  were  $59,000,000  and  the  imports 
$39,000,000;  about  nine-tenths  of  the  imports  came  from  Europe, 
while  nineteen-twentieths  of  the  exports  went  to  that  continent.  Our 
trade  is  slight  compared  with  that  of  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany, 
or  France.  An  examination  of  the  elements  of  the  trade  of  Chile 
shows  why  the  canal  will  increase  our  share.  Of  the  Chilean  exports, 
nitrate  of  soda  comprises  nearly  60  per  cent,  although  the  percentage 
is  slightby  declining,  owing  to  the  increased  export  of  copper  and  cop- 
per ores.  Next  in  the  order  of  importance  come  silver  and  silver  ores, 
then  wheat  and  barley,  wool,  hides,  and  other  scattering  and  agricul- 
tural and  mineral  products,  most  of  which  are  needed  in  the  United 
States.  We  need  the  nitrate  for  our  fertilizers  and  chemical  manu- 
factures, we  have  the  coal  to  smelt  the  copper  and  silver  ores,  we  need 
the  wool  for  our  carpet  manufactures,  and  the  hides  to  furnish  raw 
material  for  our  leather  manufactures.  Of  course,  the  grain  products 
are  needed  only  in  Europe. 

Of  the  Chilean  imports  cotton  manufactures  comprise  by  far  the 
largest  part.  Then  come  machinery  of  all  kinds,  kerosene,  woolens, 
coal,  bagging,  and  all  kinds  of  miscellaneous  manufactures  and  sup- 
plies. The  cotton  manufactures  are  made  from  the  raw  material 
grown  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States  and  carried  to  Europe 
for  manufacture,  whence  the  goods  are  shipped  through  the  Straits  of 
Magellan.  Much  of  that  cotton  cloth  will  in  the  future  go  direct 
from  American  mills  via  New  York,  Charleston,  Mobile,  or  New 
Orleans,  and  save  transshipments  and  7,000  miles  or  more  of  trans- 
portation. We  have  the  materials  and  manufacturing  ability  to  fur- 
nish the  Chileans  their  machinery.  We  are  now  furnishing  them  with 
kerosene,  and  when  the  canal  is  opened  we  will  probably  be  able  to 
send  them  coal  and  many  miscellaneous  manufactures. 

The  reduction  of  freight  rates  that  may  be  expected  to  follow  the 
opening  of  the  canal  will  not  only  extend  our  present  trade  with 
western  South  America,  but  will  increase  the  number  of  the  articles 
that  enter  into  it.  With  a  few  exceptions  tin1  goods  Chile  secures  in 
this  country  are  those  which  we  produce  under  especially  favorable 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  395 

circumstances— lard,  lumber,  kerosene,  breadstufl's,  patented  articles, 
like  medicines,  firearms,  electrical  appliances,  farming  machinery,  and 
improved  hardware.  These  articles  can  be  sold  readily  in  Chile  after 
the  canal  has  been  opened.  We  have  just  begun  to  send  Chile  iron 
and  steel.  The  bulk  of  the  pig,  bar,  and  hoop  iron,  rails,  and  cast- 
ings now  come  from  Europe,  although  we  can  make  them  more  cheaply 
than  our  European  rivals  can.  The  railroads  of  Chile  have  iron  rails' 
that  must  soon  be  exchanged  for  steel.  The  towns  and  cities  of  Chile 
will  use  an  increasing  amount  of  structural  iron  for  building  purposes. 
The  growing  favor  of  electricity  in  a  country  having  many  mountain 
streams  for  water  power  is  opening  up  a  demand  for  electrical  machin- 
ery which  American  manufacturers  are  already  able  to  supply.  We  are 
sending  small  quantities  of  many  other  articles  in  which  transporta- 
tion is  a  large  factor,  such  as  earthenware,  glass  and  glassware,  cord- 
age, paper,  and  coal.  Our  cotton  exports  to  Chile  consist  mainly  of 
one  or  two  plain  staple  grades  made  without  reference  to  the  Chilean 
market  and  shipped  in  bulk,  as  chance  opportunities  occur.  With 
attention  to  the  demands  of  the  market  and  cheaper  transportation 
that  business  can  be  greatly  extended. 

It  is  probable  that  some  of  the  trade  of  the  western  part  of  Argentina, 
lying  on  the  east  slope  of  the  Andes,  will  be  handled  through  Chilean 
ports  and  will  use  the  canal.  The  foothill  provinces  of  Argentina, 
like  those  of  Chile,  produce  fruit,  wine,  and  grain,  and  are  a  prosper- 
ous region.  This  region  being  from  700  to  900  miles  from  the 
Atlantic  ports  of  Argentina  and  within  200  miles  of  the  ports  of  the 
Pacific,  wThich,  when  the  canal  has  been  opened,  will  be  much  nearer 
North  America  than  Buenos  Ayres  will  be,  the  mails,  passenger  traffic, 
express  business,  and  some  classes  of  freight  may  be  taken  across  the 
Andes  and  sent  north  from  Valparaiso  or  some  other  Chilean  port. 
A  boundary  controversy  has  delayed  the  completion  of  the  Trans- 
Andean  Railroad,  but  contracts  have  been  let  for  the  completion  of 
the  work. 

TROPICAL    SECTIOX    OK   WESTERN    SOUTH    AMERICA — GENERAL 
DESCRIPTION/' 

The  tropical  section  of  western  South  America  is  nearly  double  the 
area  of  the  temperate  Pacific  region,  and  includes  practically  all  of 
Bolivia,  Peru,  Ecuador,  and  a  part  of  Colombia.  In  this  discussion  of 
the  trade  of  the  Pacific,  however,  the  portion  of  each  of  these  States 
is  omitted  that  lies  in  the  almost  unexplored  forest  plain  extending 
eastward  from  the  Andes.  The  region  here  considered  has  an  area  of 
nearly  half  a  million  square  miles.  It  is  more  than  twice  as  large  as 
France,  is  greater  than  our  Middle  Atlantic  States  and  Southern  States 
east  of  the  Mississippi  Kiver,  and  is  equal  to  our  three  Pacific  Coast 
States  with  the  addition  of  Idaho,  Wyoming,  and  Colorado. 

The  region  consists  of  a  coastal  plain  and  a  high  plateau.  The  plain 
is  either  matted  with  tropic  vegetation  and  drenched  with  rain  or  is 
a  sandy  desert,  and  neither  of  these  conditions  favors  the  establishment 
of  communication  with  the  plateau  30  to  100  miles  inland,  which  must 
be  surmounted  by  ascending  a  steep  and  forbidding  mountain  wall. 
The  mineral  wealth  of  the  plateau  is  abundant,  but  is  at  present  avail- 
able only  to  a  small  extent. 

"See  PI.  78. 


396  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

This  South  American  region  has  a  population  of  over  6,000,000,  but 
is  made  up  chiefly  of  Indians  and  half-breeds,  with  a  comparatively 
small  proportion  of  the  dominant  Spanish  race.  The  latter  race  lives 
in  the  towns,  devoting  itself  to  political  and  mercantile  affairs,  the  pro- 
portion of  Spanish  blood  decreasing  as  the  distance  from  the  towns 
increases.  All  the  labor  of  the  country  is  done  b}r  the  half-breed 
Indians  or  b}'  imported  Chinese  and  Japanese  labor.  Industrially,  the 
South  American  Indian  is  said  to  be  superior  to  the  North  American 
Indian,  and  when  properly  supervised  to  be  nearly  equal  to  the  negro 
as  a  laborer.  The  social  and  economic  conditions  do  not  tend  to  make 
the  laborers  ambitious.  Some  of  the  natives  own  the  lands  from  which 
they  glean  a  living,  but  throughout  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Bolivia  a 
system  of  industrial  servitude  exists  that  places  the  majority  of  the 
laboring  classes  in  a  condition  similar  to  that  of  the  English  serf  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  laborer  is  in  debt  to  his  employer,  who  manages  to 
keep  him  so.  Theoretically,  every  man  can  work  for  whom  he  wishes, 
but  the  debtor  is  practically  prevented  from  changing  masters  by  legal 
difficulties. 

The  Andean  region  of  South  America  now  has  but  little  international 
trade,  because  the  development  of  its  natural  resources  has  been  pre- 
vented by  untoward  political  conditions,  by  the  mountainous  character 
of  the  country,  and  the  absence  of  an  isthmian  canal. 

THE    PERUVIAN     COAST — ITS    INDUSTRIES    AND     THE     EFFECTS     OF     THE 

CANAL    UPON    THEM. 

Taking  Guayaquil  as  a  center,  it  will  be  found  that  the  coast  running 
800  miles  to  the  north  of  it  includes  a  coastal  plain  sparsely  populated 
by  a  few  Indians  and  negroes,  who  can  inhabit  its  unwholesome  for- 
ests. To  the  south  extends  some  1,200  miles  of  seacoast,  known  as 
"Zona  Seca,v  or  dry  zone,  which  has  considerable  industry  at  present, 
has  had  more  in  the  past,  and  promises  to  be  the  scene  of  greater 
activity  in  the  future. 

The  Peruvian  coast  for  1,200  miles  is  too  dry  for  ordinary  agricul- 
ture. Regular  crops  can  be  raised  only  by  irrigation,  the  supply  of 
water  being  the  rainfall  on  the  Andean  slopes  at  an  elevation  of  7,000 
feet  and  more.  During  the  winter  months  the  tiftv  streams  crossing 
the  plain  are  raging  torrents,  overflowing  their  banks,  but  during  the 
heat  of  the  summer  they  dry  away  to  mere  rivulets,  only  two  of  the 
northern  ones  having  sufficient  depth  to  be  of  any  use  for  navigation. 

If  the  Peruvian  coast  had  abundant  rains,  it  would  be  so  malarious 
and  unwholesome  as  to  be  unsuitable  for  white  men,  whereas  its  cli- 
mate is  said  to  be  healthful  and  cooler  than  that  of  other  regions  in 
the  same  latitude,  owing  to  the  Antarctic  current  flowing  up  the  west 
coast  and  to  (he  sea  breezes. 

The  Peruvian  coast  is  desolate  except  where  irrigation  has  pro- 
duced green  fields  in  the  dry  plains.  Its  present  population  and  the 
amount  of  land  cultivated  are  doubtless  much  smaller  than  they  were 
before  massacres,  slavery,  and  white  men's  diseases,  particularly  small- 
pox, had  greatly  reduced  the  native  population. 

The  soil  in  this  coast  plain  is  fertile  when  irrigated,  and  wrell-suited 
to  the  production  of  sugar,  cotton,  and  rice.  Experts  claim  that  sugar 
can  be  produced  here  as  cheaply  as  in  any  other  place  in  the  world. 
The  sugar  industry,  indeed,  had  made  a  good  start  before  L886,  when 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  397 

the  desolating  war  with  Chile  destroyed  many  of  the  plantations. 
The  business  has  now  recovered,  110,000  tons  having  been  produced 
during  the  season  of  1898  and  1899.  This  was  nearly  all  taken  by  the 
United  States,  and  much  of  it  crossed  the  Isthmus. 

The  cotton  crop  of  this  section  is  one  in  which  the  United  States  is 
particularly  interested.  Some  of  the  valleys  of  the  north,  particu- 
larly those  of  the  Piura  and  Chira  rivers,  grow  a  peculiar  kind  of 
rough  fiber  cotton  of  a  reddish  color,  that  will  not  grow  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world,  and  is  valuable  because  it  mixes  well  with  wool. 
The  irregular  supply  of  about  10,000  tons  a  year  grows  largely  with- 
out cultivation  along  the  rivers.  At  the  present  the  United  States 
imports  much  of  this  cotton  by  way  of  Liverpool.  We  can  use  many 
times  as  much  of  this  product  as  we  now  receive,  and  its  cultivation 
can  be  largely  extended  by  the  introduction  of  proper  irrigation  works. 

Some  rice  is  exported  from  the  port  of  Trujillo,  and  farther  south, 
at  Pisco,  there  is  some  shipment  of  the  wine  and  grape  products  which 
grow  in  the  irrigated  orchards  near  the  Andee.  Aside  from  these 
crops,  however,  the  agricultural  products  of  this  plain  will  be  used  to 
supply  food  products  for  the  Peruvian  population. 

As  agriculture  advances  there  must  be  a  reorganization  and  exten- 
sion of  the  railroads  from  the  coast  inland.  Several  lines  now  extend 
a  short  distance  from  the  Pacific,  but  as  industry  and  traffic  increase 
these  scattered  pieces  of  roadway  must  be  combined  into  one  or  two 
systems  centering  at  a  harbor  or  harbors  that  can  be  improved  b}r  the 
construction  of  piers  suitable  for  the  easy  handling  of  the  freight. 
When  these  improvements  are  made,  they  will  require  materials  with 
which  the  United  States  is  well  supplied. 

Petroleum  fields  are  located  near  the  Ecuadorean  boundary  at  the 
west  point  of  South  America,  the  deposits  lying  along  the  coast  for  a 
distance  of  200  miles,  extending  inland  a  considerable  distance,  and 
reaching  outward  under  the  sea.  The  development  of  this  resource 
has  not  met  with  much  success  up  to  the  present  time,  although  the 
oil  deposits  are  said  to  be  rich.  An  English  company  is  now  operating 
there  with  an  American  director,  and  is  securing  a  constantly  increas- 
ing output,  which  reached  about  2,000  tons  a  month  in  May,  1900. 
Thus  far  only  3  or  1  square  miles  situated  on  the  seacoast  have  been 
prospected,  and  that  not  thoroughly,  in  a  field  which  is  supposed  to 
be  extensive  in  area.  The  oil  is  not  suitable  for  illumination,  but 
makes  a  valuable  fuel.  It  is  used  on  all  the  railroads  of  Peru,  and 
may  give  much  assistance  to  the  industrial  development  of  the  Pacific 
coast  of  South  America. 

THE   ANDEAN    PLATEAU. 

The  Andean  Mountain  system,  with  its  plateaus,  may  be  compared 
with  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  of  the  United  States.  Beginning  in 
northern  Colombia  and  reaching  to  the  boundaries  of  Argentina  and 
Chile,  it  has  greater  length  than  our  Rocky  Mountain  region,  an  equal 
or  greater  width,  and  probabh7  more  individual  mountain  ranges.  In 
point  of  population  the  Andean  region  exceeds  its  North  American 
counterpart,  for  our  seven  Rocky  Mountain  States  and  Territories — 
not  including  the  Pacific  Coast  States — contained  in  1900  only  1,500,000 
people,  while  the  Andean  region  contains  at  least  4,000,000.  The 
industrial  capacities  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  it  need  hardly 
be  mentioned,  are  far  greater  than  those  of  the  Andes. 


398  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CAN  A.L    COMMISSION. 

The  great  elevation  of  the  plateau,  situated  in  tropical  latitudes, 
gives  it  a  variety  of  agricultural  produce.  On  the  intermediate  heights 
beans,  potatoes,  and  wheat  are  grown,  while  in  the  hot  valleys,  which 
here  and  there  intersect  the  plateau,  the  people  raise  sugar  cane, 
oranges,  and  bananas.  There  are  single  estates  on  which  the  owner 
grows  all  of  the  crops  of  both  tropical  and  temperate  climates. 

The  plateau  of  Ecuador  may  be  taken  as  a  t3rpical  section  of  this 
Andean  region.  The  Ecuadorian  plateau  has  an  elevation  of  8,000  to 
10,000  feet  and  is  really  an  inclosed  valley  some  400  miles  long  and 
about  50  miles  wide,  hemmed  in  on  both  sides  by  the  high  chains  of 
the  Andes.  The  rainfall  is  scanty  on  the  whole  plateau,  and  agricul- 
ture usually  depends  upon  irrigation,  for  which  the  snows  of  the 
mountains  furnish  abundant  water.  The  soil  is  largely  of  volcanic 
origin  and  is  very  fertile.  The  climate  is  mild  and  springlike.  The 
population  is  about  900,000. 

This  Ecuadorian  population  of  nearly  a  million  depends  for  its  con- 
nection with  the  outside  world  upon  a  neglected  and  dangerous  mule 
trail  to  Guayaquil.  During  the  rainy  season  this  precarious  route 
sometimes  becomes  impassable  and  the  interior  is  left  entirely  with- 
out means  of  communicating  with  the  outside  world.  A  railroad  350 
miles  in  length  is  being  built  from  Guayaquil  to  Quito,  and  the  Amer- 
ican company  constructing  it  confidently  expects  that  it  will  be  com- 
pleted long  before  the  opening  of  the  isthmian  canal. 

With  the  coming  of  the  railroad  the  people  of  interior  Ecuador  will 
use  much  larger  quantities  of  imported  manufactures  than  the}7  have 
been  able  to  get  in  the  past,  and  they  will  want  various  kinds  ol 
machinery-  They  will  secure  the  money  to  buy  these  things  by  work- 
ing for  the  foreign  capitalists  engaged  in  developing  the  mines,  by 
supplying  the  coast  regions  with  food  products,  and  by  exporting 
hides  and  other  agricultural  commodities.  The  railroad  will  also 
enable  them  to  secure  the  wood  and  lumber  needed  on  the  whole  pla- 
teau region,  which  is  in  many  places  destitute  of  timber.  The  rail- 
road will  help  in  the  introduction  of  modern  industrial  methods. 
The  old  wooden  plow  will  gradually  disappear;  shovels  and  wheelbar- 
rows will  come  into  use;  the  people  will  thrash  and  clean  their  grain 
with  machines  instead  of  treading  it  out  with  animals  and  winnowing 
it  in  the  wind.  Their  huts,  made  of  reeds  or  poles  and  put  together 
without  a  bolt  or  a  nail,  will  gradually  give  way  to  houses,  and  in  time 
thf  towns  will  be  better  built. 

This  description  of  the  plateau  of  Ecuador  would  apply  to  many 
districts  in  Peru  and  Bolivia,  tin1  climate,  people,  and  industrial  con- 
ditions being  very  similar  throughout  the  Andean  plateau;  the  high 
parts  of  one  country  resemble  those  of  another  just  as  the  plateaus  o: 
Colorado  resemble  those  of  Montana. 

The  plateau  region  reaches  its  greatest  width  near  the  boundaries 
of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  where  such  a  State  as  Pennsylvania  might  easily 
be  put  down  and  be  in  every  part  at  least  L0,000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Lake  Titicaca  is  as  large  as  Connecticut,  and  drains  into 
Lake  Poopo.  which  is  as  large  as  Rhode  Island.  These  lakes  are  con- 
nected bv  the  Desoguadeio  River,  180  miles  long,  and  navigated  a 
part  of  the  way  by  steamers.  These  lakes  are  the  center  of  a  great 
treeless  plain,  chiefly  devoted  to  stock  raising.  The  Bolivian  part  of 
this  plain  supports  about  7,000,000  sheep,  a  number  one-sixth  as  great 
as  all  of  those  in  the  United  States,  and  there  are  in  addition  many 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  399 

cattle,  mules,  and  swine.     Barley  and  potatoes  are  grown — the  surplus 
crops  of  the  Indian  agriculturist  being  marketed  in  the  mining  towns. 

The  people  of  the  Andean  plateau  are  now  very  poor.  They  make 
their  own  clothes,  raise  their  own  food,  receive  low  wages,  have  a 
low  standard  of  living,  and  buy  but  little  from  the  outside  world. 
But  their  needs  and  standards  can  and  will  change.  On  this  point  the 
experience  of  Mexico  is  interesting.  Twenty  years  ago  foreign  mer- 
chants in  the  interior  of  Mexico  despaired  of  the  people  ever  becom- 
ing large  consumers.  Five-sixths  of  them  were  Indians,  who  received 
for  their  wages  5  cents  per  day  in  cash  and  5  cents  in  rations.  Com- 
munication was  by  stagecoach.  The  people  wore  sandals,  unbleached 
cotton,  and  straw  hats,  and  bought  practically  nothing.  Since  that 
time  railroads  have  been  built  through  these  districts  and  the  laborer 
is  receiving  from  50  cents  to  $1.50  a  day  as  an  agricultural  or  mining 
laborer,  and  every  Indian  wants  a  watch.  With  their  higher  wages 
they  have  become  good  buyers  of  manufactures  from  their  own  and 
foreign  countries.  The  Andean  plateau  offers  conditions  to-day  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  interior  Mexico  twenty  years  ago,  and  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  what  happened  in  Mexico  will  happen  in  Sonth 
America. 

Attention  was  called  above  to  the  general  resemblance  of  the  Andean 
plateau  to  our  own  Rocky  Mountain  region.  The  tropic  Andes  are 
admitted  to  be  richer  in  mineral  resources  than  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
but  the  present  industrial  development  is  very  different.  Our  Rocky 
Mountain  States  and  Territories  are  served  by  a  good  network  of 
railroads,  the  State  of  Colorado  alone  having  nearly  5,000  miles,  while 
the  whole  Andean  plateau  has  less  than  500  miles,  and  the  lines  have 
not  penetrated  to  the  richest  mineral  deposits. 

In  spite  of  their  poor  connection  with  the  outside  world,  the  Andes 
have  produced  enormous  wealth.  The  bullion  from  their  mines  fur- 
nished the  civilized  world  with  the  greater  part  of  its  money  during 
the  centuries  of  Spanish  dominion.  Between  1630  and  1803  Peru  sent 
out  $1,250,000,000  worth  of  silver.  Bolivia  has  produced  about 
$4,000,000,000  worth.  Of  this  enormous  sum  the  famous  mines  of 
Potosi,  which  to-day  can  be  reached  onlv  bv  a  bridle  path,  vielded 
$3,000,000,000. 

Mining  operations  have  changed  but  little  during  the  past  century. 
The  mining  district  of  Hualgayoc,  Peru,  for  instance,  has  400  silver 
mines  in  an  area  of  40  square  leagues.  Some  of  these  mines  are  now 
yielding  ores  having  300  ounces  of  silver  per  ton.  The  work  is  done 
by  the  Indians,  who  burrow  around  through  the  veins  as  best  they  can, 
getting  out  the  ore  with  a  drill  and  hammer  and  carrying  only  the 
richest  of  it  to  the  surface  in  rawhide  sacks.  It  is  then  picked  over, 
crushed,  reduced  to  a  sulphate  by  crude  methods,  and  taken  on  mule- 
back  to  the  coast  and  shipped  to  Europe  for  refinement.  At  Hual- 
lanca,  Peru,  200  miles  from  the  coast,  ores  worth  $30  per  ton  are  thrown 
upon  the  waste  heap  because  they  are  not  worth  transportation  to  the 
seaports.  Yet  to-day,  in  our  own  Western  States,  companies  with 
large  capital  and  expensive  machinery  are  profitably  reducing  ores 
yielding  from  $4  to  $7  per  ton.  In  the  copper  mines  at  Corcoro, 
Bolivia,  to  the  south  of  Lake  Titicaca,  the  ores  are  blasted  out  and 
then  hammered  to  pieces  by  women,  who  pick  out  the  best  portions. 
Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  fuel,  little  of  the  ore  can  be  treated  on  the 
spot,  and  that  above  70  per  cent  pure  is  carried  awa}-  on  pack  animals. 


400  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

In  many  mines  of  the  United  States,  ores  with  but  3  or  1  per  cent 
copper  are  smelted. 

The  Bolivian  mineral  districts,  in  some  places  200  miles  wide,  rich 
in  tin,  copper,  silver,  and  gold,  extend  north  and  .south  for  a  distance 
of  700  miles.  The  Antofagasta  Railroad  has  but  just  touched  a  corner 
of  this  field.  The  terminus  of  its  line  at  Oruro  is  195  miles  south  of 
Lake  Titicaca,  and  as  the  greater  part  of  the  Bolivian  minerals  are 
in  the  eastern  ranges  of  the  Andes,  the  railroads  have  not  reached 
them.  The  city  of  La  Paz,  with  a  population  of  about  100,000, 
is  dependent  upon  a  stage  road  15  miles  long,  and  Cochabamba,  with 
25,000  people,  has  no  outlet  except  a  bridle  path  of  greater  length. 

The  improvements  resulting  from  better  transportation  facilities  are 
illustrated  in  the  limited  district  that  the  Antofagasta  Railroad  has 
reached,  where  changes  have  been  made  in  the  methods  of  operating 
the  mines,  and  large  quantities  of  ore  are  sent  to  the  coast.  One 
English  company  connected  its  mines  with  the  railroad  by  building  a 
branch  line  15  miles  long,  including  2  miles  of  tunnel.  The  venture 
is  said  to  have  paid  well. 

The  railroad  connecting  the  Peruvian  seaport  of  Mollendo  with  the 
lake  port  of  Puno  carries  out  large  quantities  of  mineral  products,  but, 
like  the  Antofagasta  Railroad,  it  has  not  tapped  the  main  fields.  The 
railroad  has  connections  with  the  lake  steamers  that  carry  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  interior  across  from  Chililaya,  the  port  of  La  Paz,  and 
many  similar  towns.  Some  of  these  places  are  hundreds  of  miles 
away,  and  all  freighting  is  done  by  pack  animals. 

A  successful  mining  industry  requires  rail  or  water  transportation. 
Mining  machinery  is  costly  and  heavy  and  can  not  be  introduced 
where  pack-mule  transportation  is  necessary.  The  securing  of  fuel 
and  supplies  and  the  marketing  of  the  product  are  nearly  as  dependent 
on  good  transportation  as  is  the  introduction  of  machinery.  Only  the 
choicest  ores  can  be  carried  on  mule  back,  while  the  metal  in  such 
ores  is  almost  infinitesimal  in  comparison  with  that  contained  in  the 
low-grade  ores. 

When  the  railroads  thoroughly  open  up  the  Andean  Plateau  to  the 
American  capitalist  and  mining  engineer  there  will  be  abundant 
opportunities  for  their  enterprise.  There  are  numerous  mines  that 
have  been  worked  and  abandoned  at  various  times  during  the  past 
three  centuries,  and  in  many  cases  their  refuse  ores  are  rich  enough 
to  yield  good  dividends.  Not  only  can  the  old  tailings  be  worked  at  a 
profit,  but  many  of  the  abandoned  mines  themselves  can  be  reopened, 
and  the  ores  the  early  workers  were  forced  to  leave  will  make  a  good 
return  when  scientifically  treated.  The  mines  are  now  rarely  worked 
beyond  a  few  hundred  feet,  because  they  are  not  ventilated,  and  the 
ore  is -taken  out  by  man  power.  With  modern  hoisting  machinery, 
crushers,  mills,  furnaces,  and  railroads,  the  mineral  output  can  be 
very  greatly  increased. 

The  water  power  obtainable  from  mountains  of  the  plateau  makes 
possible  the  use  of  electricity  instead  of  coal,  as  has  been  done  in  Cal- 
ifornia where  coal  is  scarce.  The  great  elevation  of  the  mountains, 
and  the  frequent  falls  in  the  constant  streams  that  flow  from  their  snow 
fields  and  glaciers,  combine  to  furnish  the  best  conditions  for  the 
installation  of  electric  plants  driven  b}r  water  powTer.  Some  of  the 
most  important  mines  of  Mexico  arc  now  being  operated  by  electricity 
supplied  by  the  mountain  streams,  although  the  water  power  of  Mex- 
ico is  slight  as  compared  with  that  of  the  Andes. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  401 

A  description  of  the  conditions  in  the  Gerro  Pasco  mining  district 
in  Peru  will  show  more  definitely  what  is  to  be  done  in  the  new  era  of 

railroads  that  the  canal  will  help  to  introduce.  The  Cerro  Pasco 
deposits  are  supposed  by  some  to  be  an  old  volcanic  crater,  covering- an 
area  1£  miles  long  and  three-fourths  of  a  mile  wide.  Here  are  2,000 
veins  of  silver,  making-  a  network  through  the  hill  in  which  there  are 
no  less  than  360  mines.  From  1630  to  1821  these  mines  yielded  27,200 
tons  of  pure  silver.  These  deposits  have  been  worked  only  250  feet 
and  could  be  drained  by  a  tunnel  of  smaller  magnitude  than  a  number 
that  have  been  made  in  various  mines  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  States. 
After  the  building  of  a  railroad  the  introduction  of  the  necessary 
machinery  to  complete  this  tunnel  will  become  easy,  the  silver  depos- 
its will  again  become  workable,  and  a  new  lease  of  life  will  be  given 
to  the  Cerro  Pasco  mines,  which  have  not  yet  been  worked  to  a  tenth 
of  the  depth  reached  in  many  mines  in  this' country. 

Underlying  the  silver  of  the  Cerro  Pasco  district  are  valuable  deposits 
of  low-grade  copper.  The  ore  containing  more  than  30  per  cent  of 
copper  is  now  carried  90  miles  to  Casapalca,  on  the  Oroya  Railroad, 
where  it  is  smelted  by  American  smelters  or  sent  by  rail  to  Callao  for 
export  to  Europe  by  way  of  Magellan.  At  the  present  time  more  than 
a  thousand  tons  of  ore  per  month  are  being  shipped  from  Cerro  Pasco 
by  this  method,  and  some  of  the  lower  grade  ores  are  being  treated  on 
the  spot  by  using  coal  brough  from  good  deposits  but  a  few  miles 
distant.  The  present  difficulties  encountered  in  working  these  rich 
mineral  deposits  are  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  railroad  ties  for  tram 
lines  at  the  mines  had  to  be  brought  by  pack  mules  from  the  railroad, 
90  miles  away. 

A  railroad  will  ere  long  join  the  Cerro  Pasco  mines  with  the  Oroya 
line  at  the  town  of  Oroya,  the  city  which  promises  to  become  the  rail- 
road center  of  that  part  of  the  plateau,  and  to  be  connected  by  a  line 
eastward  with  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Perene,  one' of  the 
branches  of  the  Amazon,  where  tropical  products  can  lie  secured  for 
the  mining  regions  around  Cerro  Pasco.  Another  line  of  road  may 
possibly  start  from  Oroya  southward  through  some  of  the  already 
populous  valleys  of  Peru  possessing  mineral  resources. 

RELATION    OF    CANAL    TO    INDUSTRIES    AND    TRADE    OF    EASTERN    SLOPE 

OF   ANDEAN    PLATEAU. 

The  thorough  development  of  the  resources  of  the  plateau  by  the 
building  of  railroads  and  the  investment  of  foreign  capital  will  neces- 
sarily be  accompanied  by  an  enlarged  commerce  with  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Andes.  The  people  of  the  greater  part  of  the  plateau  can  pro- 
duce only  the  food  products  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  considerable 
quantities  of  tropic  products  are  now  brought  up  from  the  east  slope 
at  great  expense.  Any  thorough  industrial  development  of  the  pla- 
teau will  make  necessary  the  building  of  railroads  to  carry  on  this 
trade  in  food  products  needed  on  the  plateau.  There  are  many  fertile 
valleys  in  the  east  slope  having  an  elevation  of  over  5,000  feet,  and 
resources  and  climate  suitable  to  a  great  variety  of  tropical  and  semi- 
tropical  products.  Some  of  these  products  now  cross  the  Andes  and 
are  exported.  The  eastern  Andes  are  the  source  of  the  world's  supply 
of  coca  leaves  for  the  manufacture  of  cocaine,  and  there  are  many 
coca  plantations  scattered  for  hundreds  of  miles  along  the  east  slopes 

S.  Doc.  51,  pt  2 26 


402  REPORT    OF   THE   ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

of  Peru  and  Bolivia.  This  is  also  the  region  that  furnished  the  world's 
supply  of  quinine  before  its  systematic  cultivation  in  the  British  East 
Indies  and  the  Dutch  colony  of  Java  reduced  the  price  of  the  article 
to  one-thirtieth  the  former  figure  and  ruined  the  owners  of  the  Peru- 
vian and  Bolivian  plantations. 

The  province  of  Cuzco,  in  eastern  Peru,  is  famous  for  its  cacao,  of 
which  some  600  tons  per  annum  are  already  sent  over  the  Andes  for 
export.  These  same  valleys  produce  coffee,  about  1,500  tons  of  which 
now  cross  the  Peruvian  Andes  for  shipment  to  the  outside  world.  The 
most  favored  part  of  the  east  slope  is  in  Bolivia,  near  La  Paz,  where, 
owing  to  a  bend  in  the  highlands,  the  slope  is  toward  the  north  rather 
than  toward  the  east,  causing  the  trade  winds  to  bring  less  mist  and 
rain  than  they  do  to  the  eastern  parts  of  Colombia  and  Ecuador. 
The  rainfall  of  -10  to  75  inches  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  most  favored 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  the  climate  is  said  by  American  trav- 
elers to  resemble  that  of  California  and  to  produce  the  same  fruit 
products.     The  Yungas  Valley  in  this  section  is  noted  for  its  coffee. 

The  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes  are  so  steep  as  to  make  an  ordinary 
steam  railroad  expensive  to  build  and  operate. ,  Coal  would  have  to 
be  brought  from  the  Pacific  coast,  and  the  grades  would  make  the 
hauling  of  heavy  freight  expensive.  An  electric  railroad  can  be  built 
here  more  cheaply,  can  ascend  steeper  grades,  and  can  be  operated  by 
the  unlimited  supply  of  water  power  obtainable  from  the  La  Paz  River. 
This  stream,  even  in  the  dry  season,  is  a  rushing  torrent  20  feet  wide 
and  3  feet  deep,  falling  10,000  feet  between  La  Paz  and  the  head  of 
navigation  at  Rej'es,  200  miles  below.  In  some  places  rapids  have  a 
fall  of  200  feet  in  half  a  mile.  The  valley  through  which  the  electric 
line  would  run  contains  several  towns,  one  with  6,000  and  another 
with  10,000  people.  Trade  is  carried  on  through  this  valley  to  La  Paz 
and  the  treeless  plateau.  In  the  vicinity  of  La  Paz  alone  there  are 
100,000  people  who  secure  a  part  of  their  food  supply  and  all  of  their 
wood  from  down  the  river  by  expensive  pack-animal  transportation. 
This  electric  railroad,  however,  can  not  be  economically  built  or  profit- 
ably operated  until  the  city  of  La  Paz  itself  is  connected  by  rail  with 
the  Pacific.  Such  an  extension  (155  miles)  is  planned  by  the  Antofa- 
gasta  Company. 

When  a  railroad  has  been  built  across  the  plateau  and  connected 
with  an  electric  line  coming  up  from  the  plains  of  Bolivia,  there  will 
probably  be  a  considerable  export  by  the  Pacific  of  products  from  this 
source.  The  alternative  route  is  by  the  Madeira  River  and  the  Lower 
Amazon,  but  the  engineering  difficulties  at  the  Madeira  Rapids  are  as 
great  as  those  that  lie  in  the  way  of  the  railroad  to  the  Pacific.  The  heat 
and  dampness  of  the  Amazon  route  are  deleterious  to  many  products, 
such  as  hides,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  cacao.  This  region  is  now  exporting 
these  products  by  way  of  the  Pacific  ports,  and  their  movement  in  that 
direction  would  be  greatly  increased  %  the  opening  of  such  a  railroad. 

On  the  edge  of  the  Sandia  and  Carabaya  region,  on  the  east  slope  of 
the  Peruvian  Andes,  near  Bolivia,  an  American  company  not  long 
since  paid  $285,000  cash  for  a  mine,  carried  machinery  to  it  at  a  cost 
of  $250  per  ton,  and  is  now  crushing  quartz  ores  and  paying  dividends. 
In  the  past  the  Spaniards  secured  much  gold  from  the  eastern  rivers  of 
Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Bolivia. 

One  of  the  easiest  regions  to  reach  east  of  the  Andes  is  northern 
Peru,  where  it  is  planned  to  cross  the  narrowest  part  of  the  plateau 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  403 

and  connect  the  Pacific  ports  with  the  headwaters  of  the  Amazon. 
This  road  is  partly  surveyed  and  has  been  begun  by  a  company  having 
concessions  to  work  a  large  coal  field  located  near  the  summit  of  the 
Andes.  The  quality  of  this  coal  is  reported  to  be  good,  and  the 
deposits  extensive  and  easily  workable.  The  location  of  this  field 
near  the  divide  of  the  Andes  will  make  it  possible  to  send  coal  to  the' 
Pacific  and  to  the  navigable  parts  of  the  Amazon,  thereby  facilitating 
steam  navigation  in  interior  Brazil. 

As  the  Upper  Amazon  is  a  swift  river,  and  the  head  of  navigation 
ten  times  as  far  from  the  Atlantic  as  it  is  from  the  Pacific,  some  of 
the  trade  of  the  Upper  Amazon  country  will  come  and  go  by  Pacific 
ports  after  the  opening  of  the  isthmian  canal. 

Industrial  changes  on  the  plateau  and  eastern  slope  can  not  be 
expected  to  make  much  progress  until  better  connections  with  the 
Atlantic  shall  have  been  provided.  After  this  event,  the  exploitation 
of  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  plateau  may  be  expected  to  follow,  and 
that  will  require  the  opening  up  of  the  eastern  slope  as  a  source  of 
food  supply  for  the  laborers  who  work  the  mines. 

INDUSTRIES   OF   PACIFIC   SLOPE    OF   ECUADOR   AND    COLOMBIA. 

At  the  western  point  of  South  America  the  climate  of  the  coast 
changes,  and  to  the  northward  the  desert  gradually  gives  way  to 
regions  of  increasing  rains.  The  transition  is  made  gradually.  The 
southern  part  of  the  Ecuadorian  coast  is  a  fertile  region  with  a  tropic 
climate  more  healthful  than  many  tropical  localities.  It  has  a  popula- 
tion of  about  a  quarter  of  a  million,  and  is  practically  the  only  part  of 
Ecuador  engaging  in  foreign  trade,  the  interior  being  almost  entirely 
cut  off. 

The  greater  part  of  the  population  of  the  coast  plain  of  Ecuador 
lives  in  the  valley  of  the  Guayas  River,  on  which  is  situated  the  city  of 
Guayaquil.  The  only  districts  at  present  productive  are  those  of  the 
lowlands,  served  b}T  water  transportation  on  the  rivers  centering  at 
Guayaquil.  This  river  system  is  navigated  by  many  native  boats  and 
a  number  of  small  American-built  paddle-wheel  steamers  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  type.  In  the  rainy  season  they  can  go  200  miles  inland 
and  bring  to  the  coast  the  export  produce.  The  soil  of  this  valley 
produces  tropical  products  in  abundance,  and  the  countiw  is  in  a  pros- 
perous condition.  The  exports  are  cacao,  ivory  nuts,  rubber,  sugar, 
coffee,  tobacco,  and  hides. 

The  cacao  is  of  excellent  quality  and  is  the  chief  crop.  It  is 
exported  to  the  amount  of  20,000  to  30,000  tons  per  year,  and  consti- 
tutes one-third  of  the  world's  supply.  At  present  more  than  half  of 
the  crop  is  produced  in  one  small  district,  but  it  is  estimated  that 
19,000  square  miles  in  Ecuador  are  suitable  for  the  production  of 
cacao,  an  article  of  which  the  world's  consumption  is  increasing  about 
5  or  6  per  cent  annually. 

The  ivory  nut  is  the  seed  of  a  variety  of  palm  that  grows  wild. 
Seventeen  thousand  tons  were  exported  in  1898,  chiefl}*  to  Europe, 
where  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  buttons.  In  the  same  year 
about  2,500  tons  of  coffee  were  exported,  $50,000  worth  of  tobacco, 
and  considerable  quantities  of  other  tropical  produce.  The  only  manu- 
factured export  is  the  so-called  Panama  hat,  and  there  are  practically 
no  manufactures  of  home  products,  all  kinds  of  manufactured  articles 


104  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

as  well  as  Temperate  Zone  food  products  being  imported  from  the 
United  States  and  Europe. 

Ecuador  seems  to  have  mineral  wealth,  but  there  are  as  }ret  no 
wagon  roads  and  no  railways,  nor  have  the  mineral  regions  been  much 
explored.  There  are  quartz  goldmines  in  the  south  and  placer  mines 
in  the  north,  both  being  operated  by  foreign  companies,  one  of  which 
is  an  American  firm,  said  to  be  doing  well.  Petroleum,  copper,  silver, 
and  coal  are  reported,  but  at  present  the}'  are  not  being  developed. 
The  railroad  now  building  between  Guayaquil  and  the  interior  will 
bring  about  the  exploration  and  possibly  the  working  of  the  various 
mineral  resources.  This  railroad  will  bring  from  the  hills  to  the  low- 
lands Temperate  Zone  products  which  must  now  be  imported,  and  will 
stimulate  the  trade  of  the  country  by  giving  nearly  a  million  people 
their  first  chance  to  trade  with  foreign  countries.  Any  increase  of 
Ecuadorian  commerce  means  an  increase  in  the  traffic  through  the 
canal. 

The  rainfall  increases  from  northern  Ecuador  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  the  shore  plain  of  Colombia  being  marshy  and  unhealthful. 
Its  forests  are  uninhabited  save  by  a  few  Indians  and  half-breeds,  and 
the  only  export  is  a  small  amount  of  timber,  although  in  some  places 
vanilla  and  cacao  are  indigenous.  The  forbidding  character  of  the 
coastal  region  has  prevented  the  settlement  of  the  higher  lands  on  the 
foothills  of  the  Andes,  where  in  Ecuador  and  northward  there  are  val- 
leys above  the  malaria  level  with  a  salubrious  climate  and  fertile  soil. 

THE    CAUCA   VALLEY,   IN   THE    COLOMBIAN   ANDES. 

The  Andean  Mountains  divide,  near  the  Ecuadorean  boundary,  into 
three  groat  ranges,  the  easterly  one  bending  around  into  Venezuela, 
the  western  one  trending  toward  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  the  cen- 
tral one  separating  the  valleys  of  the  Magdalena  and  the  Cauca  rivers. 
The  Magdalena  Valley  has  its  trade  outlet  by  way  of  the  Caribbean; 
but  the  mountains  of  Antioquia,  in  Central  Colombia,  cut  off  the  valley 
of  the  Upper  Cauca  from  the  Atlantic  and  make  it  necessary  for  all 
commerce  to  come  and  go  by  way  of  the  Pacific  through  the  port  of 
Buenaventura. 

This  Cauca  Valley  is  in  the  Andean  region,  but,  unlike  the  other 
parts  of  the  Andes  of  which  we  have  spoken,  it  is  both  tropical  and 
subtropical,  having  an  elevation  of  from  8,300  to  6,000  feet.  The 
valley  is  larger  than  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  and  contains  one  of  the 
densest  populations  in  South  America.  There  are  half  a  million  peo- 
ple, comprising  negroes,  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  valley,  and  Indians 
and  a  considerable  white  population  in  the  adjacent  highlands.  This 
section  is  truly  Andean,  however,  inasmuch  as  it  is  cut  off  from  the 
ocean  by  a  range  of  mountains  and  has  to  depend  upon  pack-mule 
transportation  for  all  of  its  commerce.  The  people  do  a  little  gold 
mining,  but  live  chiefly  by  agriculture,  importing  nearly  all  of  their 
merchandise,  except  some  domestic  manufactures  of  straw  hats,  coarse 
cloths,  and  utensils. 

All  the  internal  traffic  of  the  valley,  as  well  as  its  foreign  trade,  is 
carried  over  trails,  the  exports  of  agricultural  products  being  limited  to 
the  most  valuable  articles,  such  as  coffee  and  cocoa  of  the  best  grades, 
although  corn,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  fruits  are  cultivated  and  cattle  are 
raised.  Concessions  have  been  given  for  a  railroad  to  go  through  the 
valley  from  the  port  of  Buenaventura,  and  20  miles  of  the  line  have 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  405 

been  built,  but  the  enterprise  has  come  to  a  standstill.  The  completion 
of  this  line  and  the  opening  of  an  isthmian  canal  would  bring-  the  pro- 
ducing- districts  of  the  valley  into  close  connection  with  the  commercial 
world. 

At  present  Buenaventura  is  in  the  traffic  territory  of  the  Panama 
railroad  and  steamship  lines,  whose  freight  charges  are  high.  During- 
the  year  1900  such  typical  articles  as  wire  and  nails  were  taken  from 
New  York  to  China  for  $8  a  ton,  but  it  cost  $15  to  land  them  at  Buena- 
ventura, 7,000  miles  nearer.  From  there  the  costs  were  $8  per  ton  to  the 
end  of  the  railroad  and  $1<  >  per  ton  additional  by  pack  mule  over  the  pass 
of  the  Andes,  6,000  feet  in  elevation,  to  Cali,  77  miles  from  the  ocean. 
The  mule  transportation  cost  70  cents  per  ton  per  mile.  After  reaching 
Cali  some  of  the  goods  had  to  double  the  freight  charges  of  $63  per 
ton  by  being  carried  many  miles  up  and  down  the  valley.  At  the  same 
time  the  steel  manufacturers  of  Pittsburg  were  paying  an  unusually 
high  freight  charge  of  $3.60  per  ton  to  the  seaboard. 

The  opening  of  the  isthmian  canal,  the  building  of  the  railroad,  and 
the  introduction  of  foreign  capital  would  be  revolutionary  in  their 
effect  upon  the  trade  of  the  Cauca  Valley.  The  first  effect  of  the 
building  of  the  railroad  would  be  to  increase  the  importation  of 
machinery  for  agriculture  and  the  smaller  industries.  The  continua- 
tion of  the  railroad  up  and  down  the  valley  would  make  it  the  route  of 
transportation  to  the  promising  gold  mines  in  the  adjacent  provinces 
of  Colimo  and  Antioquia.  The  valley  would  export  coffee,  cacao, 
animal  products,  and  raw  sugar. 

SUMMARY    OF    THE    EFFECT   WHICH    THE    CANAL   WILL    HAVE    ON 
WESTERN    SOUTH    AMERICA. 

Each  of  the  five  industrial  divisions,  discussed  above,  of  the  tropic 
Pacific  section  of  South  America  is  rich  in  resources  and  backward  in 
industrial  development.  Capital  is  only  beginning  to  overcome  the 
difficulties  that  political  and  geographical  conditions  have  placed  in  the 
way  of  progress.  Nearly  all  of  this  region  is  still  in  the  pack-mule 
stage  of  its  industrial  life.  The  present  trade  conditions  there  are 
more  backward  than  were  those  prevailing  in  the  trans-Missouri  terri- 
tories of  the  United  States  fifty  years  ago.  At  that  time  Kansas  City 
and  Fort  Leavenworth  were  the  entrepots  of  a  brisk  and  thriving 
trade  with  the  far  western  frontier.  Every  spring  trains  of  covered 
wagons,  "prairie  schooners,"  went  across  the  great  plains  to  the 
Spanish  settlements  of  New  Mexico,  distributing  supplies  en  route  at 
the  distant  settlements  and  isolated  ranches  and  trading  posts  of  the 
hardy  pioneers  and  trappers  who  had  pushed  on  toward  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Freight  rates,  ranging  from  $10  to  $200  per  ton,  excluded 
from  trade  all  articles  except  necessities  and  limited  the  return  cargo 
to  such  valuable  commodities  as  furs,  skins,  and  bullion.  If  we  sub- 
stitute the  pack  mule  for  the  more  efficient  prairie  schooner,  the  above 
description  applies  to  most  of  the  tropic  Pacific  section  of  South 
America.  Limited  areas  are  served  by  the  few  lines  of  railroad  and 
by  some  river  steamboats. 

The  tropical  Pacific  section  has  twice  the  population  and  but  little 
more  than  half  the  trade  of  the  temperate  Pacific  section.  The 
3,000,000  people  of  the  temperate  region  carry  on  a  foreign  com- 
merce amounting  to  $100,000,000,  and  the  rest  of  the  west  coast 
commerce  amounts  to  about  $55,000,000.     The  exports  exceed   the 


406  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

imports  by  about  $4,000,000.     As  in  the  case  of  Chile,  the  trade  is 
nearly  all  with  European  countries. 

Like  the  temperate  section,  the  tropic  region  produces  the  raw 
materials  we  need  and  buys  manufactures  we  might  supply.  The 
British  cottons,  for  instance,  purchased  b}T  Ecuador  in  1898  were 
more  valuable  than  all  her  imports  from  this  country.  After  the 
isthmian  canal  is  opened  our  cotton  mills  will  secure  that  trade. 
The  canal  will  facilitate  the  development  of  the  resources  of  the  tropic 
Pacific  section,  and  thus  enlarge  the  sale  of  American  railway  supplies 
and  agricultural  and  mining  machinery.  The  purchasing  power  of 
the  South  American  people  will  increase,  and  trade  with  the  United 
States  will  grow,  not  rapidly,  but  steadily,  and  to  ultimately  impor- 
tant dimensions. 

EFFECT  OF  CANAL  UPON  ATLANTIC  SOUTH  AMERICA  WILL  NOT  BE  GREAT. 

The  isthmian  canal  will  not  greatty  affect  the  Atlantic  countries  of 
South  America.  There  is  at  present  no  direct  trade  between  the  two 
coasts  of  South  America,  except  some  little  trade  between  Chile  and 
the  eastern  countries  of  South  America  by  way  of  the  Straits  of 
Magellan. 

The  exports  of  the  South  American  and  Central  American  countries 
are  nearly  all  raw  products,  and  there  is  no  raw  material  produced  on 
one  coast  that  need  be  imported  by  the  countries  of  the  other  coast. 
Rubber  is  the  great  staple  of  northern  Brazil,  but  Ecuador  and  Central 
America  are  exporting  some  rubber  across  the  Isthmus  to  the  Atlantic. 
They  also  produce  coffee,  the  great  export  of  southern  Brazil,  and 
cacao,  the  staple  of  Ecuador,  is  also  grown  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 
The  temperate  zone  products  needed  by  the  tropic  Atlantic  countries 
of  South  America  can  be  supplied  by  Argentina  and  the  United  States. 
The  nitrate  of  Chile  is  not  used  on  the  east  coast  of  South  America 
except  in  the  form  of  manufactured  articles  made  in  the  North 
Atlantic  countries.  The  canal  may  have  some  slight  influence  in 
reducing  the  cost  of  these.  Should  Argentina  and  Uruguay  need 
nitrate  or  other  Chilean  products,  the  natural  route  of  the  trade  will 
be  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  There  is  but  little  commerce, 
present  or  prospective,  that  might  advantageously  go  from  the  one 
coast  of  South  America  to  the  other  by  way  of  an  isthmian  canal. 

The  count  lies  on  the  Pacific  between  the  United  States  and  South 
America  have  exports  and  imports  that  are  almost  identical  with  those 
of  western  South  America,  and  the  statements  that  apply  to  the  trade 
between  the  two  coasts  of  South  America  will  apply  to  any  commerce 
between  western  Central  America  and  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic 
countries  of  South  America. 

The  Western  United  States  and  Canada  export  some  products  to 
Atlantic  South  America.  There  have  been  occasional  shipments  of 
wheat,  but  this  trade  has  about  disappeared  because  of  the  competi- 
tion from  Argentina.  Our  Pacific  coast  lumber  is  used  in  Atlantic 
South  America,  and  this  is  probably  the  only  trade  that  will  require 
the  passage  of  ships  directly  from  the  Pacific  through  tin1  canal  to 
these  countries.  The  temperate  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  South 
America,  however,  will  get  its  lumber  via  the  Straits  of  Magellan 
or  Cape  Horn  because  the  eastern  projection  of  Brazil  makes  those 
routes  shorter.     There  is  some  demand  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  South 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  407 

America  for  our  canned  goods  and  wine  from  the  Pacific  coast,  but 
such  imports  will  not  be  sufficient  to  require  a  direct  trade.  They 
will  probably  be  distributed  from  New  York,  London,  or  some  West 
Indian  port.  There  is  also  a  prospect  that  before  the  canal  is  opened 
this  demand  for  wine  and  fruit  products  will  be  wholl\T  or  in  part 
supplied  by  Argentina,  which  is  similar  in  climate  and  products. 

Australia  will  have  little,  if  any,  trade  with  the  Atlantic  countries 
of  South  America.  In  the  oriental  countries  the  conditions  for  trade 
are  somewhat  better,  although  they  will  not  need  to  import  from 
Atlantic  South  America,  because  Eastern  tropical  countries  are  much 
nearer.  The  people  of  Atlantic  South  America  will  import  oriental 
articles — tea,  mattings,  silks,  and  curios — but  these  articles  will  hardly 
be  desired  in  such  quantities  as  to  require  the  passage  of  vessels 
directly  from  the  Orient  through  the  canal  to  these  countries.  The 
countries  of  that  part  of  South  America  below  the  mouth  of  the  Ama- 
zon will  draw  their  supplies  from  European  ports  or  from  New  York. 

The  countries  between  the  Amazon  River  and  the  American  Isthmus 
will  also  trade  with  the  Orient  more  or  less  indirectly,  although  they  will 
not  be  so  dependent  as  countries  farther  south  upon  London  and  New 
York  for  their  supplies  of  Pacific  products.  Some  West  Indian  city, 
such  as  St.  Thomas  or  Kingston,  will  doubtless  become  a  distributing 
point  for  goods  that  come  through  the  canal  and  are  destined  for  the 
ports  of  the  West  Indies  and  northern  South  America.  The  ports  are 
now  visited  by  vessels  touching  at  various  places  in  northern  South 
America,  Central  America,  the  West  Indies,  and  Mexico. 

The  isthmian  canal  will  bestow  but  few  benefits  upon  the  Atlantic 
countries  of  South  America,  because  nearly  all  of  their  trade  is  with 
the  North  Atlantic.  The  greater  part  of  their  small  commerce  with 
the  Pacific  will  probably  come  by  the  new  route,  and  there  will  be 
some  direct  cargoes  of  Pacific  coast  lumber.  The  cost  of  securing 
oriental  products,  Pacific  coast  canned  goods,  and  wine  will  be  some- 
what reduced.  These  commodities,  however,  will  probably  be  dis- 
tributed in  large  part  from  such  centers  as  New  York,  London,  or 
Kingston,  Jamaica. 

Chapter  XII. — Japan  and  the  isthmian  canal. 

THE    SALIENT   CHARACTERISTICS    OF   JAPAN'S    RESOURCES. 

The  4,000  mountainous  islands  of  Japan  a  stretch  northeastwardly 
along  the  coast  of  Asia  in  the  latitude  comprised  between  South  Caro- 
lina and  Maine.  The  climate,  like  that  of  our  own  Atlantic  coast,  is 
changeable,  because  of  the  uncertain  direction  of  the  winds  from  the 
great  land  mass  to  the  westward,  although  extremes  are  less  in  Japan 
than  on  the  Asiatic  mainland.  The  winter  winds  blow  from  Siberia 
across  the  Japan  Sea  and  produce  heavy  snowfalls  on  the  west  side  of 
the  islands,  but  the  high  mountains  shelter  the  more  populous  eastern 
slopes,  which  are  warmed  by  the  Kuro  Si  wo,  or  the  tropic  Japan 
current. 

In  the  summer  both  coasts  receive  winds  from  the  ocean,  which  bring 
abundant  rain,  amounting  to  80  inches  per  annum  in  the  south,  nearly 
double   the   amount  that  falls  at  Philadelphia  or  New  York.      The 

"■Consult  PI.  7i»  in  connection  with  this  chapter. 


408  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


humidity  of  the  climate  of  Japan  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  England. 
The  ocean  currents  along  the  Asiatic  shore  are  similar  to  those  of  our 
Atlantic  const.  The  Japan  current  meets  an  arctic  stream  along  the 
northern  islands  of  Japan  and  gives  the  shores  and  seas  of  that  part 
of  the  Empire  a  foggy  climate.  The  fishing  banks,  as  well  as  the 
climate  of  that  latitude,  correspond  with  those  of  Newfoundland. 

The  agricultural  resources  of  Japan  are  relatively  meager  because  of 
the  infertility  of  the  soil  and  the  small  amount  of  tillable  ground. 
The  cultivable  ground — 12  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the  country — 
is  fully  and  carefully  tilled,  mainly  by  hand  labor.  The  cultivation  of 
tea  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the  agriculture  of  the  country.  The 
chief  food  crop  is  rice,  although  wheat,  barley,  potatoes,  and  tobacco 
are  grown.  Fertilizers  have  to  be  used  abundantly,  fish  from  the 
northern  islands  of  the  Empire  and  bean  cake  from  Manchuria  having 
long  been  employed.  Latterly  some  South  Carolina  phosphates  have 
been  purchased,  a  few  shiploads  of  which  are  now  annually  imported. 
The  phosphate  fertilizers  seem  well  adapted  to  the  Japanese  needs,  and 
the  construction  of  an  isthmian  canal  would  doubtless  largely  increase 
their  importation. 

The  moist  climate  gives  Japan  a  varied  flora,  but  good  forage  is 
everywhere  scarce,  owing  to  the  preponderance  of  the  bamboo  type  of 
vegetation.  There  are  only  a  million  and  a  half  horses  in  the  Empire, 
while  the  number  of  cattle  is  slightly  less,  and  there  are  no  sheep. 
Japan  is  consequently  obliged  to  import  all  the  wool  and  woolens  used 
and  most  of  the  hides,  leather,  dairy  and  meat  products  required. 

Japan  is  becoming  a  food-importing  country.  The  domestic  supply 
of  rice  is  now  frequently  insufficient.  There  is  no  sugar  grown  in  the 
Empire.  There  is  now  some  flour  imported  from  the  United  States, 
and  with  the  progress  of  the  manufacturing  industries  of  the  Empire 
increasing  quantities  of  American  and  Australasian  breadstuffs  and  pro- 
visions will  be  required.  The  American  breadstuffs  will  come  from 
the  Pacific  slope;  the  provisions  (meat  and  dairy  products)  will  prob- 
ably come,  in  part  at  least,  from  the  central  section  of  the  United 
States. 

Many  of  the  raw  materials  required  for  the  larger  manufacturing 
industries  are  deficient  or  entirely  lacking  in  Japan.  Nevertheless  tin1 
country  is  certain  to  become  an  important  manufacturing  center.  The 
materials  of  industry  of  which  Japan  possesses  the  most  abundant 
supply  are  timber,  raw  silk,  and  the  grasses  used  in  making  straw 
braidand  mattings.  Such  forest  products  as  camphor,  vegetable  wax, 
lacquer,  and  bamboo  are  the  basis  of  a  considerable  share  of  Japan's 
industries  and  exports.  The  prevalence  of  the  mulberry  tree  in 
many  parts  of  the  Empire  makes  possible  the  growth  and  favors  the 
manufacture  of  silk. 

The  mineral  resources  of  Japan  are  especially  deficient.  There  is  a 
small  export  of  copper,  but  there  is  no  prospect  of  its  increasing.  At 
present  very  little  gold  or  silver  mining  is  carried  on,  but  the  intro- 
duction of  western  machinery  may  result  in  some  development  of  the 
mines.  .Japan  has  petroleum  fields,  but  the  exports  are  small  and  the 
imports  are  much  larger  and  are  increasing  rapidly.  New  fields  are 
being  opened,  but  there  is  no  indication  that  they  will  be  able  to  sup- 
ply the  requirements  of  the  country.  The  coal  exports  of  Japan,  as 
is  shown  in  Chapter  VI  of  this  report,  are  increasing,  but  the  fields 
are  limited,  and  the  demands  of  the  manufacturer  of  the  country  are 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  409 

rapidly  growing.  The  price  of  coal  in  Japan  is  not  cheap,  it  being 
too  expensive  to  permit  much  development  of  iron  and  steel  industries, 
although  there  are  iron-ore  deposits  in  the  northern  and  southern 
parts  of  the  Empire.  The  recent  industrial  progress  of  Japan  has 
necessitated  the  importation  of  large  quantities  of  iron  and  steel  prod- 
ucts, the  home  supply  in  1898  being  only  one-ninth  of  the  total 
consumption. 

JAPAN  AS  A  MANUFACTURING  AND  COMMERCIAL  COUNTRY. 

To  become  a  manufacturing  nation,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term, 
required  the  Japanese  to  make  great  changes,  but  they  possess  the  faculty 
of  adaptation  to  such  a  marked  degree  that  it  required  only  thirty  years 
for  them  to  adopt  the  ideals  of  western  civilization  and  many  modern 
processes  and  to  change  from  an  isolated  nation  to  one  ambitious  to 
participate  largely  in  international  trade.  The  limited  area  of  Japan, 
its  insular  position,  and  the  density  of  its  population  make  its  future 
progress  conditional  upon  a  large  development  of  manufactures  and 
commerce.  The  area  of  the  Japanese  Empire,  exclusive  of  Formosa, 
is  147,655  square  miles,  or  about  27,000  more  than  that  of  the  British 
Isles;  the  population  being'44,000,000,  or  3,000,000  more  than  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  population  averages  296  to  the  mile, 
being  as  dense  as  that  of  France  and  eleven  times  as  dense  as  our 
population. 

The  people  of  the  country  constitute  the  nation's  most  valuable 
economic  resource.  They  are  skillful,  artistic,  and  industrious  arti- 
sans, and  their  high  birth  rate  assures  the  country  an  abundant  supply 
of  labor.  The  chief  obstacle  to  be  overcome  by  Japan  in  the  develop- 
ment of  her  industries  is  the  insufficient  supply  of  the  raw  materials 
required  in  the  textile  and  iron  and  steel  manufactures.  She  will 
need  to  import  increasing  quantities  of  materials,  and  for  this  reason, 
if  for  no  other,  the  construction  of  the  isthmian  canal  is  a  matter  of 
much  consequence  to  her. 

The  chief  industrial  activity  of  Japan  centers  about  the  inland  sea, 
or  Japanese  Mediterranean,  about  which  live  near!}'  half  of  the  people 
of  the  Empire.  Surrounded  by  the  three  southern  islands,  it  is  a 
quiet,  safe  body  of  water,  upon  which  commerce  is  active.  There  are 
three  entrances  from  the  ocean,  many  indentations  into  the  land,  and 
supplies  of  coal  exist  upon  its  southern  shores.  Where  the  most 
northerly  arm  of  the  inland  sea  reaches  toward  the  center  of  the  main- 
land of  Hondo  stand  the  cities  of  Osaka  and  Hiogo,  which  were 
fishing  villages  when  Japan  was  opened  to  foreign  trade.  Now  they 
contain  more  than  a  million  people  and  have  secured  the  commercial 
supremacy  of  the  Empire.  They  arc  growing  in  population  at  a  rate 
equal  to  that  of  the  manufacturing  cities  of  the  United  States  and 
Germany.  Osaka  is  the  manufacturing  center  of  the  country,  and 
within  a  radius  of  100  miles  are  to  be  found  16,000,000  people  and 
most  of  the  cities  of  Japan.  It  manufactures  large  quantities  of  mat- 
tings and  rugs  and  is  the  chief  exporting  point  for  tea.  In  1895  it 
received  more  that  half  of  the  total  imports  of  foreign  commodities, 
besides  having  a  heavy  local  traffic  in  rice,  hsh,  timber,  and  edible 
seaweed. 

Thirty  miles  inland  from  Osaka  is  Kioto,  the  old  capital  city  of  Japan, 
now  connected  with  the  seaboard  by  railroad,  telegraph,  and  canals. 


410  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  city  is  located  in  the  center  of  a  fertile  and  densely  populated 
plain  and  is  an  important  center  of  manufactures.  There  are  three 
other  Japanese  cities  of  importance  not  located  on  the  inland  sea — 
Tokyo,  Nagasaki,  and  Hakodate.  Hakodate  is  the  fishing,  lumber,  and 
mining  port  of  the  north  and  is  located  near  the  northern  coal  fields. 
Nagasaki  is  at  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  Empire,  near  the  south- 
ern coal  fields.  It  exports  nearly  2,000,000  tons  of  coal  per  year,  has 
a  good  landlocked  harbor,  capacious  docks,  and,  being  located  on  the 
commonly  used  trade  route  between  Europe  and  Asia,  is  a  port  of  call 
for  nearly  all  merchant  ships  and  transports  connected  with  our  com- 
mercial and  military  relations  with  the  East.  Midway  along  the 
eastern  coast  is  Tokyo,  the  capital  of  the  Empire,  which  had  about 
700,000  people  in  1872  and  now  has  about  1,200,000,  its  area  and 
population  being  nearly  the  same  as  Philadelphia.  Besides  being  the 
capital  of  the  Empire,  it  is  the  main  center  of  distribution  for  the 
eastern  part  of  the  country  and  has  many  native  manufactures.  On 
account  of  the  shallow  harbor  of  Tokyo,  most  of  its  foreign  trade  is 
handled  at  Yokohama,  the  chief  exporting  city  of  the  Empire,  with  a 
population  of  100,000.  Its  foreign  trade  consists  of  silks,  tea,  cam- 
phor, lacquer  ware,  and  other  Japanese  goods. 

The  growing  foreign  trade  of  Japan  will  make  her  a  competitor  with 
America  and  Europe  in  oriental  markets,  but  in  all  probability  the 
seriousness  of  this  competition  has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  This, 
however,  need  hardly  be  considered  in  this  discussion  of  the  relation 
of  the  isthmian  canal  to  our  trade  with  Japan,  because  the  expansion 
of  Japanese  industry  must  inevitably  be  accompanied  b}^  large  pur- 
chases and  sales  in  the  Central,  Southern,  and  Eastern  sections  of  the 
United  States.  The  most  serious  rivalry  between  Japanese  and  Ameri- 
can manufactures  will  probably  be  in  cotton  textiles,  but  that  can 
hardly  be  felt  for  some  time  to  come,  because  Japan  is  still  a  large 
importer  of  cotton  goods,  and  her  numerous  population  is  rapidly 
enlarging  its  purchases. 

The  industrial  progress  of  the  Japanese  is  widening  their  range  of 
imports  very  greatly.  Wages  are  rising  and  enabling  the  people  to 
satisfy  new  wants,  and  compelling  capitalists  to  introduce  labor-saving 
machinery.  Although  much  has  been  said  of  the  economic  changes 
going  on  in  Japan,  her  industrial  revolution  is  only  begun.  The  com- 
plete modernization  of  the  industrial  and  social  life  of  Japan  will  yet 
require  several  decades,  and  its  accomplishment  will  necessitate  a  large 
trade  with  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

ANALYSIS   OF   JAPANESE   TRADE    WITH    REFERENCE    TO   EFFECTS   OF   THE 

CANAL. 

The  combined  imports  and  exports  of  Japan  were  118,000,000  in 
1868,  $2N,<H io.ooo  in  1878,  165,000,000  in  L888,  and  more  than  $200,- 
ooo,000  in  1898.  She  exports  silk,  straw  braid,  mattings,  cotton  yarns, 
cotton  cloth,  coal,  tea,  camphor,  rice,  mushrooms,  and  miscellaneous 
manufactures,  and  imports  raw  cotton  and  cotton  manufactures,  wool- 
ens, sugar,  rice,  beans,  peas,  oil  cake,  steamships,  locomotives,  steel 
rails,  iron  manufactures,  and  machinery.  The  chief  countries  with 
which  she  trades  are  China,  Cochin  China,  and  India,  thcUnited  King- 
dom, the  United  States,  and  Germany.  From  Asiatic  countries  she 
obtains  rice,  cotton,  beans,  and  peas.     From  Europe  and  the  United 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  411 

States  come  mainly  metal  manufactures,  dry  goods,  raw  cotton,  and  food 
stuffs.  The  percentage  of  the  total  exports  consisting  of  manufactures 
is  increasing,  and  the  imports  are  made  up  of  a  decreasing  percentage 
of  manufactures,  as  would  naturally  be  expected  from  what  has  been 
said  concerning  the  diversification  of  industries  in  progress. 

"While  the  development  of  Japan's  foreign  trade  has  been  very  rapid, 
the  growth  of  our  share  in  that  enlarging  trade  has  been  still  more 
rapid.  In  1881  we  sold  Japan  less  than  6  per  cent  of  her  importa- 
tions, but  in  1898  our  sales  comprised  15  per  cent,  while  during  the 
same  period  the  part  furnished  by  England  declined  from  52  per  cent 
to  23  per  cent  of  the  total.  In  1896  our  exports  to  Japan  increased 
84  per  cent;  in  1897,  57  per  cent;  in  1898, 15  per  cent,  and  during  the 
first  six  months  of  1899,  the  latest  period  concerning  which  statistical 
data  are  obtainable,  the  United  States  occupied  the  first  place  among 
the  nations  supplying  Japan  with  imports.  There  has  also  been  a 
steady  growth  in  our  importations  from  Japan,  and  while  they  have 
not  grown  as  rapidly  as  our  sales  to  that  country,  they  have  a  higher 
total,  and  we  are  Japan's  best  customer.  Her  raw  silk  is  the  chief 
supply  for  our  mills,  and  her  tea,  mattings,  and  bric-a-brac  are  impor- 
tant items.  The  growth  of  Japan's  trade  with  the  United  States  dur- 
ing the  six  years  1892-1898,  was  remarkable.  The  exports  to  the 
United  States  gained  more  than  those  to  Europe;  the  imports  increased 
over  sixfold,  although  this  was  a  period  of  a  large  increase  in  home 
industries. 

The  growth  that  has  taken  place  in  Japan's  imports  has  been  most 
rapid  in  the  case  of  raw  cotton,  woolen  goods,  flour,  railway  materials, 
fertilizers,  tobacco,  leather  and  leather  manufactures,  cotton-spinning 
machinery,  and  paper,  and  it  is  especially  interesting  to  note  that  many 
of  these  commodities  of  increased  import  are  furnished  by  the  United 
States  and  are  the  articles  in  which  we  have  decided  advantages  of 
production  or  manufacture,  to  wit:  Leather  goods,  flour,  railroad  sup- 
plies and  machinery  among  the  manufactures,  and  meat,  cotton,  tobacco, 
and  phosphate  rock  among  the  raw  materials.  A  brief  reference  to 
iron  goods,  cotton,  and  phosphates  will  illustrate  our  interest  in  the 
Japanese  import  trade. 

In  1896  we  furnished  one-sixth  of  the  rails  imported  into  Japan;  in 
1898  our  share  had  grown  to  two-thirds.  We  already  have  a  large 
part  of  the  trade  in  electrical  supplies,  and  also  furnish  a  growing  pro- 
portion of  nails  and  bridge  materials.  European  countries  lead  in 
other  classes  of  iron  manufactures.  The  growth  of  our  iron  trade 
with  Japan  is  mainly  a  question  of  cheaper  transportation.  As  freight 
costs  are  reduced  the  Japanese  will  draw  upon  us  in  larger  measure 
for  railway  materials,  and  for  the  steel  needed  in  rebuilding  their  cities 
and  in  equipping  their  factories  with  machinery. 

The  importations  of  raw  cotton  into  Japan  have  increased  very 
largely-  The  cotton  ports  of  New  Orleans  and  Galveston  are  the  most 
distant  of  our  seaboard  cities  from  the  Pacific  by  existing  water  routes. 
At  the  present  time  our  cotton  sales  in  Japan  consist  almost  entirely 
of  the  raw  staple,  but  this  should  not  always  continue.  In  1898  Japan 
imported  60,000,000  yards  of  unbleached  muslin,  worth  $2,100,000,  and 
less  than  one-thousandth  of  it  came  from  this  country.  Direct  com- 
munication between  our  Southern  mills  and  Japan  would  doubtless 
enable  us  to  furnish  a  large  share  of  it. 

The  soil  of  Japan  is  not  rich,  and  the  number  of  farinanimals  is  very 


412  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

small.  The  increasing'  population  and  rising  standard  of  consumption 
will  necessitate  the  highest  attainable  degree  of  intensive  cultivation, 
and  this  will  require  larger  supplies  of  fertilizers.  We  have  begun 
exporting  to  Japan  oil  cake  and  phosphate,  of  which  articles  we  have 
most  of  the  world's  supply,  but  they  are  commodities  of  such  low  value 
that  the  trade  can  not  increase  greatly  until  the  canal  has  lowered  the 
costs  of  transportation.  Phosphate  rock,  worth  one-fourth  of  a  cent 
a  pound  at  the  seaboard  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  class  of  cheap 
goods  necessary  to  industrial  progress  which  can  be  carried  long  dis- 
tances only  lyf  wrter  transportation  of  the  most  economical  character. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Pacific  coast  flour  and  canned  goods  the 
trade  of  this  country  with  Japan  originates  in  the  manufacturing  East 
and  in  the  Southern  States.  By  present  routes  Europe  has  the 
advantage.  The  canal  will  enable  us  to  supply  Japan  with  larger 
amounts  of  bulky  articles  in  whose  cost  to  the  consumer  the  charges 
for  freight  are  an  important  item.  We  are  now  supplying  a  limited 
quantity  of  such  articles,  but  under  better  freight  conditions  there  is 
no  reason  why  that  trade  may  not  greatly  increase.  Examples  of  this 
class  are  cement,  alcohol,  condensed  milk,  glassware,  small  agricultural 
implements,  iron  manufactures,  mining  machinery,  locomotives  and 
other  engines,  wire,  paint,  and  paper.  Cheaper  transportation  would, 
moreover,  enable  the  United  States  to  sell  some  of  the  lighter  as  well 
as  the  heavier  commodities  to  Japan,  and  increase  both  the  variety 
and  quantity  of  our  exports  to  that  country. 

Chapter  XIII. — China  and  the  isthmian  canal. 

An  analysis  of  the  resources  and  industrial  conditions  of  China  pre- 
sents many  difficulties.  The  Chinese  Empire  is  a  large  region,  with  a 
great  diversity  of  resources,  concerning  which  present  information  is 
partial  and  indefinite.  During  the  last  few  years  a  large  amount  of 
descriptive  literature  has  been  written  regarding  China,  but  definite 
statistical  information,  whether  of  a  private  or  an  official  nature,  is 
very  scanty.  The  assertions  of  all  well-informed  people  agree  in  repre- 
senting China  as  a  country  with  a  great  variety  of  valuable  natural 
resources.  The  population,  moreover,  is  usually  represented  as  being 
industrially  efficient. 

Speaking  generally,  Chinaa  is  to  be  thought  of  as  a  densely  popu 
lated  and  industrially  undeveloped  country,  possessing  varied  and 
abundant  resources,  which,  under  the  supervision  of  capable  captains 
of  industry,  can  be  made  the  basis  of  a  wide  range  of  economic  activi- 
ties. The  questions  uppermost  in  this  discussion  are  whether  these 
resources  and  activities  are  such  as  will  he  affected  by  the  American 
isthmian  canal,  and  whether  the  economic  progress  of  China  will  be 
accompanied  by  a  larger  trade  between  that  country  and  the  Atlantic 
section  of  the  United  States  that  section  whose  trade  with  trans- 
Pacific  countries  will  come  most  directly  under  the  influences  of  the 
canal. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DIVISIONS  OF  CHINA. 

China  proper,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  Kingdom  of  China, 
and  the  dependency  of   Manchuria  consist  of  a  coastal   plain  and  a 

'Consult  PI.  80  in  connection  with  this  chapter. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  413 

plateau  of  mountainous  upland  region,  which  increases  in  elevation 
Eowardthe  west  and  finally  merges  into  the  lofty  arid  plateaus  of  cen- 
tral Asia.  The  coastal  plain  is  mainly  of  alluvial  origin  and  is  200 
miles  in  length  and  about  400  miles  in  breadth  near  the  xangtse,  below 
which  region  it  rapidly  narrows  until  in  southern  China  it  extends 
inland  but  a  short  distance.  This  coastal  plain  is  extremely  fertile,  is 
well  watered  and  highly  cultivated.  Probably  half  the  people  of  the 
entire  Chinese  Empire  dwell  in  this  section,  the  density  of  whose  pop- 
ulation may  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  province  of  Kiangsu, 
which  is  reputed  to  have  40,000,000  inhabitants  within  an  area  of 
40,000  square  miles. 

The  broad  mountainous  upland  region  lying  between  the  coastal 
plain  and  the  arid  plateaus  of  Tibet  and  Mongolia  are  supposed  to  be 
relatively  fertile  and  are  known  to  possess  abundant  stores  of  coal, 
iron,  copper,  and  other  valuable  mineral  resources.  This  part  of 
China  has  as  yet  been  brought  but  little  under  the  influences  of  inter- 
national trade  and  western  civilization. 

China a  occupies  the  eastern  part  of  Asia  between  the  parallels  of  20° 
and  50°  north  latitude.  It  is  the  geographical  counterpart  of  that 
portion  of  the  eastern  part  of  North  America  lying  between  Cuba  and 
Labrador.  Manchuria  is  in  the  latitude  of  northern  Quebec,  and  Can- 
ton, situated  just  within  the  Tropics,  has  the  latitude  of  Habana. 
Northern  China  has  the  severe  winter  climate  of  Canada,  while  Hong- 
kong and  Canton  have  the  climate  of  southern  Florida  and  Culm. 
China,  consequently,  like  the  United  States,  has  a  great  variety  of 
agricultural  products  and  can,  within  its  own  borders,  produce  nearly 
all  the  articles  required  by  its  people.  This  fact  explains  why  it  has 
been  possible  for  China  to  remain  for  four  thousand  years  practically 
without  intercourse  with  outside  nations. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  discussion  of  the  industries  and  trade  of 
China,  and  the  effect  which  a  canal  will  have  upon  them,  it  will  be 
helpful  to  divide  China  into  three  geographic  zones.  The  basis  of 
division  is  a  dual  one,  resting  partly  upon  differences  in  climate  and 
partly  upon  the  physiography  of  the  country.  These  three  divisions 
are  (1)  northern  China,  including  Manchuria,11  the  Peiho  and  Hoangho 
valleys,  and  the  peninsula  of  Shantung;  (2)  central  China,  comprising 
the  valley  of  the  Yangtse  River,  and  (3)  southern  China,  comprised 
mainly  within  the  valley  of  the  Siho,  or  West  River.  The  northern 
district  has  its  commercial  outlets  on  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  and  corre- 
sponds in  latitude  and  industrial  products  to  our  North  Atlantic  States 
and  Canada.  Pckin  is  on  the  fortieth  parallel,  the  one  that  passes 
through  Philadelphia.  Central  China  corresponds  more  nearly  to  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States  of  our  country.  Shanghai,  its  metrop- 
olis, is  in  the  latitude  of  Savannah,  Ga.  Southern  China  corre- 
sponds in  latitude  and  production  with  the  extreme  southern  portions 
of  the  United  States  and  with  the  West  Indies. 

The  boundaries  of  these  divisions  are  not  everywhere  clearly  defined 
physiographically,  because  they  merge  into  each  other  in  the  coastal 
plain.  They  are,  however,  sufficiently  distinct  for  the  purposes  in 
hand. 


aIn  this  discussion  China  will  be  considered  to  include  Manchuria,  although, 
strictly  speaking,  that  is  a  dependency  of  the  Kingdom  of  China. 


414  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

RESOURCES  AND   TRADE   OF   NORTH   CHINA — MANCHURIA,  HOANGHO  VAL- 
LEY, AND    SHANTUNG. 

Manchuria  lies  to  the  north  and  east  of  the  Great  Wall,  mainly 
between  the  fortieth  and  fiftieth  parallels  of  north  latitude.  It  extends 
from  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  to  the  Amur  River.  The  population  of  this 
district  is  said  to  be  22,000,000. 

It  is  in  the  wheat  belt  of  China,  adapted  by  climate  and  fertility  of 
soil  to  general  agriculture,  and  is  reputed  to  be  a  region  of  a  fair 
degree  of  fertility.  It  possesses  extensive  forests,  some  of  which  con- 
tain valuable  hard  woods. 

Eighty  miles  north  of  Niuchwang,  in  Manchuria,  are  coal  deposits, 
presumably  rich  and  extensive.  These  coal  fields  are  crossed,  by  the 
railroad  now  being  built  from  Siberia  to  Port  Arthur.  Mining  oper- 
ations will  doubtless  follow  the  completion  of  this  railroad,  and  will 
include  not  only  the  development  of  the  coal  mines,  but  also  the  mining 
of  gold,  lead,  and  copper.    Gold  is  now  exported  from  Manchuria. 

The  agricultural,  and  particularly  the  mineral,  resources  of  Manchu- 
ria, like  those  of  China  generally,  have  received  but  little  development, 
because  of  the  lack  of  means  of  communication  and  transportation  and 
because  modern  methods  of  production  have  not  yet  been  introduced. 
The  people  of  Manchuria  seem  less  adverse  to  change  than  do  those  of 
other  parts  of  China,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  present  activity  of 
Russia  in  that  section  will  result  not  only  in  the  establishment  of  rail- 
way transportation,  but  also  in  the  introduction,  to  some  extent  at  least, 
of  modern  methods  of  production. 

The  present  commercial  importance  of  Manchuria  can  best  be  illus- 
trated by  reference  to  the  trade  of  its  principal  port,  Niuchwang.  The 
commerce  of  this  city  averages  over  30,000,000  taels  ($24,000,000)  per 
year  and  is  rapidly  increasing.  It  is  the  distributing  point  for  Man- 
churia, the  imports  consisting  chiefly  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
kerosene,  iron  and  steel,  and  general  manufactures.  Its  exports  com- 
prise agricultural  and  mineral  products.  Niuchwang  is  in  the  part  of 
China  nearest  to  the  United  States,  and  our  export  trade  to  China  is 
mainly  with  Manchuria,  about  half  of  the  imports  of  that  district  being 
from  our  country.  The  things  we  sell  in  Manchuria  consist  chiefly  of 
cotton  goods,  petroleum,  and  iron  and  steel  products,  commodities 
produced  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States. 

With  the  completion  of  the  trans-Siberian  railway  Niuchwang  will 
become  an  exporting  point  and  distributing  center  for  an  extensive 
district  reaching  as  far  inland  as  Lake  Baikal  in  Southern  Siberia.  The 
trade  of  eastern  Siberia  and  of  Manchuria  will  always  be  handled 
through  the  Pacific  rather  than  Baltic  ports.  Lake  Baikal  is  farther 
from  St.  Petersburg  than  San  Francisco  is  from  New  York,  and  the 
railway  from  St.  Petersburg  has  the  Ural  Mountains  and  heavy  grades 
to  overcome.  This  fact  makes  it  certain  that  the  heavy  commodities 
imported  into  the  region  east  and  southeast  of  Lake  Baikal  will  be 
handled  through  Niuchwang,  Vladivostok,  and  other  Pacilic  Asiatic 
ports.  The  imports  of  this  region  will  continue  to  come  largely  from 
the  United  States.  In  discussing  the  iron  and  steel  industries  of  the 
United  States  attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that  four  full  ship  loads 
of  locomotives  had  been  shipped  from  Philadelphia  to  Vladivostok 
during  the  two  years  1808-1900.  The  eastern  third  of  the  Siberian 
railway  is  being  built  with  rails  rolled  in  Pittsburg  and  ties  exported 
from  Oregon. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  415 

The  Peiho  unci  Hoangho  Valleys,  the  second  subdivision  of  the  north- 
ern section  of  China,  are  supposed  to  contain  between  80,000,000  and 
100,000,000  people.  The  region  consists  of  a  coastal  plain,  most  of 
which  is  included  in  the  province  of  Pechili,  the  mountainous  district 
comprised  within  the  province  of  Shansi,  and  the  pastoral  and  agri- 
cultural upland  provinces  of  Shansi  and  Kansu  lying  to  the  west  of 
the  mountains  of  Shansi. 

The  coastal  province  of  Pechili  is  drained  by  the  river  Peiho,  upon 
which  the  cities  of  Tientsin  and  Pekin  are  situated.  This  region  and 
the  lower  course  of  the  Hoangho  is  made  up  largely  of  fertile  alluvial 
soil,  from  the  products  of  which  a  dense  population  supports  itself. 
In  the  mountainous  province  of  Shansi  are  located  the  richest  coal 
fields  of  China,  concerning  which  much  has  been  said  by  Richtofen  and 
all  travelers  who  have  explored  this  region.  It  is  probable  that  one  of 
the  earliest  resources  of  China  to  be  developed  in  the  future  will  be 
the  coal  fields  of  Shansi.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  extend  the  railroad  which  now  runs  from  Tientsin  to  Pekin 
into  the  mountains  lying  west  of  those  cities. 

In  the  westerly  part  of  the  Hoangho  Valley  is  the  province  of  Kansu, 
which  extends  far  into  the  arid  Mongolian  plateau.  The  province  is 
well  adapted  to  grazing,  and  large  sections  of  it  can  be  cultivated. 
There  are,  moreover,  numerous  deposits  of  coal,  and  better  means  of 
communication  and  production  would  enable  the  province  to  develop 
a  domestic  and  foreign  trade  of  considerable  proportions.  This  prov- 
ince is  the  present  gateway  to  Mongolia  and  is  crossed  by  the  caravan 
route  from  Pekin  to  Turkestan.  The  exports  and  imports  of  the  region 
west  of  the  Shansi  Mountains  are  handled  over  this  caravan  route. 

The  city  of  Tientsin  is  in  the  commercial  center  for  the  Peiho  and 
Hoangho  valleys.  The  railroad  connecting  Tientsin  with  Pekin,  and 
by  means  of  a  line  extending  northeast  with  the  coal  fields  of  the 
Gulf  of  Pechili,  was  causing  the  population  and  commerce  of  Tien- 
tsin to  increase  rapidly  before  the  outbreak  of  the  Boxer  rebellion. 
The  city  of  Tientsin  has  a  population  said  to  number  1,000,000.  Its 
commerce  doubled  between  1887*  and  1897,  when  it  amounted  to 
55,059,017  taels,  or  $14,000,000.  In  1899  the  value  was  77,604,562 
taels,  or  $61,000,000.  With  the  restoration  of  stable  political  condi- 
tions in  this  part  of  China  and  the  continuation  of  the  industrial  devel- 
opment that  the  present  rebellion  has  interrupted,  the  commercial 
importance  of  Tientsin  must  inevitably  increase.  Probably  the  most 
important  imports  of  this  city  will  always  be  cotton  goods  and  iron 
and  steel  manufactures.  Our  ability  to  supply  those  goods  and  the 
effect  which  the  canal  will  have  upon  that  trade  have  been  sufficiently 
emphasized  in  another  place  in  this  report. 

The  province  of.  Shantung  comprises  that  part  of  the  coastal  plain 
crossed  by  the  lower  course  of  the  Hoangho  and  the  mountainous  penin- 
sula having  the  same  name  as  the  province.  One-half  of  this  district 
is  tillable  and  the  other  half  contains  a  variety  of  minerals,  the  most 
valuable  of  which  is  coal.  There  are  four  coal  fields  now  being  worked 
in  a  feeble  way  by  the  natives,  but  which  the  Germans,  who  now  con- 
trol the  larger  part  of  Shantung,  expect  to  make  highly  productive. 

The  Germans  have  taken  hold  of  the  development  of  the  peninsula 
of  Shantung  in  a  vigorous  way,  extensive  improvements  having  been 
made  at  the  harbor  of  Kiaochau,  and  a  railroad  280  miles  in  length 
having  been  planned  and  partly  constructed.     The  supplies  for  the 


410*  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

entire  railway  line  were  delivered  in  December,  1899,  but  the  comple- 
tion of  the  road  has  been  delayed  by  the  recent  insurrection.  It  is 
expected  that  German  capitalists  will  develop  the  mineral  and  other 
resources  of  Shantung  at  an  early  date. 

Shantung  has  two  ports,  Chifu  and  Kiaochau,  the  latter  of  which 
will  in  all  probability  become  the  more  important  one.  The  exports 
will  consist  mainly  of  minerals,  silk,  and  tobacco,  and  the  imports  will 
comprise  flour  and  provisions,  cotton  goods,  iron  and  steel,  and  other 
manufactures.  The  Germans  will  doubtless  endeavor  to  control  the 
major  share  of  the  trade,  and  during  the  early  years  of  their  occu- 
pation they  will  in  all  probability  supply  most  of  the  iron  and  steel 
and  other  commodities  imported.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that 
the  cotton  goods  will,  after  a  few  years,  at  least,  be  supplied  largely  by 
the  United  States,  and  also  that  the  iron  and  steel  manufactures  will 
come  in  part  from  this  country.  If  the  Germans  succeed  in  organiz- 
ing efficiently  the  30,000,000  people  said  to  dwell  in  Shantung,  they 
will  give  rise  to  a  large  foreign  trade  in  which  the  United  States  will 
unquestionably  have  a  share. 

RESOURCES  AND  TRADE  OF  CENTRAL  CHINA — THE  YANGTSE  VALLEY. 

The  great  central  portion  of  China  is  included  within  the  Yangtse 
Valley,  which  in  general  occupies  a  strip  of  country  extending  250 
miles  on  each  side  of  the  thirtieth  parallel  of  latitude.  It  is  the 
largest  of  the  three  sections  in  which  China  has  been  divided  in  this 
chapter,  and  possesses  the  greatest  variety  and  abundance  of  natural 
resources.  The  Yangtse  Valley  is  divided  into  two  rathei  distinct 
parts  by  the  gorges  in  the  river  just  above  the  city  of  Ichang,  about 
1,100  miles  from  the  ocean. 

Probably  one-half  of  the  valley  below  the  gorges  consists  of  the 
coastal  plain,  the  other  half  being  upland  country.  The  great  silk 
and  tea  districts  of  China  are  crossed  by  the  lower  course  of  the 
Yangtse  River.  Rice  and  cotton  constitute  other  productions  of  great 
value.  The  population  of  certain  sections  of  the  lower  course  of  the 
Yangtse  is  probably  more  dense  than  that  of  any  other  section  of  the 
Kingdom. 

Although  the  most  valuable  resources  of  the  lower  valley  are 
agricultural,  there  are  large  stores  of  minerals,  particularly  coal, 
which  is  known  to  exist  in  large  quantities  in  the  province  of  Hunan 
south  of  the  river.  In  the  mountainous  regions,  where  the  tributaries 
of  the  Yangtse  originate,  are  reported  to  exist  deposits  of  copper,  gold, 
silver,  and  lend. 

The  Yangtse  Valley  above  the  gorges  is  an  extensive  rolling  country, 
most  of  which  is  included  within  the  province  of  Szechuan,  north  of 
the  river,  and  Kweichau,  on  the  south  side  of  the  stream.  Both 
provinces  have  abundant  stores  of  coal,  copper,  iron,  tin,  lead,  and 
the  precious  metals.  Kwcichau  is  a  more  distinctively  mineral  region 
than  Szechuan  is.  In  the  latter  province  the  rice  crop  is  the  most 
important  one,  but  wheat,  sugar,  opium,  and  fruits  can  he,  and  are, 
produced  to  some  extent.  The  climate  is  very  much  like4  that  of 
France.  Cotton,  the  chief  material  from  which  clothing  is  made,  can 
not  be  produced  in  the  province.  The  exports  from  the  Upper 
Yangtse  Valley  consist  of  hemp,  opium,  hides,  bristles,  wool,  wax, 
and  some  silk.  At  the  present  time  the  chief  imports  into  the  region 
consist  of  cotton  goods. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  417 

Very  little  credence  is  to  be  given  to  the  .statistics  of  Chinese  popu- 
lation, which  must  always  be  regarded  as  estimates.  There  are,  how- 
ever, said  to  be  70,000,000  people  in  the  Yangtse  Valley  above  the 
gorges,  and  whether  this  figure  be  right  or  not,  it  can  not  be  doubted 
that  this  interior  portion  of  China  must  in  time  become  the  center  of 
a  large  domestic  and  foreign  trade.  At  the  present  time  the  only  com- 
mercial highway  is  the  Yangtse  River,  which  is  obstructed  not  only  by 
the  gorges  above  Ichang,  but  also,  and  more  seriously,  by  the  tax 
officials  of  the  various  local  governments  along  the  river. 

The  city  of  Shanghai,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yangtse,  is  the  port  of 
entry  for  the  whole  valley  and  the  most  important  commercial  center 
of  all  China.  Fifty-five  per  cent  of  all  the  Chinese  imports  and  48  per 
cent  of  the  exports  are  handled  in  this  city.  There  is,  moreover,  some 
prospect  that  manufacturing  industries  will  be  successfully  developed 
at  this  point;  some  beginnings  have  already  been  made.  It  is  an  inter- 
esting fact  that  most  of  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  China, 
although  our  chief  markets  are  in  Manchuria  and  the  northern  part  of 
the  Kingdom,  is  handled  through  Shanghai,  that  city  being  the  dis- 
tributing point  not  only  for  the  Yangtse  Valley,  but  for  North  China 
as  well. 

About  seven  hundred  miles  up  the  Yangtse  River  is  the  city  of 
Hankau,  the  most  important  interior  distributing  point  in  the  King- 
dom. By  means  of  the  Yangtse  and  its  branches  from  the  north  and 
south  it  has  water  connection  extending  in  all  directions,  and  from  it 
nine  provinces  of  China  can  be  reached.  The  city  is  accessible  to  .sea- 
going vessels  and,  consequently,  has  a  large  trade  directly  with  foreign 
countries.  The  city  is  the  market  place  for  traders  from  various  parts 
of  China,  and  its  central  location  in  the  fertile  section  of  the  Kingdom 
makes  it  the  point  of  shipment  for  a  large  part  of  the  export  trade  of 
central  China. 

The  evidence  is  conclusive  that  the  great  Yangtse  Valley  of  central 
China,  comparable  as  regards  area  and  wealth  of  agricultural  and 
mineral  resources  with  our  Mississippi  Valley,  is  destined  to  become 
industrially  and  commercially  important  when  its  resources  and  great 
supply  of  labor  can  be  organized.  The  time  can  not  be  far  distant 
when  capital  will  provide  means  of  transportation  and  develop  the 
natural  resources  of  the  country.  When  this  is  done  the  region  will 
surely  have  a  large  import  trade  in  the  class  of  manufactures  produced 
in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  sections  of  the  United  States.  Those  parts 
of  the  United  States,  moreover,  will  require  the  silk,  wool,  and  other 
raw  materials  of  industry  from  the  Yangtse  Valley,  the  present  expor- 
tation of  which  are  but  a  fraction  of  what  they  might  be  made. 

RESOURCES   AND   TRADE   OF   SOUTHERN   CHINA. 

The  southern  district  of  China  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer,  and  includes  the  coastal  region  of  the  province  of  Fukien 
and  the  territory  drained  b}T  the  Siho  or  "West  River  and  its  tributaries. 

The  products  are  almost  entirely  agricultural,  and  are  those  of  the 
tropical  and  subtropical  regions.  Silk,  tea,  rice,  sugar,  opium,  cam- 
phor, and  various  medicinal  plants  are  grown  and  exported  in  greater 
or  less  quantit}T.  The  manufactures  of  the  region  are  all  handmade, 
and  consist  of  mattings,  silks,  lacquer  ware,  embroideries,  and  the  sails 
required  for  the  domestic  shipping. 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 27 


418  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  upper  valleys  of  the  West  River  and  its  tributaries  contain  min- 
eral resources,  and  these  might,  without  great  expense,  be  made  accssi- 
ble  by  improvements  in  the  river  navigation.  Southern  China,  like 
the  rest  of  the  country,  however,  is  still  industrially  undeveloped,  and 
must  remain  so  until  a  government  can  have  been  established  that  will 
be  strong  enough  to  protect  personal  and  property  rights. 

The  city  of  Hongkong,  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  West  River, 
is  the  main  port  of  southern  China,  and  next  to  Shanghai  the  most 
important  one  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Asia.  Besides  Hongkong,  the 
cities  of  Amoy  and  Fuchau,  on  the  coast  to  the  east  and  north  of 
Hongkong,  are  growing  centers  of  commerce. 

It  is  said  that  Hongkong  is  the  distributing  point  for  80,000,000 
people,  and  its  position  is  such  that  its  trade  must  grow  pari  passu 
with  the  development  of  southern  China.  The  city  is  about  equally 
distant  from  New  York  b}T  the  Suez  and  American  isthmian  routes. 
At  the  present  time  its  trade  with  the  Atlantic  part  of  the  United  States 
as  well  as  with  Europe  is  handled  by  way  of  the  Suez.  After  the 
American  canal  has  been  opened  the  trade  of  Hongkong  and  all  south- 
ern China  generally  will  probably  be  divided  between  the  easterly  and 
westerly  canal  routes.  One  reason  why  the  westerly  route  will  obtain 
a  share  of  the  trade  is  that  Hongkong  is  the  terminal  port  for  vessels 
outbound  across  the  Pacific  from  the  United  States.  At  present  nearly 
all  the  lines  from  British  Columbia  and  our  west  coast  ports  call  at 
Japanese  ports.  Shanghai,  and  Hongkong.  After  the  canal  has  been 
opened  vessels  crossing  the  North  Pacific  from  America  to  Asia  will 
naturally  call  at  Japanese  and  central  Chinese  ports  and  proceed  to 
Hongkong  or  Manila.  Southern  China  and  the  Philippines  are  in  the 
region  whose  commerce  will  be  competed  for  by  both  routes.  When 
the  American  canal  has  been  opened  the  traffic  will  be  divided  between 
the  two  canals  and  the  exporters  of  that  region  will  profit  by  the  com- 
petition of  the  two  routes. 

THE    FOREIGN    TRADE    OF   CHINA. 

The  aggregate  foreign  trade  of  China  in  1899  was  valued  at  475,- 
000,000  taels  ($380,000,000),  of  which  280,000,000  taels  were  imports 
and  195,000,000  were  exports.  In  1897  the  total  foreign  trade 
amounted  to  367,000,000  taels  (1294,000,000).  While  this  total  seems 
fairly  large,  the  amount  of  trade  per  capita  is  extremely  small,  barely 
one  dollar  per  person.  There  are  some  countries  with  natural  resources 
inferior  to  those  of  China  whose  foreign  trade  is  from  twenty-five  to 
one  hundred  times  as  much  per  person.  The  foregoing  analysis  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  the  resources  and  labor  supply  of  China  arc 
ample  to  support  extensive  industries  capable  of  giving  rise  to  a  large 
foreign  trade,  were  the  political  and  social  conditions  favorable  to 
economic  progress. 

Whether  and  to  what  extent  the  present  untoward  political  and 
social  conditions  of  China  can  be  improved  constitutes  the  Chinese 
question.  To  the  solution  of  that  question  the  powers  of  Europe  and 
the  United  States  are  devoting  their  best  endeavor.  It  can  hardly  be 
said,  however,  that  the  ultimate  outcome  of  their  efforts  can  be  clearly 
foreseen.  If  the  powers  succeed  in  securing  for  China  a  stable  and 
fairly  progressive  government  under  which  the  individual  and  society 
may  develop  industrially,  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  the 
foreign  commerce  of  China  will  reach  large  proportions. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  419 

The  truth  of  this  statement  is  clearly  shown  by  what  occurred 
during  the  five  years  preceding  the  outbreak  of  the  Boxer  revolution. 
During  those  years  comparatively  rapid  progress  was  being  made  in 
the  work  preparatory  to  rendering  the  natural  resources  of  the  country 
available.  Mining  concessions  were  obtained  by  various  capitalists, 
railroads  were  under  construction,  and  there  was  every  indication  that 
the  natural  wealth  of  China  was  to  be  made  to  contribute  largely  to 
international  trade.  In  1899  the  total  trade  was  24  per  cent  more  than 
that  of  the  preceding  year  and  double  that  of  the  year  1890. 

The  most  important  imports  into  China  are  cotton  goods,  which  com- 
prise over  a  third  of  the  total  inbound  trade.  The  commodity  next  in 
rank  is  opium,  which  is  followed  by  kerosene,  metals,  coal,  woolen 
goods,  and  a  variety  of  other  commodities.  Silk,  raw  and  manufac- 
tured, ranks  first  among  the  exports,  tea  being  next  in  importance. 
Among  the  other  exports  of  consequence  are  straw  braid,  sugar,  hides, 
clothing,  paper,  and  pottery.  At  the  present  time  Great  Britain  con- 
trols more  of  this  trade  than  any  other  country,  but  her  share  of  the 
total  is  decreasing.  An  analysis  of  our  trade  with  China  will  show 
that  the  opposite  is  the  case  with  our  commercial  relations. 

TRADE  OF  UNITED  STATES  WITH  CHINA  AND  EFFECTS  OF  CANAL. 

The  trade  of  the  United  States  with  China  included  $27,000,000 
worth  of  imports  into  this  country  and  $15,000,000  worth  of  exports 
to  China  during  the  year  ending  June  30, 1900.  This  total  of  $42,000,000 
indicates  an  increase  of  50  per  cent  within  a  decade.  The  most  rapid 
growth  has  taken  place  in  our  exports  of  cotton  goods.  The  value 
of  cotton  sheetings  sent  to  China  in  1899  exceeded  the  value  of  our 
total  annual  exports  to  that  country  for  the  years  preceding  1896. 
Next  to  cotton  goods,  our  leading  article  of  exportation  is  kerosene 
oil,  but  in  addition  we  are  selling  increasing  quantities  of  iron  and 
steel,  breadstuff's,  lumber,  and  general  manufactures.  Among  the 
articles  which  we  import  from  China,  silk,  raw  and  manufactured, 
holds  first  place,  and  tea  occupies  the  second  position.  These  two  arti- 
cles comprise  over  half  the  total  value  of  the  imports.  Raw  wool, 
hides,  skins  and  furs,  straw  braid,  and  a  variety  of  curios  make  up 
the  larger  share  of  the  other  articles  imported. 

The  rapidity  with  which  our  trade  in  China  is  growing  may  be  shown 
by  a  few  comparisons.  During  the  three  years  ending  in  1899  the  total 
imports  of  Shanghai  increased  50  per  cent  and  those  from  the  United 
States  were  doubled.  In  1895  Great  Britain  exported  to  China  five  times 
as  much  as  we  did,  but  in  1899  her  trade  was  less  than  twice  ours. 
Our  imports  of  Chinese  goods  direct  from  China  (i.  e.,  exclusive  of 
the  Hongkong  trade)  are  now  nearly  double  what  those  of  the  United 
Kingdom  are.  Moreover,  the  Chinese  statistics  do  not  give  us  credit 
for  all  the  trade  we  have  with  the  country.  Some  of  our  trade  is 
handled  by  way  of  Europe  and  credited  to  European  countries,  while 
another  large  share  goes  from  New  York  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal  to 
Hongkong,  whence  it  is  distributed  in  China.  It  appears  as  imports 
into  Hongkong  and  as  exports  from  that  city  to  China.  All  nations, 
both  oriental  and  western,  handle  more  or"  less  of  their  trade  with 
China  through  Hongkong.  Apparently  the  trade  of  the  United  States 
with  Hongkong  direct  is  two-thirds  as  large  as  Great  Britain's  is.  A 
French  commission  sent  out  to  China  in  1895  to  study  the  trade  situa- 
tion added  63  per  cent  to  the  figures  of  American  trade  to  cover  the 


420  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

amount  that  entered  China  b}T  indirect  routes,  and  there  is  no  indica- 
tion that  any  important  change  has  taken  place  since  then  in  the  rout- 
ing of  trade  such  as  would  have  changed  the  percentage  of  our  indirect 
as  compared  with  our  direct  shipments. 

The  general  relation  of  an  isthmian  canal  to  our  trade  with  China 
may  be  easily  and  briefly  stated.  The  breadstuff*  and  lumber  which 
we  export  across  the  Pacific  will  unquestionably  be  sent  from  the 
Pacific  coast.  The  same  will  be  true  of  the  lighter  manufactures  of 
high  value  per  bulk.  Should  we  develop  any  considerable  trade  in 
provisions,  the  main  source  will  be  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
iron  and  steel,  general  manufactures,  kerosene,  and  cotton  goods  will 
be  exported  from  the  eastern  and  southern  sections  of  our  country. 
They  will  unquestionably  constitute  canal  traffic,  and  their  sale  will  be 
largely  facilitated  by  that  waterway. 

Our  kerosene  trade  in  China  is  already  feeling  very  keenly  the  com- 
petition of  Java  and  Russia,  and  our  exporters  are  able  to  hold  their 
trade  only  because  the}^  have  developed  unusually  economical  means  of 
transportation. 

Probably  our  exportation  of  cotton  goods  will  be  affected  more  favor- 
ably by  the  canal  than  will  any  other  class  of  goods  sent  to  China,  with 
the  possible  exception  of  heavy  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel.  It  is 
estimated  that  TO  per  cent  of  the  cottons  exported  from  this  country 
to  China  are  manufactured  in  the  Southern  States,  the  section  nearest 
to  the  canal.  At  the  present  time  four-fifths  of  these  exports  go  by 
way  of  the  Suez  Canal,  the  other  fifth  being  sent  across  the  continent, 
largely  by  way  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway.  Moreover,  the  for- 
eign destination  of  these  goods  is  nearly  all  in  northern  China,  that 
part  of  the  country  nearest  to  the  United  States  by  way  of  the  isth- 
mian canal  and  most  remote  from  us  by  way  of  the  Suez.  Even  under 
the  present  unfavorable  conditions  of  competition  we  are  securing  con- 
trol of  the  larger  part  of  the  cotton-goods  trade  of  northern  China. 
During  the  past  decade  the  imports  of  cotton  goods  into  that  section 
from  England  and  Dutch  countries  declined  over  50  per  cent,  whereas 
ours  increased  400  per  cent  during  the  same  period.  With  the  canal 
to  assist  us  in  the  development  of  this  trade,  it  seems  certain  that  we 
can  not  only  control  the  business,  but  can  do  it  with  a  large  margin  of 
profit. 

Should  the  anticipated  industrial  development  of  China  occur,  will 
the  country  become  independent  of  foreign  trade?  Will  it  supply 
its  own  needs?  Not  a  little  has  been  heard  regarding  the  danger 
of  Chinese  development  to  American  labor  and  American  industries. 
The  fear  has  no  basis  in  experience.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
our  trade  is  greatest  with  those  countries  whose  industrial  develop- 
ment has  reached  the  highest  stage  of  evolution,  and  that  our  com- 
merce increases  in  proportion  to  the  economic  progress  of  the  country 
traded  with.  Japan  is  a  case  in  point.  The  large  development  now 
in  progress  in  that  Empire  is  being  accompanied  by  a  very  rapid 
growth  in  her  trade  with  the  United  States.  The  same  is  true  in  a 
less  degree  of  Chile,  and  would  be  true  in  a  much  greater  degree  if 
we  were  able  to  trade  with  Chile  under  favorable  conditions  of  trans- 
portation. 

Industrial  development  and  economic  progress  are  always  accom- 
panied by  an  increase  in  wages  and  a  rise  in  the  standard  of  life.  If 
foreign  nations  succeed  in  organizing  the  industrial  forces  of  China, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  4^1 

they  will  also  .succeed  in  greatly  multiplying-  the  wants  of  the  people 
and  laving  the  foundation  for  a  much  larger  trade  between  that  country 
and  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Chapter  XIV. — The  omul  <n,<l  the  industries  and  trade  of  Australasia. 

There  is  possibly  no  part  of  the  world  outside  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States  that  has  a  more  promising  commercial  future  than  Aus- 
tralia. The  area  of  the  island  continent  of  Australia  is  about  equal 
to  that  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska  and  the  colonies 
each  having  somewhat  less  than  3,000,000  square  miles  of  territory. 
The  density  of  the  population  of  the  two  countries  is,  however,  very 
different,  for  at  the  beginning  of  1899  there  were  but  3,556,000  people 
in  all  Australia,  a  smaller  number  than  there  are  in  Illinois  or  Ohio, 
not  to  mention  the  still  more  populous  States  of  Pennsylvania  and  New 
York.  In  spite  of  its  small  population,  Australia  is'a  region  havino- 
an  enormous  commerce,  the  average  trade  per  capita  being  one  hun- 
dred times  that  of  the  Chinese  people.  This  enormous  trade  results 
partly  from  the  nature  of  the  industries  of  the  country,  and  partly 
from  the  character  of  the  population,  which  is  nearly  all  British. 
The  people  have  a  very  large  average  per  capita  wealth,  and  their 
standard  of  living  is  high.  They  consume  large  quantities  of  manu- 
factures, which  they  are  able  to  purchase  because  of  the  vigor  and 
energy  employed  in  the  development  of  the  abundant  natural  resourcs 
of  the  virgin  continent. 

AUSTRALIAN    INDUSTRIES    REQUIRE    A    LARGE    FOREIGN    TRADE. 

The  rapid  development  of  the  natural  resources  of  Australia  could 
not  take  place  without  an  immense  foreign  trade,  The  chief  indus- 
tries'1 are  _  pastoral,  agricultural,  and  mineral,  all  of  which  can  be  car- 
ried on  with  a  comparatively  limited  supply  of  labor.  The  vast  area 
of  the  country,  and  the  fact  that  but  a  small  portion  of  the  territory 
has  yet  been  occupied  make  certain  the  continuance,  without  very 
great  change,  of  the  present  industrial  conditions  of  the  country  for 
several  decades.  Although  the  country  possesses  liberal  stores  of 
minerals  other  than  the  precious  metals,  there  is  little  prospect  of 
the  early  development  of  industries  upon  which  highly  developed 
manufactures  must  rest.  The  three  most  essential  requisites  to 
diversified  manufactures  are  cheap  labor,  cheap  and  abundant  coal  and 
iron,  and  surplus  capital  seeking  investment.  Although  Australia  has 
coal  and  iron,  labor  and  capital  are  so  scarce  that  fuel  and  steel  must 
necessarily  be  more  expensive  than  thev  are  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  where  most  of  the  world's  manufacturing  is  done  at  the  present 
time.  P or  sometime  to  come  the  profits  in  the  pastoral  and  agri- 
cultural industries  and  in  the  mining  of  precious  metals  will  con- 
tinue to  oner  greater  inducement  than  can  the  manufacturing  industries 
1  his  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  Australia  will,  for  several  decades  at 
least,  continue  to  export  great  quantities  of  food  supplies  and  raw 
materials  in  exchange  for  manufactures. 

In  Australians  total  foreign  commerce  of  $350,000,000  worth  of  o-0ods 
annually  the  I  nited  States  has  a  large  and  rapidly  increasing  share. 

a  See  PL  81. 


422  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  development  of  our  manufactures  will  require  constantly  larger 
quantities  of  the  exports  of  Australia,  and  our  export  trade  to  "that 
country  is  certain  to  be  of  constantly  increasing'  importance  to  us. 

THE    CANAL   AND   DISTANCES   TO    AUSTRALIA. 

The  distances  from  New  York  and  our  North  Atlantic  ports  to  Aus- 
tralia by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal  and  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
are  practically  the  same,  consequently  all  our  direct  commerce  with 
Australia  moves  around  the  Cape.  In  the  tables  included  in  Chapter 
XVII,  the  distances  from  our  Atlantic  and  Gulf  ports  to  Australian 
cities  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  route  and  the  proposed 
Nicaragua  Canal  are  compared.  By  referring  to  the  table  it  will  be 
seen  that  New  York  is  3,982,  or  in  round  numbers  4,000,  miles  nearer 
Sydney  by  way  of  the  Nicaragua  (-anal  than  by  way  of  the  route  fol- 
lowed by  vessels  going  to  Sydney  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Adelaide,  the  most  westerly  port  of  the  industrially  important  part  of 
Australia,  will  be  1,810  miles  nearer  New  York  and  3,587  miles  nearer 
New  Orleans  by  way  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  than  by  Good  Hope. 

A  mapa  accompanying  Chapter  XVII  shows  the  line  connecting  the 
points  equidistant  from  New  York  by  way  of  the  Nicaragua  and  Suez 
routes,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  line  crosses  the  western  part  of 
Australia  and  touches  the  continent  of  Asia  west  of  Hongkong.  These 
references  to  distances  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the  industrially  and 
commercially  important  half  of  Australia  will  be  brought  from  eight 
to  fifteen  days  nearer  our  eastern  seaboard  by  the  construction  of  an 
isthmian  canal. 

The  tables  of  Chapter  XVII  show  that  the  entire  continent  of 
Australia  is  nearer  Liverpool  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal  than  it  will 
be  by  way  of  the  American  isthmian  route.  Attention  may  be  called 
to  the  fact,  however,  that  Sydney  will  be  only  172  miles  farther  from 
Liverpool  by  the  Nicaragua  route  than  by  the  Suez.  The  line  con- 
necting points  equidistant  from  Liverpool  by  way  of  the  two  routes 
passes  between  New  Zealand  and  Australia  and  cast  of  the  main  island 
of  Japan. 

The  Suez  route  to  Australia  is  shorter  for  European  commerce  than 
is  the  Good  Hope  route,  but  the  difference  is  not  enough  to  induce 
slow  freight  steamers  to  use  the  canal,  the  tolls  of  which  amount  to 
about  $2  per  net  ton,  British  measurement.  Letters  received  from 
European  steamship  companies  show  that  about  the  only  steamers 
between  Europe  and  Australia  using  the  canal  are  those  which  carry 
passengers  and  mails.  The  slow-going  freighters  practically  all  go 
around  the  Cape.  As  compared  with  the  Good  Hope  route  between 
Europe  and  Australia,  the  American  canal  line  would  be  shorter.  The 
east  coast  of  Australia  will  be  almost  equidistant  from  Liverpool  by 
the  easterly  and  westerly  canal  routes.  The  significance  of  this  is 
enhanced  by  the  fact  that  over  half  the  commerce  of  Australia  is 
handled  at  Sydney,  which  port  is  made  by  all  vessels,  whether  from 
Europe  or  from  the  United  States.  The  references  to  distances  are 
not  intended  to  imply  that  distance  is  the  only  fact  determining  the 
routes  taken  by  vessels. 

■  See  PL  86. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  423 

GENERAL   GEOGRAFEft    OF   AUSTRALIA. 

The  continent  of  Australia  is  situated  between  10° and 40°  south  lati- 
tude, somewhat  over  half  of  the  continent  being  .south  of  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn.  The  island  is  regular  in  shape,  has  a  coast  line  but  little 
broken,  and  consists  of  a  comparatively  narrow  rim  of  well-watered 
and  fertile  country,  within  which  is  a  vast  stretch  of  semiarid  and  arid 
country,  much  of  which  has  an  annual  rainfall  of  10  inches  or  less. 
Almost  all  the  mountains  are  situated  near  the  coast,  the  highest  ones 
being  the  Australian  Alps,  which  run  parallel  to  the  eastern  and  south- 
eastern shore  about  50  to  75  miles  from  the  ocean.  The  average  height 
of  this  range  is  1.500  feet,  the  peaks  rising  to  5,000  and  6,500  feet. 
The  eastern  slopes  are  eveiywhere  well  watered,  and  this  portion  of 
Australia  is  the  most  fertile  and  thickly  settled  part  of  the  continent. 

The  western  slopes  of  these  mountains  are  very  gradual,  and  are 
drained  by  the  Murray  and  Darling  rivers  and  their  tributaries,  which 
together  have  a  basin  as  large  as  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence  or  the  Dan- 
ube. This  is  the  great  grazing  section  of  Australia.  The  eastern  and 
southern  sections  of  the  basin,  however,  have  a  rainfall  of  25  to  40 
inches,  and  are  adapted  to  cereal  agriculture. 

The  eastern  third  of  Australia  is  divided  into  three  political  divi- 
sions, Queensland  occupying  the  northern  half  of  this  eastern  section. 
South  of  Queensland  is  New  South  Wales,  below  which  is  Victoria. 
The  most  populous  and  productive  parts  of  Australia  are  New  South 
Wales  and  Victoria.  These  colonies  occupy  a  region  corresponding 
in  latitude  to  that  of  the  United  States  between  New  York  City  and 
Jacksonville.  South  Australia  consists  of  the  central  third  of  Austra- 
lia, west  of  which  is  the  great  tract  of  western  Australia.  Both  of 
these  divisions  are  arid  except  within  the  narrow  rim  near  the  ocean, 
and  in  the  tropical  northern  sections  where  the  trade  winds,  unob- 
structed by  any  coastal  mountains,  give  the  country  abundant  rainfall. 
But  little  of  the  tropical  section  of  Australia  has  as  yet  been  occupied 
because  the  British  colonists  have  not  found  the  region  healthful. 

PASTORAL    AND   AGRICULTURAL    RESOURCES. a 

From  the  first  years  of  its  settlement  Australia  has  been  celebrated 
as  a  grazing  region.  Everywhere,  with  the  exception  of  the  tropical 
lowlands  and  the  interior  desert  sections,  the  climate  is  favorable  to 
sheep  and  cattle,  and  the  forage  is  abundant. 

The  most  important  grazing  district  of  Australia  is  the  large  interior 
basin  of  the  Murray  River  and  its  tributaries,  where  a  large  part  of 
the  country  in  taken  up  with  the  cattle  and  sheep  ranches.  The  more 
populous  sections  of  the  country  between  the  Australian  Alps  and 
eastern  and  southern  coasts  are  changing  from  grazing  to  dairying, 
Australia  having  become  an  exporter  of  large  quantities  of  dairy 
products. 

A  few  statistics  regarding  the  number  and  value  of  the  cattle  and 
sheep  of  Australia  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  importance  of  the  graz- 
ing and  dairying  industries  of  the  country.  After  three  years  of  most 
destructive  drought,  there  were  112,000,000  sheep  and  14,000,000 
cattle  in  Australia  in  1899.     The  figures  for  the  United  States  are  in 

*  See  PI.  81. 


424  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

round  numbers  40,000,000  sheep  and  27,000,000  cattle.  New  South 
Wales  alone  has  as  many  sheep  as  the  whole  of  the  United  States. 
The  Australian  wool  furnishes  one-fourth  of  the  world's  supply,  and 
is  of  the  tinest  quality.  During  the  past  decade  it  has  been  worth  at 
least  $120,000,000  per  annum,  and  in  addition  to  this,  $80,000,000  have 
been  annually  derived  from  the  meat  and  other  animal  products. 
This  total  of  $200,000,000  per  }Tear  amounts  to  over  $50  for  each  per- 
son in  Australia. 

The  agricultural  industries  of  Australia  include  the  raising  of  grain, 
the  growing  of  fruits,  and  the  production  of  sugar.  The  grain-pro- 
ducing districts  lie  on  both  sides  of  the  Cordilleran  Alps  in  New  South 
Wales  and  in  Victoria  and  on  the  shores  of  Spencer  Gulf,  in  South 
Australia. 

The  colony  of  Victoria,  whose  area  and  population  are  about  the  same 
as  those  of  Nebraska,  had  a  wheat  crop  of  20,000,000  bushels  in  1898. 
Half  as  many  bushels  were  raised  in  the  neighborhood  of  Spencer 
Gulf.  Australia  can  not,  however,  be  regarded  as  a  very  favorable 
wheat-growing  country  because  of  the  uncertainty  of  the  rainfall  in 
many  parts  of  the  wheat-growing  sections.  Irrigation  is  being  exten- 
sively resorted  to,  and  it  will  doubtless  enable  the  country  to  support  a 
great  many  more  cattle  and  sheep,  to  increase  the  annual  grain  produc- 
tion, and  to  enlarge  the  acreage  of  its  fruit  orchards. 

Horticulture  is  rapidly  developing  in  Australia.  The  lower  regions 
of  the  subtropical  and  tropical  districts  produce  the  fruits  usually  grown 
in  the  climate  of  those  regions,  and  the  upland  districts  of  the  more 
southerly  and  temperate  colonies  are  adapted  to  the  production  of 
grapes,  apples,  pears,  plums,  and  similar  fruits.  In  the  Victorian  part 
of  the  Murray  River  Valley  there  are  said  to  be  forty  corporations 
holding  concessions  aggregating  2,000,000  acres,  under  which  they  are 
developing  irrigation  projects,  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  growing  fruits. 
In  the  neighborhood  of  Wallaroo,  north  of  Adelaide,  there  is  an  irri- 
gation system  using  670  miles  of  iron  and  steel  pipe,  by  which  water 
is  distributed  to  places  25  to  75  miles  distant.  This  region  produced 
1,080,000  gallons  of  wine  in  1898.  The  exports  of  fruit  from  the 
region  are  growing  and  promise  to  constitute  an  important  industry. 

The  tropical  portion  of  Queensland  has  the  beginnings  of  what  will 
doubtless  become  a  large  sugar  industry.  In  1899  the  crop  amounted 
to  164,000  tons,  a  total  of  more  than  half  the  average  annual  product 
of  Louisiana. 

The  agricultural  resources  of  Australia  are  such  that  the  country 
must  continue  to  be  an  important  exporter  of  food  products  for  many 
decades.  There  is,  and  will  long  continue  to  be,  a  surplus  of  bread- 
stuffs.  Wool,  meat,  hides,  and  dairy  products  will  long  be  produced 
in  such  abundance  as  to  necessitate  a  large  sale  of  them  abroad.  Other 
promising  future  agricultural  exports  are  wine,  tobacco,  and  sugar. 
One-fourth  of  the  world's  wool  is  now  grown  in  Australia.  In  the 
future  we  shall  want  increasing  quantities  of  this  article  and  of  hides 
and  skins. 

MINERAL    RESOURCES. 

The  mineral  industries*  of  Australia  rank  high  in  the  statistics,  both 
of  production  and  of  foreign  commerce.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  and 
coal  are  the  most  extensively  mined,  although  b}^  no  means  the  only 
minerals  existing  in  the  country. 

'See  l'!.  si. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  425 

The  annual  export  of  gold  from  Australia  is,  in  round  numbers, 
$60,000,000.  The  industry  has  passed  the  uncertain  stage  of  placer 
mining  and  now  consists  mainly  of  the  reduction  of  quartz  ore.  Most 
of  the  gold  fields  are  in  the  mountains  of  eastern  Australia,  but  quartz 
reefs  situated  in  the  arid  plains  of  the  western  part  of  the  continent 
are  now  yielding  a  large  percentage  of  the  total  output.  These  mines 
in  western  Australia  have  added  much  to  the  annual  production  of  the 
country. 

Australia  ranks  third  among  the  silver-producing  countries  of  the 
world,  being  outclassed  only  by  the  United  States  and  Mexico.  Her 
product  is  about  one-tenth  that  of  the  entire  world.  The  mines  are 
located  mainly  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country. 

The  copper  mines  of  Australia  yielded  18,000  tons  of  the  metal  in 
1898,  the  product  having  doubled  in  four  years.  Lead  and  tin  are 
both  exported,  and  various  other  metals  are  produced  in  small 
quantities. 

In  Chapter  VI,  dealing  with  the  coal  supply  for  the  commerce  of  the 
Pacific,  the  coal  trade  of  Australia  was  discussed  at  some  length.  The 
field  from  which  the  present  supplies  are  mainly  drawn  is  a  compara- 
tively small  one  of  3,000  square  miles  in  area,  situated  close  by  the  city 
of  Newcastle,  62  miles  north  of  Sydney,  the  most  important  port  of 
Australia.  There  are  other  larger  fields  in  the  mountainous  sections  of 
the  country,  of  which  use  will  be  made  as  the  demand  for  fuel  increases 
The  present  exportation  of  coal  from  Australia,  as  has  already  been 
explained,  is  facilitated  by  the  large  tonnage  of  vessels  leaving  the 
country  in  ballast.  This  explains  why  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States,  South  America,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philippines,  as  well  as  the 
East  Indies,  use  more  or  less  Australian  coal. 

The  value  of  the  minerals  exported  from  Australia  equals  $100,000,000 
per  }'ear,  more  than  $25  for  each  person..  This  is  a  veiy  large  amount 
of  trade  for  any  one  class  of  industries  to  give  rise  to,  and  it  shows  the 
great  productive  capabilities  of  the  Australians.  The  chief  signifi- 
cance to  the  United  States  of  this  great  Australian  mineral  industry  is 
that  it  necessitates  a  large  foreign  trade  in  mining  machinery  and  gen- 
eral manufactures.  As  was  stated  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter, 
the  industrial  conditions  of  Australia  are  not  such  as  to  make  profita- 
ble the  development  of  the  iron  industries  and  of  the  manufactures 
based  upon  crude  iron  and  steel.  Consequently,  the  expensive  machin- 
ery for  the  development  of  the  mines,  the  railway  material,  and  the 
manufactures  required  by  the  mining  population  must  be  imported. 
American  manufacturers  have  been  especially  successful  in  making 
mining  machinery,  and  their  products  have  gone  all  over  the  world. 
In  Chapter  IV,  on  the  Central  West,  the  experience  of  a  Chicago  man- 
ufacturer was  cited.  This,  and  numerous  other  firms  in  different 
parts  of  the  United  States,  now  have  a  large  foreign  trade  in  mining 
machinery  in  many  sections  of  the  world. 

THE    CANAL   AND   THE    COMMERCE    OF   AUSTRALIA    WITH    THE    UNITED 

STATES. 

In  considering  the  foreign  trade  of  Australia,  the  fact  must  be  kept 
in  mind  that  the  statistics  of  the  commerce  of  the  various  Australian 
states  include  not  only  the  trade  which  they  have  with  countries  out- 
side of  Australia,  but  with  the  various  Australian  commonwealths. 
The  statement  made  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  that  the  foreign 


426  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

trade  of  Australia  amounted  to  $350,000,000  per  annum — a  sum  equal 
to  $100  per  capita — referred  only  to  the  trade  of  the  various  Austra- 
lian states  with  countries  outside  of  Australia.  This  total  of  the  for- 
eign commerce  of  Australia  equals  half  that  of  all  South  America,  and 
is  as  large  as  our  foreign  trade  was  fifty  years  ago.  The  per  capita 
average  is  nearly  four  times  that  of  the  United  States  at  the  present 
time.  There  is,  moreover,  no  doubt  of  the  continuance  of  this  large 
foreign  commerce.  The  nature  of  the  industries  being  such  that  a 
heavy  foreign  trade  is  requisite  to  their  development,  the  fact  that  the 
various  Australian  commonwealths  have  constructed  efficient  railway 
systems,  which  are  being  extended  as  necessity  requires,  the  industrial 
aptitude  of  the  people — all  these  factors  combine  to  assure  the  future 
commercial  importance  of  Australia. 

Although  the  Australian  imports  are  increasing  rapidly,  our  share 
in  those  imports  is  growing  more  rapidly  than  their  total.  In  fact, 
our  export  trade  into  Australia  is  increasing  faster  than  that  to  any 
other  country  except  those  of  eastern  Asia.  Between  1890  and  1900 
our  exports  to  Europe  increased  52  per  cent,  those  to  South  America 
one-half  of  1  per  cent,  while  our  exports  to  Oceania  increased  157  per 
cent.  The  greater  part  of  this  commerce  with  Oceania  was  with  the 
continent  of  Australia,  in  every  State  of  which  the  use  of  our  manu- 
factures is  increasing.  New  South  Wales,  for  instance,  during  the 
last  decade  increased  its  total  trade  40  per  cent,  but  the  imports  from 
the  United  States  rose  181  per  cent  during  the  ten  years.  In  1900  our 
total  exports  to  Australia  were  valued  at  $26,725,702;  in  1889  their 
value  was  $12,252,117.  Our  direct  imports  from  that  country  have 
not  increased  during  the  decade.  It  is  probable,  nevertheless,  that  we 
are  using  a  larger  quantity  of  Australian  wool  than  we  did  ten  years 
ago.  Most  of  this  wool,  however,  comes  to  us  b}r  way  of  London,  and 
appears  in  the  statistics  of  our  trade  with  the  United  Kingdom.  We 
are  now  sending  to  Australia  a  large  variety  of  commodities,  the 
nature  and  value  of  which  are  indicated  by  the  following  list:" 

Mineral  oils,  $1,720,000;  lumber,  furniture,  and  wood  manufactures, 
$1.12.3,000;  paper,  $1,100,000;  cotton  manufactures,  $413,000;  boots 
and  shoes,  1409,000;  agricultural  machinery,  $780,000;  naval  stores, 
$200,000,  and  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  iron  and  steel  manufactures, 
of  which  the  following  are  instructive  examples:  Steel  rails, $661,000; 
locks  and  builders'  hardware,  $630,000;  miscellaneous  machinery, 
$863,000;  scientific  instruments,  $177,000;  typewriters,  $77,000; 
sewing  machines,  $321,000. 

The  preeminent  rank  of  the  city  of  Sydney  in  the  foreign  trade  of 
Australia  is  a  fact  of  much  significance  in  this  discussion.  Ninety- 
seven  per  cent  of  the  trade  of  New  South  Wales  is  handled  through 
that  port,  and  nearly  one-half  of  the  total  commerce  of  the  Austra- 
lian states  with  nations  outside  of  the  continent  of  Australia  is  car- 
ried on  at  the  port  of  Sydney.  This  city  is  the  commercial  metropolis 
of  Australia,  and  is  the  point  from  which  a  large  share  of  the  imports 
from  Atlantic  countries  is  distributed  throughout  Australia  and  the 
adjacent  islands.  The  city  of  Melbourne  is  another  distributing  point, 
but  its  importance  has  declined  as  compared  with  Sydney,  because  of 
the  greater  facilities  possessed  by  the  latter  port  for  the  transshipment 
of  commodities. 


"The  figures  are  for  1899  and  include  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand.    The 
New  Zealand  figures  are  not  kept  separate  in  our  statistics. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  427 

The  fact  that  the  coasting  trade  of  Australia  centers  so  largely  in 
Sydney  and  Melbourne  is  interesting  in  this  connection,  because  those 
ports  are  so  situated  that  they  will  be  brought  many  days  nearer  to 
the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  b}r  the  construction  of  the 
isthmian  canal. 

The  influences  of  the  isthmian  canal  upon  our  Australian  commerce- 
will  affect  our  trade  in  a  large  variety  of  commodities.  Our  growing 
exports  of  ir^on  and  steel  manufactures  and  other  heavy  articles  are 
being  supplemented  by  an  increasing  exportation  of  lighter  commodi- 
ties, and  when  the  canal  has  removed  our  present  handicap  arising 
from  the  disadvantages  regarding  distances  which  we  at  present  have 
in  competing  with  Europe  our  commerce  with  Australia  will  be  car- 
ried on  under  much  more  favorable  conditions.  The  traffic  between 
Australia  and  the  eastern  and  southern  sections  of  the  United  States 
by  way  of  the  canal  will  be  large,  unless  the  tolls  of  that  waterwaj^ 
should  be  placed  so  high  as  to  be  prohibitory.  In  Chapter  XXII  the 
question  of  tolls  is  considered  at  length,  and  it  is  there  shown  that  a 
toll  of  $1  per  vessel  ton  net  register  would  not  much  restrict  the  use 
of  the  canal  by  our  Australian  commerce.  The  maintenance  of  the 
present  Suez  Canal  tolls,  which  are  equivalent  to  $2  per  net  register  ton, 
British  measurement,  and  the  imposition  of  the  toll  of  $1  per  ton  or  less 
for  the  use  of  the  American  canal  would  be  of  much  assistance  to  the 
American  waterway.  In  the  chapter  on  tolls  emphasis  is  laid  upon 
the  necessity  of  adopting  a  schedule  of  tolls  for  the  American  canal 
that  will  not  prevent  its  being  used  by  the  traffic  of  Australia  and 
western  South  America. 

NEW  ZEALAND  AND  THE  CANAL. 

New  Zealand  is  almost  exactly  antipodal  to  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  construction  of  an  isthmian  canal  will  bring  Wellington  1,503 
miles  nearer  Europe  by  that  route  than  by  the  Suez.  That  city  will 
be  2,698  miles  nearer  New  York  b}T  a  Nicaragua  ( "anal  than  by  way 
of  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

The  islands  of  New  Zealand11  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  United 
Kingdom  in  shape,  area,  and  climate.  Within  their  area  of  104,500 
square  miles  there  are  at  present  less  than  800,000  people.  The 
climate  is  admirably  adapted  to  raising  grain,  cattle,  and  sheep. 

The  chief  industry  of  the  islands  is  the  raising  of  sheep  and  the 
exportation  of  mutton  and  wool.  The  islands  now  have  20,000,000 
sheep,  half  as  many  as  there  are  in  this  country,  and  the  annual 
exports  of  mutton  to  the  United  Kingdom  reach  nearly  2,000,000. 

The  mountains  of  New  Zealand,  like  those  of  Australia,  are  well 
stocked  with  minerals.  The  output  of  the  gold  mines  amounted  to 
$5,500,000  in  1898.  Most  of  this,  however,  was  secured  from  placer 
mines,  although  the  working  of  the  quartz  deposits  has  been  begun. 
The  mountain  streams  of  the  country  furnish  an  abundant  supply  of 
water  power  for  mining  and  other  industrial  purposes. 

Somewhat  less  than  a  million  tons  of  coal  are  annually  mined,  the 
output  of  which  can  and  will  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the 
demand  for  fuel.  It  hardly  need  be  said  that  the  iron  deposits  of  New 
Zealand  have  not  yet  been  worked.  A  country  that  is  still  mainly  in 
the  grazing  stage  of  industry  is  several  decades  ahead  of  the  exploita- 
tion of  its  iron  mines. 

'Pee  PI.  82. 


428  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  mineral  resource  of  New  Zealand  which  is  of  interest  to  the 
people  of  the  United  States  is  the  kauri  gum,  from  which  varnish  is 
made.  This  gum  is  a  fossil  resin  dug  up  from  the  sites  of  old  forests, 
and  the  supply,  it  is  said,  is  sufficient  to  last  for  several  decades.  In 
1899  9,900  tons  of  this  gum,  valued  at  $3,000,000,  were  exported, 
and  a  large  part  of  .it  came  to  the  United  States. 

The  commerce  of  New  Zealand  is  larger  per  capita  than  that  of  Aus- 
tralia, being  over  $120  per  person.  The  total  commerce,  with  a  value 
of  over  $100,000,000  per  year,  is  mainly  controlled  by  Great  Britain, 
but  the  United  States  has  a  respectable  and  increasing  share  of  the 
trade.  During  the  nine  years  ending  in  1898  our  trade  with  New 
Zealand  increased  108  per  cent,  our  total  trade  in  1898  amounting  to 
about  $7,000,000. 

New  Zealand  has  good  shipping  facilities  for  foreign  trade,  the  Gov- 
ernment is  developing  the  railway  system  rapidly,  and  the  natural 
resources  of  the  country  may  be  expected  to  contribute  increasing 
quantities  to  international  trade.  There  is  no  more  probability  of  the 
development  of  manufactures  in  New  Zealand  than  in  Australia.  The 
islands  will  continue  to  export  food  products  and  raw  materials  in 
exchange  for  manufactures. 

The  opening  of  the  isthmian  canal  will  bring  the  city  of  New  York 
5,617  miles  nearer  to  New  Zealand  than  it  is  by  the  Good  Hope  and 
Australia  route,  and  the  distances  between  the  Eastern  cities  of  the 
United  States  and  that  country  will  be  2,068  miles  shorter  than  by  wa\>- 
of  Magellan.  In  1899  more  than  seven-eighths  of  our  exports  to  New 
Zealand  were  sent  from  the  Atlantic  coast.  These  exports  included 
mineral  oils,  tobacco,  machinery,  hardware,  wire  and  wire  nails,  car- 
riages, carriage  materials,  patent  medicines,  and  boots  and  shoes.  The 
volume  and  variety  of  our  present  commerce  carried  on  by  the  cir- 
cuitous route  around  Africa  is  evidence  that  the  opening  of  the  Amer- 
ican canal  will  have  important  effects  upon  our  New  Zealand  trade. 

Chapter  XV. — The  canal  and  the  Philippines  and  Hawaii. 

I.    THE   PHILIPPINES." 

Our  present  commerce  with  the  Philippines  is  carried  on  mainly  by 
the  Sue/  Canal  route  and  frequently  by  way  of  some  European  port. 
A  minor  but  increasing  share  of  the  trade  is  shipped  through  our  west- 
coast  ports  and  across  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  Hongkong.  A  glance  at 
pi.  86,  accompanying  Chapter  XVII,  will  show  that  the  line  connecting 
points  equally  distant  from  New  York  City  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal 
and  the  proposed  Nicaragua  route  runs  somewhat  to  tin1  west  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  indicating  that  they  are  slightly  nearer  New  York 
by  way  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  than  the  Suez  route.  The  difference 
in  distance  by  the  easterly  and  westerly  canal  lines  will,  however,  be 
slight,  and  the  Philippine  Islands,  as  well  as  Malaysia  generally,  will 
constitute  a  section  whose  commerce  with  North  Atlantic  countries 
will  be  divided  between  the  American  and  Suez  canals. 

THE   GEOGRAPHY    ami    IN1HSTU1KS   OF   THE    PHILIPPINES. 

The  information  concerning  the  geography  of  the  Philippines  is 
scanty  and  must  necessarily  be  very  incomplete  until  the  islands  can 

"Consult  PI.  83  in  connection  with  this  chapter. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  429 

be  surveyed.  The  location  of  the  Philippines  is  between  5°  and  20° 
north  latitude,  their  latitude  being  that  of  the  Guianas  and  Haiti. 
Their  climate  is  tropical  and  humid,  and,  being  situated  with  a  general 
north-and-south  trend  in  the  latitude  of  the  trade  winds  and  monsoons, 
both  the  eastern  and  western  slopes  of  the  islands  have  alternate  rainy 
and  dry  seasons. 

The  area  of  the  islands  is  estimated  to  be  about  115,000 square  miles 
and  the  population  to  be  8,000,000.  Over  one-half  of  the  people  live 
on  the  island  of  Luzon. 

The  resources  of  the  Philippines  are  agricultural,  forest,  and  min- 
eral. Concerning  the  agricultural  conditions  of  the  islands,  informa- 
tion is  fairly  satisfactory.  The  forest  resources  are  known  to  be  varied 
and  abundant,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  mineral  deposits  are  impor- 
tant. There  is,  however,  very  little  authentic  information  at  hand 
regarding  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country.  The  industrial  condi- 
tions of  the  Philippines  are  in  an  extremely  backward  and  undeveloped 
condition,  the  islands  being  at  the  time  of  the  American  occupation 
practically  without  highways.  Only  one  short  railroad  has  }^et  been 
built,  and  the  industries  are  still  in  an  unorganized  state. 

At  the  present  time  the  agricultural  product  of  most  commercial 
importance  is  hemp,  the  exports  of  which  in  1900  were  valued  at 
$11,399,000.  The  production  and  exportation  of  this  article  are 
steadily  increasing  with  the  growth  in  the  demand  for  it  in  the  United 
States  and  other  agricultural  countries.  More  than  half  of  the  hemp 
comes  to  the  United  States.  Some  of  it  is  used  for  cordage,  but  much 
more  is  used  as  binder  twine.  The  principal  competitor  of  Manila 
hemp  is  that  from  Yucatan,  sisal  hemp,  the  quality  of  which  is  much 
inferior.  The  plant  from  which  the  fiber  is  taken  is  grown  in  the 
shade  of  half -cleared  woods,  and  its  cultivation  requires  very  little 
intelligence  and  only  a  moderate  amount  of  diligence  and  thrift  on  the 
part  of  the  producer. 

Before  the  insurrection  the  most  valuable  export  from  the  Philip- 
pines was  sugar,  of  which  $10,368,000  worth  was  exported  in  1893. 
The  exports  in  1900  amounted  to  about  $3,022,000.  Sugar  can  be  pro- 
duced in  very  great  quantity  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  with  the 
establishment  of  civil  order  and  the  investment  of  foreign  capital  in 
the  exploitation  of  the  resources  of  the  islands  will  probably  regain 
first  rank  in  the  list  of  Philippine  industries. 

Like  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  the  Philippines  produce  tobacco 
abundantly,  the  soil  and  climate  of  the  northern  provinces  of  Luzon 
being  adapted  to  its  culture.  The  quality  is  said  to  be  fairly  good. 
The  home  consumption  of  tobacco  is  large,  and  considerable  quantities 
both  of  manufactured  and  leaf  tobacco  are  exported.  Most  of  the 
unmanufactured  article  is  sent  to  Spain.  The  other  important  article 
of  export  from  the  Philippines  at  the  present  time  is  copra,  the  dried 
meat  of  the  cocoanut.  The  cocoanut  palm  grows  in  many  parts  of  the 
island  and  might  be  made  to  contribute  much  more  largely  to  the  wealth 
of  the  islands  than  it  does  at  the  present  time. 

Next  to  the  cotton  manufactures  the  most  important  article  of 
importation  into  the  Philippine  Islands  is  rice.  This  important  arti- 
cle of  food  might  all  be  grown  in  the  islands,  and  a  surplus  might  be 
exported  if  the  industry  were  properly  organized.  The  indifferent 
agriculture  of  the  Philippines  was  largely  devoted  to  the  growing  of 


430  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

rice,  until  the  production  and  exportation  of  sugar  became  more  profit- 
able. Whether  it  is  possible  to  apply  capitalistic  organization  to  the 
production  of  rice  is  not  altogether  certain.  In  all  probability  the 
organizers  of  the  industry  would  be  obliged  to  use  coolies  for  a  part 
of  their  labor  force. 

One  of  the  first  natural  resources  of  the  islands  to  be  drawn  upon 
will  be  the  forests.  Nearly  all  of  the  forest  lands  belong  to  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  concessions  for  the  cutting  of  timber  are  now  being 
granted.  The  variety  of  hard  woods  is  large;  seventeen  valuable 
dyewoods  are  known  to  exist,  and  gutta-percha,  camphor,  and  other 
gum  trees  may  be  included  among  the  important  timbers. 

While  but  little  can  be  confidently  asserted  regarding  the  mineral 
resources  of  the  Philippines,  it  is  supposed  that  there  are  large 
deposits  of  gold,  copper,  and  iron.  The  mining  of  gold  is  now  being 
carried  on  to  a  slight  extent.  The  development  of  both  gold  and  cop- 
per resources,  however,  must  be  delayed  until  machinery  can  be  intro- 
duced and  the  enterprise  organized  in  an  efficient  manner.  The  working 
of  iron  mines  must  necessarily  be  deferred  until  there  is  a  good  supply 
of  cheap  fuel.  Lignite  has  been  found  upon  several  of  the  islands,  and 
the  quality  is  such  that  it  can  be  used  for  locomotives  and  on  steamers. 
Some  of  these  lignite  deposits  are  near  the  seashore  and  can  be  readily 
worked.  At  the  present  time,  however,  the  entire  coal  supply  is 
imported. 

In  considering  the  industrial  resources  of  the  Philippines  and  their 
probable  future  development,  one  of  the  most  important  considera- 
tions is  the  labor  supply.  Whether  the  present  inhabitants  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  can  be  successfully  organized  in  industrial  under- 
takings is  uncertain.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  education  and 
training  in  industry  may  make  of  them  a  valuable  and  reliable  labor 
supply.  It  is  possible  that  more  or  less  use  must  be  made  of  coolie 
labor.  The  near-by  continent  of  Asia  can  furnish  an  unlimited  supply 
of  efficient  labor,  but  whether  the  Asiatic  labor  supply  should  be  drawn 
upon  or  not  raises  a  social  as  well  as  an  industrial  question. 

THE   COMMERCE    OF   THE    PHILIPPINES. 

Having  acquired  political  control  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  their 
foreign  trade  becomes  of  additional  importance  to  the  United  States. 
In  order  to  present  the  information  regarding  the  Philippine  trade 
completely  and  definitely,  the  following  tables  have  been  prepared. 
The  imports  and  exports  of  the  islands  are  shown  by  countries  and  by 
articles  for  the  years  1893  and  1900.  The  imports  and  exports  for 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1900,  are  shown  in  a  separate  table.  The 
figures  for  1900  are  taken  from  the  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce 
of  Philippine  Islands,  United  States  War  Department,  Division  of 
Insular  Affairs.  The  figures  for  previous  years  are  from  Bulletin  No. 
14,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Section  of  Foreign 
Markets. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


431 


Table  X<>.  I. — Imports  of  Philippine  Islands  by  articles,  calendar  year  1898  and  fiscal 

year  1900. 


Articles. 


Cotton  manufactures 

Rice 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures 

Malt  liquors  and  cidCT 

Chemicals 

Glass  and  glassware 

Opium 


coal 

Paper,  and  manufactures. 

silk  manufacturo 

Flour 


Wines 

Distilled  liquors • 

Vegetables 

Wood,  and  manufactures 

Flax.  hemp,  and  jute  manufactures. 

Pork,  bacon,  lard 

Mineral  oils 

Boots  and  shoes 

Woolens. 


Earthenware  and  china 
Olive  oil 

All  other  articles  


Total.. 


Calendar      Fiscal  year 
year  1H93.  1900. 


85, 


806,000 
628, 000 
672,000 
105,000 


171,000 


376,000 

;>(>7,  ooo 

526, 000 
,060,000 
176,000 
189,000 


■194,000 
175,000 

,081,000 
120, 000 
215, 000 
212, 000 
114,000 

,338,000 


86, 019, 000  . 

3,113,000 
715,000 
638,000 
605, 000 
525, 000 
476,000 
468,000 
462, 000 
462,000 
399,000 
320,000 
303,000 
243,000 
225,000 
209,000 
195, 000 
161,000 
149,000 
139,000 
132,000 
47,000 

4,840,000 


15,891,000  ,     20.597,000 


Table  No.  II. — Import*  of  Philippine  Islands  by  leading  countries,  1893  and  1900. 


Countries. 


Calendar 
year  1893. 


China,  including  Hongkong  and  Indo-China $2, 754, 000 

United  Kingdom '  4, 247, 000 

Spain 5, 101, 000 

United  States  .  J 956, 000 

Germany 1, 246, 000 

France 477, 000 

Japan !  183,000 

All  other  countries 923, 000 

Total 15, 890, 000 


Fiscal  vear 
1900. 


88, 210, 000 
3,941,000 
2,093,000 
1,656,000 
1,210,000 
485,000 
259,000 
2, 743, 000 


20, 597, 000 


Table  No.  III. — Exports  of  Philippine  Islands  by  leading  articles,  calendar  year  1893 

and  fiscal  year  '900. 


Articles. 


Quantity. 


Hemp 

Sugar 

Copra  and  cocoanuts 
Cigars  and  cigarettes 
Leaf  tobacco 


Pounds. 
'92,262 
576, 557, 000 
26,223,000 


23,687,000 


Dollars. 


Quantity. 


7,697,000 

10,368,000 

414,000 

969,000 

-  463,000 


Pounds. 

»  75, 476 
173,630,000 
81, 799, 655 


14,010,356 


Dollars. 


11,399,000 
3,022,000 
1,693,000 
1,362,000 
818,000 


'Tons 


432  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Table  No.  IV.— Exports  of  Philippine  Islands  by  leading  countries. 


Countries. 


United  Kingdom 

China,  including  French  Indo-China  and  Hongkong 

United  Sta tes 

France 

Spain 

Japan 

Germany  

Other  countries 

Total 


Average  for 
1892-1896 
(calendar 

years) . 


844, 000 
31.000 
053, 000 
986,000 
855, 000 
616, 000 
201,000 
896, 000 


22, 482, 000 


Fiscal  vear 
1900. 


16,227,000 
4,415,000 
3,522,000 

1,392,000 
1,226,000 
1,032,000 
97, 000 
2, 110, 000 


19,751,000 


Table  No.  V. 


-Imports  and  exports  of  merchandise,  Philippine  Islands,  near  ended  .June 
30,  1900. 


Countries. 


United  States 

United  Kingdom.. 

Spain 

France 

Germany 

Japan 

China 

Hongkong  

British  East  Indies 
Other  countries  . . . 

Total 


Imports. 


11,656,469 

83, 522, 160 

3,941,422 

6,227,259 

2, 092, 530 

1,226,475 

485, 299 

1,392,439 

1,209,953 

1, 397, 548 

259, 161 

1,032,462 

5, 570, 683 

1,458,729 

2, 639, 620 

2, 686, 168 

2, 216, 914 

938, 470 

1,524,816 

1,169,558 

20, 597, 167 


Exports. 


One-half  of  the  imports  into  the  Philippine  Islands,  as  is  shown 
by  Table  No.  I,  consists  of  cotton  manufactures  and  rice.  Among' 
other  important  articles  are  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  liquors, 
and  chemicals.  By  comparing  the  trade  of  the  year  1893  with 
that  of  1900  several  important  changes  will  be  seen  to  have  taken 
place  in  the  Philippine  trade.  During  both  years  cotton  manufactures 
held  first  place,  but  the  importation  of  rice  is  shown  to  have  increased 
nearly  fivefold.  The  importation  of  mineral  oils  has  fallen  off  very 
greatly,  and  the  same  is  true  of  wines.  The  decreased  purchases  of 
wines,  however,  are  largely  offset  by  the  increased  importation  of 
distilled  and  malt  liquors.  On  the  whole,  the  trade  shows  a  rather 
large  growth  in  view  of  the  insurrection.  There  is  a  general  tendency 
toward  a  larger  purchase  of  manufactured  commodities,  and  the 
establishment  of  civil  order  throughout  the  islands  will  unquestionably 
result  in  a  much  larger  purchase  of  such  articles. 

An  examination  of  Table  No.  II  shows  that  important  changes  are 
taking  place  in  the  distribution  of  the  Philippine  purchases  among 
foreign  countries.  As  might  be  expected,  the  transfer  of  the  islands 
from  Spain  to  the  United  States  and  the  abolition  of  the  preferential 
tariffs  maintained  by  Spain  have  resulted  in  a  great  decrease  in  her 
trade  with  the  Philippines.  Our  exports  to  those  islands  are  shown 
to  be  increasing.  The  exports  from  the  United  Kingdom  to  the  Phil- 
ippines appear  to  be  declining,  while  those  from  China  and  Hongkong 
appear  to  be  increasing.  The  trade  of  Hongkong,  however,  is  only 
that  of  a  distributing  center,  and  the  increase  in  its  exports  to  the 
Philippines  means  only  that  the  United  Kingdom,  the  United  States, 


REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  433 

and  other  countries  are  sending  greater  quantities  of  commodities  to 
Hongkong  for  distribution  in  the  Philippines  and  elsewhere. 

In  the  exports  of  the  Philippine  Islands  the  hemp  now  has  first  place, 
although  in  1893  the  value  of  the  sugar  exports  was  50  per  cent  more 
than  that  of  hemp.  The  war  with  Spain  and  the  subsequent  insurrec- 
tion have  greatly  interfered  with  the  sugar  production.  The  exporta- 
tion of  hemp,  cocoanut  products,  and  tobacco  seems  to  have  been  less 
interfered  with.  The  consumption  of  hemp  is  increasing  so  fast  that 
the  exportation  of  this  commodity  from  the  Philippines  must  unques- 
tionably increase  rapidly  in  the  future.  It  is  probable  also  that 
improved  machinery  will  be  introduced  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
and  that  some  of  the  plantations,  at  least,  will  be  organized  in  accord- 
ance with  efficient  modern  methods.  At  the  present  time  the  sugar 
exports  consist  of  a  very  crude  unrefined  product,  most  of  which  is 
sold  in  Asiatic  countries.  Table  No.  IV,  giving  the  destination  of  the 
foreign  exports,  shows  that  Great  Britain  and  the  continent  of  Asia 
received  over  half  of  the  total  in  1900.  Here  again  the  trade  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  seems  to  have  fallen  off,  and  that  of  Hong- 
kong- and  China  to  have  greatly  increased.  This  is  obviously  due  to 
the  fact  that  Hongkong  is  credited  with  trade  that  is  merely  trans- 
shipped at  that  port.  The  exports  from  Spain  to  the  Philippines  have 
fallen  off,  as  might  have  been  expected.  Those  to  the  United  States 
are  also  less  than  they  were,  but  how  much  less  it  is  impossible  to  say, 
because  a  part  of  the  trade  is  handled  through  Hongkong.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  Philippine  insurrection  upon  the  total  exports  of  the  islands, 
and  upon  their  export  trade  to  the  United  States  is  clearlv  indicated 
by  Table  No.  IV. 

The  imports  into  the  Philippine  Islands  from  the  United  States  con- 
stitute but  a  small  portion  of  the  purchases  by  the  people  of  those 
islands.  The  total  value  of  our  exports  to  those  islands  is,  however, 
increasing,  the  goods  exported  directly  from  the  United  States  amount- 
ing to  $1,655,469  during  the  year  ended  June  30,  1900.  During  the 
five  years  1892-1896,  when  our  trade  relations  were  normal,  our  exports 
to  the  islands  averaged  only  $135,228  per  annum.  As  has  already  been 
stated,  a  very  large  part  of  the  imports  into  the  Philippines  are  reported 
as  coming  from  Hongkong,  which  is  merely  a  center  of  distribution. 
The  value  of  American  flour  included  in  the  imports  from  Hongkong- 
during  the  fiscal  year  1900  was  $318,193,  and,  in  addition  to  flour,  min- 
eral oils,  meat  products,  general  manufactures,  and  other  commodities 
are  known  to  have  been  imported  indirectly  by  way  of  Hongkong.  It 
may  be  well,  moreover,  to  state  that  the  total  of  $1,656,469  does  not 
include  the  goods  imported  by  the  commissary  or  quartermaster  for 
the  use  of  the  American  army. 

The  imports  directly  from  the  United  States  consisted  chiefly  of  the 
following  articles.  The  value  of  the  articles  is  also  included.  Malt 
liquors,  $477,000;  glass  and  glassware,  $232,000;  spirits,  distilled, 
$177,000;  books  and  printed  matter,  $175,000;  paper,  $54,000;  wines, 
$51,000;  cotton,  $34,000;  cheese,  $30,000. 

What  are  the  chances  for  increasing  our  export  trade  to  the  Philip- 
pine Islands?  Is  it  probable  that  the  Filipinos  will  increase  their 
total  imports,  and  if  they  do,  will  a  larger  share  of  the  total  be  sup- 
plied by  the  United  States?  This  will  depend  more  upon  the 
facilities  for  shipment  than  the  cost  of  production  in  this  country  as 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 28 


434  "REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

compared  with  cost  of  production  in  Europe.  At  the  present  time 
Great  Britain  and  Germany  control  the  larger  share  of  this  trade, 
but  it  would  seem  that  in  the  future  the  heavier  iron  and  steel  manu- 
factures, as  well  as  the  electrical  machinery,  tools,  bicycles,  sewing 
machines,  and  similar  articles,  will  be  purchased  in  considerable  and  in 
increasing  quantities  from  this  country.  Our  ability  to  sell  cotton 
goods  extensively  in  Manchuria  would  indicate  that  we  can  compete 
with  Europe  in  supplying  the  Filipinos  with  those  goods.  The  grow- 
ing demand  for  flour,  provisions,  and  dairy  products  will  be  supplied 
by  the  United  States  if  shipping  facilities  are  favorable.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  the  petroleum  used  by  the  Filipinos  is  supplied  mainly  by 
Russia,  but  the  opening  of  the  canal  and  the  establishment  of  better 
shipping  facilities  between  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  and 
the  Orient  will  enable  the  American  exporters  of  oil  to  control  at  least 
a  part  of  this  trade. 

The  opening  of  the  canal  will  not  greatly  reduce  the  distances  from 
our  Atlantic  seaboard  to  the  Philippine  Islands,  but  it  will  give  us 
another  route  to  the  East  and  one  that  will  probably  be  more  econom- 
ical. One  of  the  consequences  of  the  canal  will  be  a  larger  commercial 
intercourse  between  the  United  States  and  oriental  countries  generally, 
and  this  will  be  accompanied  by  better  facilities  for  trading  with  all 
oriental  countries,  the  Philippines  included.  At  the  present  time  the 
European  exporters  have  more  favorable  facilities  for  shipping  to  the 
Philippines  and  other  points  in  the  East  than  Americans  have. 

LOCATION   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES    WITH    REFERENCE   TO   TRADE    ROUTES    FROM    THE    UNITED 

STATES. 

Present  conditions  make  Hongkong  the  point  from  which  the  imports 
into  the  Philippine  Islands  are  distributed,  and  is  the  point  from  which 
a  large  part  of  the  exports  is  dispatched  to  North  Atlantic  countries. 
At  the  present  time  the  trade  of  the  Philippines  is  not  large  enough  to 
cause  many  vessels  outbound  from  Europe  for  Hongkong,  Shanghai, 
and  Japanese  ports  to  make  the  detour  required  in  order  to  call  at 
Manila.  Moreover,  the  wharves  will  not  now  accommodate  large 
ships,  and  nearly  all  the  traffic  has  to  be  handled  by  lighters.  The 
improvements  in  progress  in  the  harbor  will  remove  this  obstacle,  and 
it  is  probable  that  as  the  total  trade  of  Manila  increases  the  induce- 
ments for  making  the  city  a  port  of  call  will  become  sufficient  to  cause 
a  large  share  of  the  Manila  trade  to  be  handled  at  that  port  instead  of 
being  transshipped  at  Hongkong. 

The  location  of  Manila  and  the  Philippines  with  reference  to  trade 
routes  from  New  York  b}r  way  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  is  shown  by  the 
following  table.  In  Chapter  XVII  the  length  of  routes  from  Europe 
and  the  United  States  to  the  Philippines  is  discussed  more  in  detail. 

Miles. 

1.  New  York  to  Manila  via  Brito,  San  Francisco,  Great  Circle,  and  Yoko- 

hama   11,207 

2.  New  York  to  Manila  via  Brito,  Honolulu,  and  Guam _ 11,  274 

3.  New  York  to  Manila  via  Brito,  San  Francisco,  Yokohama,  Shanghai,  and 

Hongkong 11,994 

4.  New  York  to   Manila  via  Brito,   Honolulu,   Yokohama,  Shanghai,  and 

Hongkong 12,  368 

5".  New  York  to  Hongkong  via  Brito,  Honolulu,  Guam,  and  Manila 11,902 

6.  New  York  to  Hongkong  via  Brito,  San  Francisco,  Yokohama,  and  Shanghai .  11, 366 

7.  New  York  to  Shanghai  via  Brito,  San  Francisco,  and  Yokohama 10,505 

8.  New  York  to  Shanghai  via  Brito,  Honolulu,  Guam,  and  Manila 12, 509 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  435 

The  distance  from  New  York  to  Hongkong  and  Shanghai  (compare 
routes  5,  6,  7,  and  S)  are  respectively  536  and  2,002  miles  shorter  by 
way  of  the  northerly  route  and  Japan  than  b}^  the  southerly  route  and 
the  Philippines.  The  distance  from  New  York  to  Manila  is  shorter 
by  way  of  San  Francisco  and  Japan  (routes  1  and  2)  than  by  Honolulu 
and  Guam.  In  Honolulu,  moreover,  the  price  of  coal  is  higher  than 
in  San  Francisco.  Coal  is  also  dearer  in  Guam  than  in  Yokohama. 
San  Francisco  and  Yokohama  also  have  more  freight  to  offer  than 
Honolulu  and  Guam  have.  The  price  of  coal  will  alwaj^s  be  high  at 
Guam,  because  the  island  will  not  be  an  exporting  point.  Vessels 
engaged  in  the  commerce  between  America,  Asia,  and  the  Philippines 
will  tend  to  take  the  northern  route  to  get  Japanese  coal  and  freight. 

II.    THE  HAWIIAN  ISLANDS. 
SOIL  AND  CLIMATE  OP  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  have  a  fertile  soil  in  the  limited  areas  where 
cultivation  is  possible.  The  islands  being  situated  in  midocean  between 
19°  and  23°  north  latitude,  the  northeast  trade  winds  blow  over  them 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  the  eastern  side  of  the  islands 
is  copiousty  watered,  but  on  the  opposite  slopes  the  rainfall  is  much 
less  and  irrigation  is  necessary  to  agriculture.  The  leeward  side  of 
the  islands,  moreover,  is  calmer  and  warmer  than  the  windward  side. 
The  islands  are  volcanic,  hilly,  and  well  drained,  and  hence  not  malarial. 
In  most  parts  of  the  islands  the  climate  is  not  especially  enervating,  and 
Europeans,  as  well  as  Japanese  and  Chinese,  find  sustained  effort  to 
be  possible.  The  islands  are  of  small  area  and  very  mountainous,  and 
the  foreign  immigrant  has  a  large  range  of  choice  as  regards  climate. 

The  Hawaiian  group  consists  principally  of  seven  islands,  having  a 
total  area  of  6,449  square  miles.  The  largest  island  of  the  group  is 
Hawaii,  although  Oahu,  upon  which  the  city  of  Honolulu  is  located, 
is  the  most  populous  one.  Although  the  Hawaiian  Islands  have  nearly 
twice  the  area  of  Porto  Rico,  their  population  is  only  one-sixth 
as  great.  According  to  the  census  taken  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment in  1900  the  inhabitants  of  the  islands  number  154,000,  the  increase 
from  1896  having  been  44,981,  which  was  equivalent  to  over  41  per 
cent.  This  very  rapid  growth  in  population  was  due  to  the  sudden 
expansion  of  business  resulting  from  the  annexation  of  the  islands  to 
the  United  States. 

Until  the  statistics  of  the  census  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  taken  in 
1900  have  been  analyzed  and  published  it  will  not  be  possible  to  speak 
definitely  in  regard  to  the  various  elements  of  the  present  population. 
By  the  census  of  1896  the  population  numbered  109,020,  and  of  this 
total  31,019  were  natives,  8,485  half-castes,  21,616  Chinese,  24,407  Jap- 
anese, 15,191  Portuguese,  3,086  Americans,  2,250  British,  the  rest  of 
the  population  being  made  up  of  Germans,  Norwegians,  French,  and 
Polynesians.  The  immigrants  into  the  islands  from  the  United  States 
comprise  a  comparatively  small  share  of  the  total  population.  They 
have,  however,  the  industrial  and  political  control  of  the  islands.  The 
laboring  classes  consist  largely  of  Japanese  and  Chinese.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  there  were  27,000  Chinese  in  the  islands  in  1899,  and  6,000 
of  them  were  employed  on  the  sugar  plantations.  The  Japanese  were 
estimated  to  have  numbered  58,000  at  the  close  of  1899,  and  it  is  said 


436  KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

that  about  26,100  of  them  were  emplo}7ed  on  the  sugar  plantations. 
Nearly  five-sevenths  of  the  plantation  laborers  consisted  of  Japanese 
in  the  year  1899. 

THE   RESOURCES   OF  THE   HAWAIIAN   ISLANDS. 

The  resources  of  Hawaii  are  almost  exclusively  agricultural.  There 
are  no  minerals  of  consequence  and  manufactures  are  and  will  always 
be  insignificant. 

The  sugar  industry  is  of  overshadowing  importance.  The  decomposed 
lava  soils  of  the  islands,  when  properly  irrigated  and  treated  with  a 
small  quantity  of  fertilizers,  are  exceedingly  productive,  the  yield  of 
sugar  per  acre  being  especially  high,  ranging  from  3  to  5  tons  per 
acre  on  the  average.  The  total  crop  of  1891  is  reported  to  have 
amounted  to  146,000  tons,  while  that  of  1899  was  about  300,000  tons, 
and  numerous  additions  have  been  made  to  the  acreage  of  the  planta- 
tions since  that  date.  The  capital  invested  in  sugar  is  said  to  amount 
to  $40,000,000.  There  are  about  60  plantations  on  the  islands.  The 
plantations  are  organized  on  a  large  scale  and  in  accordance  with  most 
economical  methods.  The  rainfall  on  the  leeward  side  of  the  island 
being  light,  irrigation  is  necessary,  and  extensive  irrigation  works  have 
been  constructed. 

While  the  large  development  of  the  sugar  industry  in  Hawaii  has 
added  to  the  wealth  of  the  islands,  it  has  not  been  altogether  fortunate 
for  their  economic  progress.  The  climate  and  soil  of  the  islands  are 
such  that  the  industries  might  be  diversified,  and  it  is  probable  that  a 
population  consisting  to  a  large  extent  of  small  independent  farmers 
might  be  developed  if  the  sugar  plantations  did  not  include  Such  a 
large  share  of  the  islands.  In  the  early  eighties  the  best  sugar  lands 
were  leased  for  thirty  and  forty  year  periods  to  a  small  number  of 
planters,  and  the  American  capital  invested  in  Hawaii  has  gone  almost 
entirely  into  the  sugar  industry.  The  population  connected  with  the 
sugar  plantations  consists  of  Japanese,  Chinese,  and  Portuguese  labor- 
ers, who  probably  will  always  constitute  a  dependent  population. 

Rice  is  the  second  crop  in  value,  and  in  former  }Tears  it  has  boon  an 
important  article  of  export.  The  rapid  growth  in  the  population, 
particularly  in  the  number  of  Japanese,  has  so  increased  the  home 
demand  as  nearly  to  put  an  end  to  the  exportation  of  rice.  The  indus- 
try is  carried  on  by  the  Chinese  according  to  very  primitive  methods. 

Large  quantities  of  tropical  fruits,  oranges,  pineapples,  bananas, 
etc.,  could  be  successfully  grown  in  Hawaii.  The  exportation  of 
bananas  has  begun,  over  $80,000  worth  of  them  having  been  sent  to 
California  in  1899. 

At  one  time  it  seemed  probable  that  the  production  of  coffee  would 
constitute  the  most  important  industry  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  but 
the  reciprocity  treaty  between  Hawaii  and  the  United  States  made  the 
cultivation  of  sugar  so  profitable  that  capital  has  gone  more  and  more 
into  sugar  plantations.  Some  of  the  coffee  estates  have  been  con- 
verted into  sugar  plantations,  and  at  the  present  time  it  is  estimated 
that  there  are  less  than  20,000  acres  of  coffee  under  cultivation.  The 
annual  production  is  larger  than  the  home  demand  and  a  limited 
quantity  is  exported.  The  exports  in  1897  amounted  to  337  pounds, 
and  those  of  1899  were  779,796  pounds. a    It  seems  probable  that  the 

a  Later  figures  are  not  available  because  our  commerce  with  Hawaii  is  now  coasting 
trade,  concerning  which  statistics  are  not  kept. 


KEPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  437 

annual  production  will  grow  less  rather  than  increase,  unless  the  coffee 
and  sugar  industries  .should  be  developed  together  on  the  same  planta- 
tions. Those  who  have  studied  the  question  have  suggested  that  the 
two  crops  might  advantageously  be  produced  on  the  same  plantation, 
because  coffee  grows  at  a  greater  elevation  than  the  sugar  does,  and 
the  season  when  coffee  requires  the  largest  labor  force  comes  at  a  time 
when  the  sugar  plantation  has  a  surplus  of  workmen.  An}Tthing  that 
can  bring  about  the  diversification  of  industries  in  Hawaii  will  be  of 
advantage  to  the  islands. 

Whether  the  industries  of  Hawaii  can  be  diversified  and  the  social 
conditions  accompanying  large  plantation  life  can  be  changed  is  a 
matter  of  great  importance  to  the  economic  future  of  Hawaii.  There 
seems  to  be  a  tendency  in  all  tropical  countries  toward  the  organiza- 
tion of  industries  upon  a  large  scale.  The  corporation  with  abundant 
capital  at  its  command  seems  in  a  measure  to  be  taking  the  place  form- 
erly occupied  by  the  slave  owner.  In  the  time  of  slavery  the  planters 
organized  and  directed  the  labor  force  of  the  natives,  and  under  the 
present  capitalistic  regime  the  corporations,  in  a  different  manner, 
are  performing  a  similar  task.  Whether  or  not  the  capitalistic  organi- 
zation of  labor  will  result  in  a  social  betterment  of  the  laboring  classes 
and  in  the  development  of  intelligent,  self-supporting  artisans  remains 
to  be  seen.  If  it  is  possible  to  develop  desirable  social  conditions  any- 
where in  the  Tropics,  Hawaii  would  seem  to  offer  more  opportunities 
than  most  of  the  island  countries.  The  United  States  Government 
has  established  an  agricultural  experiment  station  in  Hawaii  that  will 
doubtless  be  of  assistance  in  varying  the  productions  of  the  islands. 
General  education  will  in  time  assist  in  the  same  work. 

THE   CAXAL    AND   THE   TRADE   OF   HAWAII. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  have  a  large  and  rapidly  increasing  foreign 
trade.  The  annexation  of  the  islands  to  the  United  States  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  great  expansion  in  business.  The  imports  of  1897  were 
valued  at  $8,838,000,  while  those  of  1899  amounted  to  $19,058,000. 
The  exports  of  the  islands  increased  from  $16,029,000  in  1897  to 
$22,628,000  in  1899.  The  trade  of  the  first  half  of  1900  was  fully  up 
to  that  of  1899.  It  is  impossible  to  speak  of  the  trade  of  the  islands 
since  that  time,  because  the  trade  is  nearly  all  with  the  United  States, 
and  our  commercial  statistics,  as  was  stated  above,  do  not  include 
domestic  trade. 

The  share  of  the  Hawaiian  trade  controlled  by  the  United  States  is 
especially  large.  In  1898,  99.62  per  cent  of  the  exports  of  the  islands 
came  to  the  United  States,  and  we  furnished  them  76.91  per  cent  of 
their  imports.  In  1899  the  United  States  purchased  99.52  per  cent  of 
the  Hawaiian  exports,  and  supplied  the  islands  78.81  per  cent  of  their 
imports.  Our  most  important  rival  in  the  import  trade  of  Hawaii  is 
Great  Britain,  which  supplies  the  islands  with  between  9  and  10  per 
cent  of  their  purchases.  Our  exports  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands  in  1899 
consisted  mainly  of  the  following  articles  and  values: 

Machinery $2,  089, 000 

Eailroad  materials 282,  000 

Iron  and  steel 289, 000 

Hardware,  agricultural  machinery,  and  tools 940, 000 

Building  materials 547, 000 

Fertilizers 957, 000 

Provisions •_  1,  284,  000 


438  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Practically  all  of  the  iron  and  steel  products  imported  by  Hawaii 
come  from  the  Eastern  States.  The  owner  of  one  of  the  largest 
Hawaiian  sugar  plantations  states  that  its  water  supply  is  handled 
through  pumps  and  pipes  purchased  in  Birmingham,  Ala. ,  and  that  its 
sugar  machinery  was  manufactured  in  St.  Louis.  A  single  firm  near 
New  York  already  sends  $500,000  worth  of  machinery  annually  to 
Hawaii.  Of  the  fertilizers,  a  part  comes  from  Germany,  but  the  larger 
share  is  from  the  phosphate  beds  of  our  Southern  States,  and  the  canal 
will  aid  Hawaiian  agriculture  by  cheapening  the  cost  of  these  com- 
modities as  well  as  by  furnishing  a  shorter  route  bj^  which  to  market 
the  exported  produce.  At  present  our  Atlantic  States  import  40,000 
to  80,000  tons  of  Hawaiian  sugar  per  year  by  way  of  Magellan  and 
Cape  Horn.  This  will  be  cheapened  by  the  shorter  route,  and  as  the 
price  of  sugar  on  the  Pacific  coast  is  determined  by  its  price  in  New 
York  and  London,  the  canal  will  enable  the  sugar  grower  to  obtain  a 
higher  price  for  the  bulk  of  the  crop  marketed  in  our  Pacific  States. 

In  their  trade  relations  the  Hawaiian  Islands  may  be  considered  as 
a  part  of  our  Pacific  coast.  They  belong  to  the  United  States,  the 
dominant  race  is  American,  English  is  the  common  language,  our  cap 
ital  controls  the  industry  of  the  islands,  and  their  commerce  is  almost 
all  with  this  country.  An  isthmian  canal  must  have  a  great  effect  on 
Hawaii.  The  one-sidedness  of  her  resources  makes  Hawaii  especially 
dependent  upon  commerce.  Sugar  is  the  only  product  extensively 
exported;  agriculture  the  only  industry,  and  that  is  in  an  undiversified 
state.  All  manufactures  and  many  of  the  food  products  needed  by 
her  increasing  population  must  be  imported.  The  complex  demands 
of  the  islands  can  be  supplied  only  in  part  by  the  industries  of  our 
Pacific  coast  States,  and  everything  not  originating  there  must  be 
brought  from  our  Eastern  States  or  Europe.  Some  of  the  Hawaiian 
imports  from  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  now  move  by  the 
transcontinental  railroads  and  thence  by  water,  but  the  heavier  articles 
usually  go  by  Cape  Horn  or  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  Some  goods  are 
sent  by  the  Panama  lines  and  transshipped  at  San  Francisco.  After 
the  canal  has  been  constructed,  the  traffic,  both  import  and  export, 
will  be  divided  between  the  transcontinental  railroads  and  the  all- 
water  canal  route. 

Chapter  XVI. — The  canal  and  Central  America  and  western  M,  arit  o. 

I.    CENTRAL    AMERICA. 
POPULATION   AND   GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY. 

The  population  of  Central  American  countries  has  not  been  accu- 
rately determined  by  careful  censuses,  but  the  following  table,  com- 
piled from  the  Statesmen's  Yearbook,  doubtless  gives  approximately 
accurate  figures  regarding  both  the  area  and  population  of  each  of  the 
Central  American  countries: 


REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  439 

Area  and  population  of  Central  American  countries. 


Costa  Rica. 
Guatemala 
Honduras  . 

Nicaragua . 
Salvador... 

Total 


Sq.  miles. 

23, 000 
63, 400 
46, 250 
49, 200 
7,225 


189, 075 


Population. 


300, 000 

1,532,000 

407, 000 

420, 000 

» 915, 000 


3, 574, 000 


Capital  city. 


San  Jose 

Guatemala  City, 
Tegucigalpa  ... 
Managua 

San  Salvador... 


Popula- 
tion of 
Capital 
city. 


25, 006 

75,000 
12, 000 
20, 000 
50, 006 


"Bulletin  Bureau  of  American  Republics,  March,  1901. 

The  population  of  the  Central  American  countries a  is  nearly  all 
upon  the  plateaus  adjacent  to  the  Pacific.  The  climate  of  the  Carib- 
bean coastal  regions  of  Central  America  is  humid,  and  the  tropical 
vegetation  grows  so  rank  as  to  add  much  to  the  difficulty  of  occupy- 
ing and  cultivating  the  country. 

The  plateau  on  which  the  Central  American  population  and  industries 
are  centered  extends  with  varying  width  and  elevation  from  Mexico 
to  southern  Costa  Rica.  West  of  the  continental  divide  and  parallel 
to  it  is  a  succession  of  volcanoes  extending  through  all  the  region  to 
the  north  of  Costa  Rica.  In  Guatemala  they  raise  a  barrier  that  walls 
in  a  series  of  upland  lakes,  in  Salvador  they  inclose  a  high  valley  where 
most  of  the  people  of  the  country  reside,  and  in  Honduras  and  Nica- 
ragua they  are  near  the  Pacific  between  the  lakes  and  the  ocean. 
This  double  mountain  range  widens  the  plateau  and  increases  the  habit- 
able area.  The  plateau  from  Costa  Rica  northward  is  made  up  in  large 
part  of  decomposed  lava,  which  has  formed  a  fertile  soil.  Like  the 
lava  soils  of  Hawaii,  those  of  Central  America  are  well  adapted  to 
sugar,  coffee,  and  other  crops  of  tropic  agriculture. 

The  Central  American  plateau  is  most  closely  connected  commer- 
cially with  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Caribbean  outlets  are  the  Costa 
Rica  Railroad,  from  San  Jose  to  Port  Limon,  and  the  San  Juan  River. 
To  the  Pacific,  however,  four  railroads  have  been  constructed,  not 
including  the  short  line  terminating  at  Punta  Arenas,  Costa  Rica.  Two 
of  these  four  railroads  are  in  Guatemala,  one  in  Salvador,  and  one  in 
Nicaragua.  Numerous  wagon  roads  have  been  constructed,  and  an 
English  company  is  constructing  a  railroad  in  Costa  Rica  between  San 
San  Jose  and  Tivives. 

THE   CENTRAL    AMERICAN    INDUSTRIES. 

The  industries  a  of  Central  America  are  mainly  agricultural.  Forest 
products  are  exported  to  some  extent.  The  mineral  resources  of  the 
country  are  beginning  to  be  developed,  but  as  yet  on  a  comparatively 
small  scale. 

Throughout  Central  America  coffee  is  the  staple  product,  the  lead- 
ing State  in  its  production  being  Guatemala.  In  that  State  the  coffee 
belt  is  in  the  plateau,  the  western  edge  of  the  belt  being  some  10  or 
15  miles  from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  50  to  80  miles  wide.  This  is 
the  part  of  the  country  where  most  of  the  population  is  to  be  found. 


a  See  PI.  84. 


440  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  coffee  in  this  region  is  caref  ulty  cultivated  and  extensively  exported, 
two  railroads  to  the  Pacific  having  already  been  built,  and  a  third  line 
near  the  Mexican  boundary  will  probably  be  constructed  in  the  near 
future.  The  western  plateau  of  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and 
Costa  Rica  has  numerous  valleys  where  coffee  culture  is  extensively 
carried  on.  The  main  coffee  belt  of  Nicaragua  is  situated  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Jinotepe,  northwest  of  Lake  Nicaragua.  In  Costa  Rica 
the  valley  in  which  the  city  of  San  Jose  is  located  constitutes  the 
most  important  coffee-growing  region. 

The  lowlands  of  the  eastern  coast,  particularly  of  Nicaragua  and 
Costa  Rica,  are  well  adapted  to  banana  culture,  and  the  United  Fruit 
Company  has  extensive  banana  plantations  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Port  Limon,  Costa  Rica,  and  Bluefields,  Nicaragua.  The  San  Juan 
River  Valley  is  another  region  in  which  banana  culture  could  be  exten- 
sively carried  on,  and  should  the  Nicaragua  Canal  be  constructed  a 
large  amount  of  fruit  will  doubtless  be  grown  in  this  valley. 

In  the  western  part  of  Central  America,  where  the  soil  is  largely  of 
volcanic  origin,  sugar  can  be  very  successfully  grown.  Several  sugar 
plantations  are  now  in  successful  operation,  but  their  output  is  prac- 
tically all  consumed  within  the  country.  In  the  future  development 
of  Central  America  the  production  of  sugar  will  in  all  probability 
have  a  prominent  place. 

There  is  at  the  present  time  a  limited  amount  of  cocoa  produced  in 
various  sections,  and  this  is  a  product  which  could  readily  be  increased. 
It  is  also  probable  that  rubber  trees  can  be  and  will  be  profitably  cul- 
tivated in  the  future.  At  the  present  time  the  world's  rubber  supply 
is  mainly  secured  from  the  natural  forest  trees,  but  the  growing 
demand  for  rubber  and  the  increasing  difficulty  of  securing  adequate 
.supplies  from  the  present  uncertain  sources  make  it  probable  that 
rubber  will  in  the  future  be  a  cultivated  product.  When  that  time 
comes  the  lowlands  will  offer  a  favorable  region. 

Throughout  the  uplands  of  Central  America  cattle  are  raised  in 
large  numbers,  and  one  of  the  important  exports  at  the  present  time 
is  hides.  Indeed,  coffee,  bananas,  and  hides  are  the  leading  articles  of 
export.  At  the  present  time,  with  the  exception  of  bananas  and  tim- 
ber, the  leading  exported  commodities  leave  the  country  mainl}T  by 
the  Pacific  ports. 

The  lumbering  industries  are  mainly  located  on  the  eastern  shore, 
and  the  opening  of  a  canal  across  the  country  will  but  indirectly  assist 
them.  The  same  is  true  of  the  exportation  of  dyewoods  and  other 
forest  products. 

The  mining  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper  has  made  some  headway  in 
Central  America,  and  with  the  establishment  of  stronger  governments 
and  the  development  of  additional  facilities  for  transportation  these 
mineral  industries  will  doubtless  develop.  When  it  is  possible  to 
reach  the  mines  in  the  western  part  of  Costa  Rica,  Nicaragua,  Salvador, 
and  Guatemala  by  improved  means  of  transportation,  and  when  it  is 
possible  to  secure  supplies  and  dispose  of  the  product  with  moderate 
tnmsporstation  costs,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  Central  Amer- 
ican countries  will  regain  some  of  the  prominence  which  they  once 
held  as  a  source  of  precious  metals.  Possibly  the  most  valuable 
mineral  resource  of  the  region  will  prove  to  be  copper,  the  world's 
demand  for  which  seems  to  increase  more  rapidly  than  does  the  sup- 
ply of  the  metal. 


KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  441 

As  to  the  productive  capabilities  of  Central  America,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  when  foreign  capital  can  be  invested  freely  and  safely  in 
industrial  enterprises  the  progress  of  that  region  will  be  steady  and 
eventually  reach  large  proportions.  The  construction  of  the  canal 
will  increase  the  shipping  facilities  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  country 
and  will  bring  the  western  half  of  the  region  into  close  commercial- 
relations  with  its  chief  markets,  the  countries  of  the  North  Atlantic. 

THE  CANAL  AND  THE  FOREIGN  TRADE  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

The  opening  of  a  canal  across  the  American  Isthmus,  either  at 
Panama  or  at  Nicaragua,  would  enlarge  the  foreign  commerce  of  Cen- 
tral America  and  increase  the  share  of  the  trade  controlled  by  the 
United  States.  A  waterway  across  Nicaragua  would,  however,  have 
a  greater  effect  upon  the  industries  and  commerce  of  Central  America 
than  would  one  at  Panama,  because  of  the  great  assistance  the  Nica- 
ragua Canal  would  give  to  economic  and  political  progress  in  the 
States  adjacent.  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  would  contribute  tropical 
products  to  the  traffic  of  a  canal  passing  through  their  territory  and 
to  the  commerce  of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  Fruits  and  forest 
products  would  be  shipped  from  the  San  Juan  Valley  and  the  northern 
part  of  Costa  Rica.  In  the  uplands  of  Costa  Rica  and  on  the  plateau 
of  Nicaragua  the  exportation  of  cattle,  coffee,  fruits  and  vegetables, 
sugar,  and  probably  tobacco  would  be  stimulated  by  the  canal  and  the 
facilities  for  shipping  at  all  times  to  all  important  commercial  coun- 
tries. Nicaragua  would  be  especially  favored  by  the  canal  because  of 
the  facilities  which  Lake  Nicaragua  would  afford  for  collecting  and 
distributing  commodities.  The  interoceanic  waterway  would  bring 
the  interior  basin  of  the  country,  where  most  of  the  industrial  activity 
is  centered,  into  close  connection  with  the  world's  commerce. 

The  commerce  of  the  eastern  ports  of  Central  America  is  largely 
controlled  by  the  United  States  while  most  of  that  of  the  western 
slope  is  with  Europe.  We  supply  55  to  60  per  cent  of  the  imports  of 
British  Honduras  or  Belize  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  To  Guatemala  as  a 
whole  we  furnish  only  39  per  cent,  including  our  direct  shipments  to 
the  east  coast,  and  the  flour,  lumber,  and  provisions  from  San  Fran- 
cisco to  the  west  coast.  Great  Britain  supplies  most  of  the  $558,000 
worth  of  cottons  purchased  by  Guatemala,  and  nearly  all  of  the  manu- 
factures imported  by  that  country  come  from  Europe  by  the  Straits 
of  Magellan.  The  same  conditions  prevail  in  western  Honduras,  al- 
though we  have  most  of  the  trade  of  the  eastern  ports  where  there  are 
good  steamer  connections  with  New  Orleans.  Salvador  has  a  foreign 
trade  of  $20  per  capita,  divided  between  San  Francisco  and  Europe. 
The  last  importation  of  steel  rails  came  from  England.  In  1895  the 
United  States  supplied  Nicaragua  with  but  23  per  cent  of  the  imports 
of  the  Pacific  side,  and  the  goods  sold  by  us  consisted  largely  of  Cali- 
fornia lumber,  wines,  and  flour.  In  1897  we  furnished  the  following 
percentage  of  the  imports  of  eastern  ports  of  Nicaragua:  Cape  Gracias 
a  Dios,  85  per  cent;  Bluefields,  83.6  per  cent;  Greytown,  53  per  cent. 
Fifty-eight  per  cent  of  the  goods  forwarded  from  Greytown  to  the 
interior  were  from  the  United  States.  We  are  now  furnishing  45  to 
50  per  cent  of  the  imports  of  Costa  Rica,  and  the  share  has  increased 
considerably  since  the  railroad  to  Port  Limon  changed  the  commercial 
outlet  from  Punta  Arenas  on  the  Pacific  to  Port  Limon  on  the  Atlantic. 


442  REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  total  imports  of  Central  America  and  the  shares  of  the  United 
States,  the  United  Kingdom,  and  Germany  are  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing- table  taken  from  the  publications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Statistics : 

Imports  of  Central  America. 


Froni- 


Total 

United  States 

United  Kingdom 
Germany 


$15, 800, 285 
2, 935, 447 
4,941,4fU 

a  1,739, 304 


$23, 999, 561 
7, 739, 907 
5, 266, 4,4 
1,781,666 


The  Central  American  trade  has  not  reached  large  proportions,  but 
it  is  growing.  Our  share  has  more  than  doubled  in  a  decade  while 
that  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  Germany  has  remained  nearly  sta- 
tionary. Under  present  conditions,  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United 
States  trades  with  the  Pacific  coast  of  Central  America  and  our  Atlan- 
tic coast  ports  with  the  Caribbean  section.  The  canal  will  enable 
each  of  our  coasts  to  find  a  market  on  the  opposite  seaboard  of  Cen- 
tral America.  This  and  the  industrial  development  of  the  American 
Isthmus  resulting  from  the  canal  will  largely  promote  the  commerce 
of  the  United  States  with  Central  America. 

II.    WESTERN    MEXICO. a 

The  area  of  that  part  of  Mexico  draining  di recti}''  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean  comprises  over  300,000  square  miles,  and  is  equal  in  size  to 
California,  Oregon,  and  Washington.  The  northern  half  of  this  Pacific 
slope  of  Mexico  resembles  the  southern  part  of  California  and  Arizona 
in  climate  and  general  physical  conditions.  The  southern  half  of  the 
region  is  tropical  in  character,  the  section  beyond  Tehuantepec  being 
physiographically  a  continuation  of  Guatemala. 

According  to  the  census  of  1895  the  section  under  consideration 
contained  approximately  4,000,000  people,  and  until  the  construction 
of  the  railways  about  the  City  of  Mexico  and  on  the  Mexican  Plateau 
stimulated  the  growth  of  population  in  that  part  of  the  Republic  the 
rate  of  increase  was  greater  on  the  Pacific  slope  than  in  the  country  as 
a  whole. 

The  Pacific  slope  of  Mexico  is  more  geographically  isolated  than  are 
the  west  coast  States  of  our  own  country.  Seven  transcontinental 
railway  lines  connect  our  Western  States  with  the  Mississippi  Valley 
and  the  eastern  section  of  our  country,  but  as  yet  there  is  only  one 
railway,  a  spur  of  the  Southern  Pacific,  joining  the  western  part  of 
Mexico  with  the  region  east  of  the  Cordilleras.  While  the  railway 
system  of  Mexico  has  been  rapidly  extended,  the  construction  of  lines 
connecting  the  plateau  with  the  Pacific  coast  has  made  slow  progress, 
because  the  western  slope  of  the  great  Mexican  Plateau  is  so  steep  as 
to  make  railroad  building  extremely  difficult.  The  result  of  this  lack 
of  railway  lines  connecting  western  Mexico  with  the  United  States  and 
with  Mexico  east  of  the  mountains  has  been  that  the  region  is  in  the 
main  commercially  tributary  to  Europe. 

"See  PI.  85. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  443 

AGRICULTURAL   RESOURCES   OP  WESTERN   MEXICO. 

The  western  slope  of  Mexico,  being  situated  in  temperate  and 
tropical  latitudes  and  having  a  variation  of  several  thousand  feet  in 
altitude,  is  capable  of  producing  a  great  variety  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts. The  Tropic  of  Cancer  divides  the  region  under  discussion  into 
two  nearly  equal  sections,  the  most  important  port  of  the  region  in  the 
temperate  latitude  being  Mazatlan,  situated  just  north  of  the  tropic. 
In  the  irrigated  portion  of  the  temperate  section  wheat  can  be  grown 
to  advantage  and  also  subtropical  fruits.  In  the  tropical  latitudes 
sugar,  coffee,  and  other  tropical  products  are  grown. 

North  of  the  twentieth  parallel  irrigation  is  everywhere  necessary 
for  agriculture,  but  south  of  that  line  the  natural  rainfall  is  usually 
sufficient.  In  this  temperate  region  the  amount  of  cultivable  land  is 
limited  to  the  portions  for  which  water  can  be  secured,  but  those  sec- 
tions, as  is  usual  in  irrigated  regions,  are  highly  productive,  Several 
valleys  of  western  Mexico  have  already  been  irrigated,  and  a  reference 
to  two  of  them  will  illustrate  the  results  that  are  being  accomplished. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Yaqui  River,  which  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia a  few  miles  south  of  Guaymas,  an  American  corporation  has 
constructed  an  irrigation  ditch  40  miles  in  length,  by  which  400,000 
acres  of  land  can  be  watered.  In  this  irrigated  valley  corn,  cotton, 
tobacco,  wheat,  and  subtropical  fruits  can  be  and  are  raised.  The 
wheat  produced  is  usually  sold  in  Mexico,  although  in  1892  some  of 
it  was  exported  by  way  of  New  Orleans  to  Europe.  Oranges  are 
exported  from  the  Yaqui  Valley  and  other  sections  of  the  State  of 
Sonora  to  the  United  States. 

Somewhat  farther  south,  in  the  State  of  Sinaloa,  a  short  railway  has 
been  built  from  the  port  of  Altata  to  Culiacan,  and  along  the  line  of 
this  railroad  irrigation  works  have  been  constructed,  and  a  sugar  estate 
established  upon  which  900  people  are  employed.  A  few  years  ago 
this  region  wTas  an  uninhabited  waste.  The  valley  in  which  this  sugar 
estate  is  located  is  said  to  be  capable  of  producing  40,000  to  50,000 
tons  of  sugar  annually. 

A  reference  to  Lower  California  will  afford  another  illustration  of 
the  agricultural  resources  of  the  temperate  latitude  of  western  Mexico. 
This  peninsula  has  an  extremely  arid  climate  and  is  everywhere  infer- 
tile except  in  the  limited  sections  where  irrigation  is  possible.  The 
food  supply  for  the  inhabitants  has  to  be  imported  to  a  large  extent, 
although  some  sugar  is  exported  to  the  mainland  from  the  irrigated 
district  in  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula.  The  most  important 
vegetable  product  of  Lower  California  is  the  agave,  a  plant  that  grows 
in  many  parts  of  Mexico.  There  are  several  species  of  the  plant,  one 
producing  the  soft  pita  fiber  and  another  the  hemp  of  commerce. 
Henequin,  or  sisal,  the  species  of  agave  that  grows  in  Yucatan,  and 
from  which  the  so-called  hemp  is  obtained,  also  grows  in  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, although  it  has  not  yet  been  cultivated  for  exportation.  It 
seems,  however,  that  the  production  of  hemp  in  Yucatan  is  nearing  its 
possible  maximum,  and  that  the  hemp  of  Lower  California  will  soon 
become  comniercialty '  important.  An  American  corporation  is  now 
arranging  to  develop  the  enterprise.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  larg- 
est market  for  sisal  is  in  that  part  of  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  that  the  article  is  a  bulky  one,  whose  costs  for 
transportation  are  comparatively  large,  it  would  seem  that  the  open- 
ing of  the  isthmian  canal  would  have  a  very  favorable  effect  upon  the 
development  of  the  hemp  industry  of  Lower  California. 


444  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

In  the  tropical  part  of  western  Mexico  the  most  important  agricul- 
tural product  is  coffee.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Mazatlan  and  Man- 
zanillo  there  are  some  estates  from  which  coffee  is  now  exported.  The 
industry  seems,  however,  to  be  in  a  backward  state  of  development. 

The  resources  of  tropical  Mexico  from  Manzanillo  east  are  now  of 
but  small  importance  to  international  trade.  The  economic  and  social 
conditions  of  Chiapas,  the  State  next  to  Guatemala,  will  illustrate  this 
fact.  This  State  of  Chiapas  is  the  continuation  of  the  coffee  belt  that 
crosses  Guatemala,  but  of  the  20,000,000  acres  of  land  comprised 
within  the  State  only  6,000,000  acres  have  as  jret  become  private  prop 
erty,  and  it  is  said  that  only  70,000  acres  are  under  cultivation.  The 
population  of  the  State,  including  foreigners,  comprises  only  320,000 
people.  A  beginning  has  been  made  in  the  cultivation  of  rubber  trees, 
but  there  is  neither  railroad,  bank,  nor  electric  light  in  the  State,  nor 
are  there  any  modern  agricultural  implements  used.  The  construction 
of  an  isthmian  canal  would  bring  this  part  of  Mexico  into  close  com- 
mercial connection  with  the  countries  of  the  North  Atlantic. 

MINERAL   RESOURCES. 

The  Republic  of  Mexico  is  a  very  mountaiuous  country,  possessing 
extensive  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  other  metals.  Up 
to  the  present  time  foreign  capital  has  gone  more  largely  into  mining 
than  into  any  other  enterprises.  As  the  transportation  s}rstem  of  the 
country  is  developed  and  the  population  becomes  denser  a  larger 
diversification  of  industries  may  be  expected,  but  for  some  time  to 
come  the  mineral  industries  will  be  of  chief  consequence.  They  will 
always  rank  high. 

The  western  Cordilleras  of  Mexico  contain  the  richest  mineral  depos- 
its of  the  country,  and  it  is  the  northern  half  of  these  western  Cordil- 
leras that  possesses  the  greatest  mineral  wealth.  Thus  far  the  mining- 
operations  of  this  section  have  been  confined  mainly  to  the  eastern 
slope.  Some  mining  operations  are  being  carried  on  near  the  Pacific 
coast,  but  the  larger  part  of  the  mountainous  region  has  }Tet  to  be 
developed  b}r  mining  operations. 

The  location  of  these  western  Cordilleras  is  such  that  they  are  natu- 
rally tributary  to  the  Pacific  rather  than  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Some 
of  the  mountains  are  within  50  miles  of  the  Pacific,  and  practically 
all  of  these  western  ranges  are  within  300  miles  of  that  ocean.  They 
average  from  two  to  three  times  the  latter  distance  from  the  Gulf. 
At  the  present  time  four  railroads  are  being  constructed  from  the 
plateau  westward  across  these  ranges  to  the  Pacific,  but  it  will  prob- 
ably be  several  years  before  any  of  them  can  be  completed.  One  of 
the  great  drawbacks  to  the  mineral  development  of  western  Mexico  at 
the  present  time  is  the  high  cost  of  fuel  on  the  Pacific.  Coke  is  now 
brought  from  Europe  by  way  of  Cape  Horn  to  western  Mexico.  It  is 
possible  that  by  the  time  the  canal  has  been  opened  good  coal  will  be 
found  in  sufficient  quantity  in  the  mountains  of  western  Mexico. 
Should  this  not  happen,  it  will  be  possible  to  export  coal  from  our 
Southern  cities  by  way  of  the  canal  to  western  Mexico  for  sale  at 
about  half  the  price  at  present  prevailing  in  that  locality. 

Without  attempting  to  speak  in  detail  of  the  mining  operations  now 
being  conducted  in  the  western  part  of  Mexico,  reference  may  be 
made  to  the  fact  that  there  is  a  large  number  of  gold  and  silver  mines 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  445 

in  operation  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mazatlan.  The  output  from  this 
region,  both  of  gold  and  silver,  is  rapidly  increasing.  Old  mines  are 
being  reopened,  the  cyanide  process  is  being  introduced,  and  the  con- 
struction of  the  railroad  from  Durango  through  to  the  coast  is  being 
pushed.  Ninety  miles  cast  of  Culiacan  an  American  company  has 
erected  a  water-power  plant  that  furnishes  500  horsepower  throughout 
the  year.  The  power  is  converted  into  electricity  for  use  in  the  mines. 
In  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State  of  Durango,  in  the  Topia  dis- 
trict, there  is  a  region  possessing  silver  ores,  lead,  iron,  and  limestone 
in  abundance.  In  southwestern  Chihuahua  are  valuable  deposits  of 
gold  and  silver.  This  district  is  at  present  300  miles  from  a  railroad, 
and  the  Topia  district,  just  mentioned,  is  now  106  miles  distant  from  the 
railway.  The  consequence  is  that  in  both  sections  mining  operations 
can  now  be  carried  on  only  on  a  small  scale.  Mention  is  made  of  these 
districts  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  construction  of  railways 
and  better  facilities  for  shipment  from  Pacific  ports  can  add  very 
much  to  the  already  important  mining  industries  of  western  Mexico. 
Mention  might  be  made  of  numerous  other  mining  industries;  those 
spoken  of  are  merely  illustrative. 

The  peninsula  of  Lower  California  has  valuable  resources  of  gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  salt.  Some  American  companies  are  now  mining 
gold  and  silver,  and  a  French  corporation,  the  Baleo  Copper  Company, 
at  Santa  Rosalia,  is  now  annually  shipping  18,000  tons  of  copper  and 
copper  matte  to  Europe.  Some  of  this  product  goes  across  the  Gulf 
of  California  to  Guaymas  and  is  sent  in  bond  to  New  Orleans  and 
thence  to  Europe.  More  of  it,  however,  is  sent  around  the  Horn. 
The  company  imports  about  60,000  tons  of  coke  by  way  of  the  cape, 
and  its  mining  supplies  come  from  the  same  source  by  the  same  route. 

THE   CANAL   AND   THE   COMMERCE   Ot    WESTERN    MEXICO. 

The  character  of  the  trade  of  western  Mexico  and  the  effects  which 
the  canal  will  have  upon  that  trade  can  best  be  illustrated  by  reference 
to  the  trade  of  Mazatlan,  the  most  important  port  of  the  region.  The 
information  herein  given  in  regard  to  the  industries  and  trade  of 
Mazatlan  is  taken  from  an  excellent  special  report  prepared  for  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  by  the  United  States  consul  located  in  that 
city. 

The  commercial  connections  of  Mazatlan  with  the  United  States  are 
by  steamers  running  to  San  Francisco  and  to  Panama.  A  minor  share 
of  this  trade  is  handled  by  the  Southern  Pacific  Railway.  The  facili- 
ties for  shipping  between  Mazatlan  and  Europe  are  much  better.  The 
Chilean  line  carries  some  of  Mazatlan's  exports  to  Valparaiso  where 
they  are  transferred  to  vessels  bound  for  Europe.  A  French  line  and 
a  German  line  of  steamers  make  regular  calls  at  Mazatlan.  There  are 
also  two  sailing  vessels  carrying  coal  from  England  to  Mazatlan,  and 
from  time  to  time  other  sailing  vessels,  as  occasion  requires,  are  oper- 
ated under  charters  from  England,  France,  and  Germany.  Having 
better  and  cheaper  connections  with  Europe,  the  trade  of  Mazatlan  is 
mainly  with  that  Continent. 

A  New  York  exporter  of  machinery  says: 

At  present  a  planter  in  the  Pacific  countries  of  Central  America  and  Mexico  can 
ship  coffee  and  rice  machinery  from  any  European  port  and  secure  freight  rates 
which  would  involve  a  saving  of  from  5  to  10  per  cent  on  the  value  of  his  purchase, 
provided  the  cost  price  'was  equal  to  that  quoted  here. 


446  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION 

The  total  foreign  trade  of  Mazatlan  in  1899  amounted  to  $42,000,000 
Mexican  silver,  and  at  the  present  time  this  trade  is  mainly  controlled 
by  the  merchants  of  Hamburg,  Liverpool,  and  Bordeaux.  The  vessels 
that  take  out  coal  and  other  commodities  from  Europe  load  back  with 
ore,  tropical  woods,  and  the  other  exports  of  Mazatlan.  In  1899 
Mazatlan  sent  to  Europe  $500,000  worth  of  logwood  and  mahogany, 
whereas  our  imports  of  those  woods  amount  to  $16,000.  An  interest- 
ing contrast  to  this  is  offered  by  the  trade  of  Tampico,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  Mexico.  The  commerce  of  that  city  is  larger  with  the  Linked 
States  than  with  any  other  country,  three-eighths  of  the  city's  imports 
being  from  our  country. 

Although  the  present  trade  of  Mazatlan  is  comparatively  large,  it  is 
much  less  than  it  will  be  when  the  means  of  communication  with  the 
tributary  country  have  been  improved.  At  the  present  time  there 
are  no  railway  connections  with  the  interior,  all  the  trade  being 
handled  by  coasting  vessels  or  by  wagons  and  pack  mules.  The  com- 
pletion of  a  railroad  now  being  built  westward  from  Durango  will 
greatly  enhance  the  commercial  importance  of  Mazatlan. 

Our  manufacturing  cities  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States 
will  be  between  1,000  and  2,000  miles  nearer  to  western  Mexico  by 
way  of  the  canal  than  to  San  Francisco  and  Seattle.  This  region, 
moreover,  is  so  situated  that  the  vessels  engaged  in  our  interoceanic 
coasting  trade  can  conveniently  engage  in  its  commerce.  The  isthmian 
canal  will  cheapen  the  cost  of  constructing  railroads  in  western  Mex- 
ico and  will  lower  the  cost  of  machinery  needed  in  the  development  of 
the  mines  and  plantations.  It  is  quite  probable  also  that  the  coal  from 
the  southern  part  of  the  United  States  will  be  taken  to  western  Mexico 
through  the  canal,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  canal  will  make  profitable 
the  development  of  the  great  iron  deposits  of  Durango.  This  vast 
deposit  of  iron  ore  in  Durango  is  situated  within  125  miles  of  the 
Pacific,  with  which  it  might  readily  be  connected  by  rail. 

At  the  present  time  the  commerce  of  western  Mexico  is  mainly  with 
Europe  and  the  most  important  commercial  route  is  that  around  South 
America.  The  opening  of  the  isthmian  canal  will  give  it  closer  con- 
nections with  the  United  States  than  with  Europe,  and  it  seems  prob- 
able that  its  trade  will  eventually  be  handled  largely  by  our  merchants. 

Chapter  XVII. —  Comparison  of  distances  by  the  isthmian  canal  and 

other  routes. 

In  determining  what  commerce  would  use  an  isthmian  canal,  the  fact 
of  most  fundamental  importance  is  the  effect  which  the  new  waterway 
will  have  on  the  ocean  distances  between  the  trade  centers  adjacent  to 
the  Atlantic  and  those  in  and  about  the  Pacific.  The  length  of  the 
route  determines  the  time  of  the  voyage,  and  in  general  the  commerce 
of  the  world  is  so  conducted  as  to  minimize  distances  as  much  as  the 
conditions  of  ocean  navigation  and  international  exchanges  permit.  It 
is  accordingly  desirable  to  preface  the  discussion  of  the  traffic  of  an 
isthmian  canal  with  a  comparison  of  the  distances  between  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  by  way  of  the  American  isthmus  with  those  by  way  of  the 
various  routes  now  followed.  This  comparison  can  best  be  made  by 
means  of  a  series  of  tables  giving  the  distances  by  alternative  routes'1 
between  the  most  important  commercial  centers.     In  most  respects 

a  Consult  pi.  74  for  a  chart  of  ocean  routes  by  way  of  existing  trade  lines  and  by 
way  of  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  canals. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


447 


the  tables  are  self-interpretative.  The  distances  are  expressed  in  nau- 
tical miles,  and  the  figures  used  in  compiling  the  tables  were  furnished 
by  the  United  States  Hydro-graphic  Office.  The  length  of  each  canal 
is  reckoned  in  nautical  miles,  the  Nicaragua  Canal  being  101  nautical 
miles  long,  the  Panama  41,  and  the  Suez  88. 

In  the  first  table  a  comparison  is  made  between  the  distances  by  the 
Nicaragua  Canal  with  those  by  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  the  west 
coast  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America. 

Table  I. — Distances  ixia  the  Nicaragua  and  Magellan  routes  between  the  eastern  ports  of 
the  United  States  and  the  ports  of  the  west  coast  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America. 


Via — 


To 

Sitka. 


To  Port 
Town- 
send. 


To  Port- 
land. 


To  San 
Fran- 
cisco. 


To  San 
Diego. 


To  Aca- 
pulco. 


To  San 
Jose  de 
Guate- 
mala. 


Portland,  Me. 
Boston 


New  York. 


Philadelphia. 
Baltimore 


Norfolk  . 


Charleston . 
Savannah.. 


Jacksonville 
Port  Tampa . 


Pensacola . 
Mobile 


New  Orleans . 
Galveston 


(Nicaragua. . 
1  Magellan1.. 
(Nicaragua . . 
/Magellan1.. 
(Nicaragua.. 
(Magellan1.. 
(Nicaragua . . 
\Magellan».. 
I  Nicaragua . . 
■(Magellan1.. 
(Nicaragua.. 
\Magellan1.. 
I  Nicaraguab . 
(Magellan1.. 
(Nicaragua c. 
■(Magellan1.. 
/Nicaragua1' . 
(Magellan1.. 
(Nicaragua., 
i  Magellan1.. 
(Nicaragua . . 
(Magellan1.. 
/Nicaragua . . 
(Magellan1.. 
/Nicaragua . . 
(Magellan1.. 
/Nicaragua . . 
(Magellan1.. 


6,418 
15, 021 

6,373 
14, 986 

6, 223 
15, 016 

6,171 
15, 066 

6,143 
15,078 

6,013 
14,942 

5, 803 
14, 951 

5,809 
14, 980 

5,767 
14,955 

5, 280 
15,116 

5, 386 
15, 320 

5,413 
15, 362 

5,420 
15,416 

5, 603 
15, 598 


5, 891 
14, 494 

5,856 
14,459 

5,696 
14,489 

5,636 
14, 539 

5,616 
14, 551 

5,486 
14,415 

5, 276 
14,  424 

5, 282 
14, 453 

5,240 
14,428 

4,753 
14, 589 

4,859 
14, 793 

4,886 
14, 835 

4,893 
14, 889 

5,076 
15, 071 


5,766 
14, 369 

5,731 
14,334 

5,571 
14, 364 

5,511 
14,414 

5,491 
14,426 

5,361 
14, 290 

5,151 
14, 299 

5, 157 
14,328 

5,115 
14, 303 

4, 628 
14, 464 

4,734 
14, 668 

4,761 
14, 710 

4,768 
14,764 

4,951 
14, 946 


5,116 
13,719 

5,081 
13,684 

4,921 
13,714 

4,861 
13, 764 

4,841 
13, 776 

4,711 
13, 640 

4,501 
13, 649 

5, 704 
13, 678 

4,465 
13, 653 

3,978 
13, 814 

4,084 
14,018 

4,111 
14, 060 

4,118 
14,114 

4,301 
14, 296 


4,668 
13, 342 

4,633 
13. 307 

4,473 
13, 337 

4,413 
13, 387 

4,393 
13,399 

4,263 
13, 263 

4,053 
13, 272 

4,059 
13, 301 

4,017 
13, 276 

3,530 
13,437 

3,636 
13,641 

3, 663 
13, 683 

3,670 
13, 737 

3, 853 
13,919 


2,736 
11, 466 

2,701 
11,431 

2,541 
11,461 

2, 481 
11,511 

2,461 
11,523 

2,331 
11,387 

2, 121 
11, 396 

2,127 
11, 425 

2,085 
11, 400 

1, 598 
11, 561 

1,704 
11, 765 

1,731 
11,807 

1,738 
11,861 

1,921 
11,043 


From — 

Via— 

To  Hono- 
lulu. 

To  Guaya- 
quil. 

To  Callao. 

To  Iquique. 

To  Val- 
paraiso. 

To  Coro- 

nel. 

Portland,  Me 

/Nicaragua . . 

6,626 

3,441 

3,946 

4,588 

5,173 

5,356 

1  Magellan  »_. 

14,854 

10, 428 

9,707 

9, 226 

s,si;i; 

8, 135 

(Nicaragua.. 

6, 591 

3,403 

3,911 

4, 553 

5,138 

5, 321 

/Magellan1.. 

14,819 

10, 393 

9, 672 

9,199 

8,431 

8,100 

(Nicaragua . . 

6,431 

3,246 

3,751 

4,393 

4,978 

5,171 

(Magellan1.. 

11,489 

10, 423 

9, 702 

9, 221  « 

8, 461 

8, 130 

Philadelphia 

(Nicaragua . . 

6,371 

3,186 

3,691 

4,333 

4,  918 

5,101 

(Magellan1.. 

14,899 

10, 473 

9,752 

9,271 

8,511 

8,180 

/Nicaragua.. 
(Magellan1.. 

6,351 
14,911 

3,166 
10, 485 

3,671 

9,764 

4,313 
,9,2S3 

4, 898 
8,523 

4, 581 

8,192 

(Nicaragua.. 
1  Magellan1.. 
(Nicaragua11. 

6, 221 
14, 775 

3,036 
10, 349 

3,641 
9,628 

4,191 

9,147 

4,768 
8,387 

4,951 

8, 056 

6,011 

2, 826 

3. 331 

3,973 

4, 558 

4,741 

(Magellan1.. 

14, 784 

10, 358 

9,637 

9, 156 

8,396 

8  065 

I  Nicaragua c. 

6,017 

2,832 

3, 337 

3,979 

4,564 

4,747 

1  Magellan1.. 

14,813 

10, 387 

9, 666 

9,185 

8, 425 

8,094 

(Nicaragua*. 

5,975 

2,790 

3, 295 

3,937 

4,522 

4.  7115 

(Magellan1.. 

14, 788 

10, 362 

9,641 

9,160 

8,400 

8,  069 

[Nicaragua .. 

5,  188 

2, 303 

2, 808 

3,450 

4,035 

4,218 

1  Magellan1.. 

14,949 

10,523 

9, 802 

9, 321 

8,561 

8,  230 

(Nicaragua . . 
/Magellan1.. 

5,594 

15, 153 

2, 409 
10,727 

2,914 
10, 006 

3, 556 
9,525 

4,144 
8,765 

4, 324 

8,  134 

(Nicarague.. 

1  Magellan1.. 

5, 621 
15,195 

2, 436 

10, 769 

2,941 
10, 048 

3,583 
9, 567 

4, 168. 
8,807 

4,351 

8, 476 

(Nicaragua . . 

5, 628 

2, 443 

2,948 

3, 590 

4,175 

4,  358 

1  Magellan1.. 

15, 249 

10, 823 

10, 102 

9, 621 

8,861 

8, 530 

1  Nicaragua.. 
(Magellan1.. 

5,811 

15, 431 

2, 626 
11,005 

3,131 

10, 284 

3,773 
9,803 

4,358  , 
9,043 

4.541 

8,  712 

1  Via  Pernambuco,  Callao,  and  San  Francisco  for  points  bevond  these  ports. 
h  Vessel  going  by  west  end  of  Cuba  will  shorten  voyage  69  miles  for  Charleston. 
c  104  for  Savannah. 
d  136  for  Jacksonville. 


448 


REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


The  above  table  compares  the  distances  by  way  of  the  Nicaragua 
Canal  with  those  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan  from  the  chief  ports 
of  our  Atlantic  and  Gulf  seaboard  extending,  from  Portland  to  Galves- 
ton, to  thirteen  representative  ports  on  the  west  coast  of  the  American 
continents.  Coronel,  the  most  southerly  of  the  west  coast  ports  men- 
tioned in  the  table,  is  situated  within  two  or  three  hundred  miles  of 
the  southern  limits  of  the  industrial  section  of  Chile.  It  is  also  an 
important  coaling  port  at  the  present  time.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  distance  from  New  York  to  Coronel  by  way  of  the  Nicaragua 
Canal  is  2,959  miles  less  than  the  present  route  through  the  Straits  of 
Magellan. 

The  effect  of  an  isthmian  canal  upon  the  length  of  ocean  routes  con- 
necting our  eastern  seaboard  with  the  west  coast  of  the  three  Americas 
is  well  shown  by  comparing  the  distances  by  wa}r  of  the  Nicaragua 
Canal  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan  from  New  York,  the  largest  Atlan- 
tic port,  and  from  New  Orleans,  the  largest  Gulf  port,  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, the  representative  west  coast  city  of  the  United  States,  to  Iquique, 
the  center  of  the  nitrate  of  soda  section,  and  to  Coronel,  in  southern 
Chile.     This  comparison  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


From  New  York  via — 


Nicaragua.    Magellan 


From  New  Orleans  via — 


Nicaragua.    Magellan 


San  Francisco 

Iquique 

Coronel 


4,921 
4,393 
5,171 


13,714 
9, 221 
8,130 


4,118 
3,590 
4,358 


14,114 
9, 621 

8,530 


In  the  following  table  (II)  the  distances  from  representative  Euro- 
pean ports  to  the  west  coast  of  the  American  continents  by  the 
Nicaragua  and  Magellan  routes  are  given : 

Table  II. — Distances  from  Europe  to  Pacific  ports  via  the  Nicaragua  Canal  and  the 

Straits  of  Magellan. 


To— 


Sitka 

Port  Townsend  ... 

Portland 

San  Francisco 

San  Diego 

Acapulco 

San  .lose  do  Guate- 
mala  

Honolulu 

Guayaquil 

Callao 

Iquique 

Valparaiso 

Coronel 


From  Liverpool 
via— 


Nlcara-  Magel- 
gua.       Ian 


8, 953 
8,426 
8,801 
7,651 

7,211 
5,840 

r>.  2sr, 

9,  175 
5,975 

6,  181 

7,12:t 
7,708 

7,  Mil 


15,386 
14,859 

14, 734 

ll.osl 
13,707 
12,261 

11,831 
15,219 

10.722 
10,(172 

9,591 
8,831 
-    ,00 


From  Hamburg 
via — 


Nicara-  Magel- 
gua.       Ian. 


9,470 
8,943 

S.SI.S 

s.lt.s 
7,718 
6,343 

5,788 
9,678 
6,493 
6,  998 

7.610 
8,225 
8,  108 


15, 836 

15, 309 

15.  IS  I 

14,534 

M,  157 

12,711 

12,  2M 
15,66'.! 

11,172 
L0.522 

10,011 

9,281 
8,950 


From  Antwerp 
via — 


Nicara- 
gua. 


9,191 
8, 664 
8,539 
7, 889 
7,489 
6,064 
5,509 

9,399 
6,214 
6,719 
7,361 
7,946 
s,  L29 


Magel- 
lan." 


15, 557 

15,1130 
14,905 
1  1,255 
13,878 

12,  132 
12, 002 

15, 390 
10,898 

10,243 
9,  762 
9, 002 

s,  101 


From  Bordeaux 
via — 


Nicara-  Magel- 
gua.       Ian.' 


8, 941 
8,  111 
8,289 

7.  6: v.i 
7,  189 
5, 814 
5, 259 

9,149 
5, 964 

6,  169 
7,111 

7,606 

7,  879 


15, 073 
14,546 

11,  121 
13,771 
13,894 
11,948 
11,518 

14,906 
10, 409 

0,250 

o,  278 

\51,S 
8,1S7 


From  Gibraltar 
via — 


Nicara-  Magel- 
gua.       Ian. 


8, 675 
8,148 

8,  023 

7,37;; 
6,923 
5,548 
4,998 

8,883 
5,698 

6,  203 

6,845 

7.  130 
7,613 


11.  155 

13,928 
18,803 

is,  i  a 

12.770 

11,330 

10,000 

14,288 

9,  701 
9, 1 1 1 
8,660 

7.000 
7,500 


»Via  Pernambuco,  Callao,  and  Ban  Francisco  for  ports  north  of  those  cities. 

The  European  ports  included  in  the  above  table  are  so  situated  that 
the  distances  from  them  to  Pacific  ports  typify  the  distances  from  the 
leading  industrial  and  commercial  centers  of  Europe,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  distance  from  Liverpool  to  Coronel  by  way  of  the 
Nicaragua  Canal  will  be  609  miles  iess  than  by  the  route  through  the 


REPOET    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


449 


Straits  of  Magellan.  The  route  to  the  nitrate  port  of  Iquique  will  be 
shortened  2,468  miles.  San  Francisco  will  be  brought  5,433  miles 
nearer  to  Liverpool  and  5,780  miles  nearer  to  Gibraltar. 

In  Tables  III,  IV,  and  V  the  distances  from  the  Atlantic  American 
ports  to  Pacific  countries  by  way  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  and  by  way 
of  existing  routes  are  compared. 

Table  III. — Distances,  in  nautical  miles,  from  Atlantic  American  ports  to  Yokohama, 
Shanghai,  and  Hongkong  via  the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes. 


To  Yokohama  via— 

To  Shanghai  via — 

To  Hongkong  via— 

From— 

San 
Fran- 
cisco 

and 
Great 
Circle. 

Hono- 
lulu. 

Suez," 

Co- 
lombo, 
Singa- 
pore, 
Hong- 
kong, 
and 
Shang- 
hai. 

San 
Fran- 
cisco, 
Great 
Circle, 

and 
Yoko- 
hama. 

Hono- 
lulu and 
Yoko- 
hama. 

Suez.'j 

Co- 
lombo, 
Singa- 
pore, 

and 
Hong- 
kong. 

San 
Fran- 
cisco, 
Great 
Circle, 
Yokoha- 
ma, and 
Shang- 
hai. 

Hono- 
lulu, 
Yoko- 
hama, 
and 
Shang- 
hai. 

Hono- 
lulu, 

Guam, 

and 
Manila. 

Suez, 
Co- 
lombo, 

and 
Singa- 
pore. 

Portland 

Boston 

New  York 

Philadelphia.. 

Baltimore 

Norfolk 

Charleston 

Savannah 

Jacksonville  .. 
Port  Tampa... 

Pensacola 

Mobile 

New  Orleans.. 
Galveston 

9,652 

9,617 

9,457 

9,397 

9,377 

9, 247 

« 9, 037 

<J  9, 043 

•9,001 

8,514 

8,620 

8,647 

8,654 

8,837 

4> 

10, 026 

9,991 

9,831 

9,771 

9,751 

9, 621 

=  9,411 

■19,417 

•  9, 376 

8,888 

8,994 

9, 021 

9,028 

9,211 

13,  330 
13, 370 
13, 564 
13, 707 
13, 852 
13, 727 
13, 982 
14,057 
14, 137 
14,629 
14,S33 
14, 875 
14, 929 
15,111 

10, 702 

10, 667 

10, 507 

10, 447 

10, 427 

10, 297 

° 10, 087 

*  10, 093 

•10,051 

9, 564 

9,670 

9,697 

9,704 

9,887 

11,076 
11,041 
10, 881 
10, 821 
10, 801 
10, 671 

•  10, 461 
a  10, 467 

•  10, 425 

9,938 
10, 044 
10,071 
10, 078 
10,261 

12, 280 
12, 320 
12, 514 
12, 657 
12, 802 
12, 677 
12, 932 
13, 007 
13, 087 
13,579 
13, 783 
13, 825 
13, 879 
14, 061 

11,561 

11,526 

11,366 

11,306 

11,286 

11,156 

« 10, 946 

a  10, 952 

•  10, 910 

10, 423 

10, 529 

10, 556 

10, 563 

10, 746 

11,935 

11, 900 

11,740 

11,680 

11,660 

11,530 

•  11, 320 

4  11,326 

o 11,284 

10, 797 

10, 903 

10, 930 

10, 937 

11,120 

12, 097 

12, 062 

11,902 

11,842 

11, 822 

11,692 

•11,482 

*  11, 488 

•11,446 

10, 959 

11,065 

11,092 

11,099 

11,282 

11, 421 
11,461 
11,655 
11, 798 
11,943 
11,818 
12, 073 
12, 148 
12,228 
12, 720 
12, 924 
12, 966 
13, 020 
13, 202 

1  Direct  voyage  from  Singapore  to  Yokohama  reduces  this  distance  by  393  miles. 
b  Direct  voyage  from  Singapore  to  Shanghai  reduces  this  distance  by  66  miles. 
c  Vessels  going  by  west  end  of  Cuba  will  shorten  voyage  69  miles  for  Charleston. 
d  104  miles  for  Savannah. 
e  136  miles  for  Jacksonville. 

In  Table  III  the  distances  from  representative  ports  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  to  Yokohama,  Shanghai,  and  Hongkong  by  way  of  the  various 
alternative  routes  are  given.  The  distances  given  in  the  table  are 
those  which  a  vessel  would  take  in  going  by  actual  commercial  routes. 
It  has  been  deemed  more  important  to  deal  with  distances  by  commer- 
cial routes  rather  than  b}^  the  shortest  possible  course.  The  shortest 
route  from  the  American  Isthmus  to  Japan  or  China  is  by  way  of  the 
Great  Circle.  The  distance  from  Brito  to  Yokohama  direct  is  7,122; 
via  Magdalena  Bay,  Lower  California,  7,144;  via  San  Francisco,  7,236, 
and  via  Honolulu,  7,610  miles.  By  the  Great  Circle  route  a  vessel  can 
call  atSan  Francisco  by  adding  only  lllmiles  to  its  voyage;  and  with  this 
call  at  San  Francisco  included,  the  distance  from  New  York  to  Shanghai 
by  the  Great  Circle  and  Yokohama  is  374  miles  less  than  via  Honolulu 
and  Yokohama.  The  Nicaragua  route  is  shorter  than  the  Suez  route 
for  all  Asiatic  points  mentioned  in  the  table,  the  advantages  of  the 
Nicaragua  route  being  greater  for  our  Gulf  ports  than  for  those  on  the 
Atlantic.  Especial  note  may  be  made  of  the  fact  that  the  distance  to 
Hongkong  by  way  of  Honolulu,  Guam,  and  Manila  is  considerably 
greater  than  by  a  route  which  enables  a  vessel  to  call  en  route  at  San 
Francisco,  Yokohama,  and  Shanghai.  The  latter  route  is  536  miles 
less  for  a  vessel  starting  from  New  York. 


S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2- 


-29' 


450 


EEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


In  order  to  compare  the  distances  by  various  routes  connecting  our 
eastern  seaboard  with  Manila,  Table  IV  has  been  prepared. 

Table  IV. — Distances,  in  nautical  miles,  from  American  Atlantic  ports  to  Manila  via 

Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes. 


From— 


Via  San 
Francisco, 

Great 
Circle,  and 
Yokohama. 


Via 
Honolulu 

and 
Yokohama. 


Via 

Honolulu, 
Yokohama, 

Shanghai, 

and 
Hongkong. 


Via 

Honololu 

and 

Guam. 


Via  Suez, 
Colombo, 
Singapore. 


Portland 

Boston 

New  York  . . . 
Philadelphia 
Baltimore ... 

Norfolk 

Charleston  a. 
Savannah  b.. 
Jacksonville 
Port  Tampa  . 
Pensacola  . . . 

Mobile 

New  Orleans 
Galveston  ... 


11,402 
11,367 
11,207 
11,147 
11.127 
10, 997 
10, 787 
10, 793 
10, 751 
10, 264 
10, 370 
10, 397 
10, 404 
10,507 


11,776 
11,741 
11,581 
11,521 
11,501 
11,371 
11,161 
11,167 
11,125 
10, 638 
10, 744 
10,771 
10.77S 
10,881 


12, 563 
12, 528 
12, 368 
12,308 
12,288 
12. 158 
11,948 
11,954 
11,912 
11,425 
11,581 
11,558 
11,565 
11,668 


11,469 
11,434 
11,274 
11,214 
11,194 
11,064 
10,854 
10, 860 
10, 818 
10, 331 
10, 437 
10, 464 
10, 471 
10, 574 


11,367 
11,407 
11,601 
11,744 
11,889 
11,764 
12,019 
12, 094 
12, 174 
12, 266 
I2,s70 
12, 912 
12, 966 
13, 148 


»  The  route  to  Greytown  via  west  end  of  Cuba  is  69  miles  less. 
b  The  route  to  Greytown  via  west  end  of  Cuba  is  104  miles  less. 
cThe  route  to  Greytown  via  west  end  of  Cuba  is  136  miles  less. 

It  will  be  seen  in  the  table  that  the  distance  from  New  York  to  Ma- 
nila by  way  of  San  Francisco,  the  Great  Circle,  and  Yokohama,  is  11,207 
miles,  and  that  the  distance  b}r  way  of  Honolulu  and  Guam  is  11,274 
miles.  The  Suez  route  is  longer*  than  either  of  these  routes,  being  11,601 
miles.  A  vessel  bound  from  New  York  or  New  Orleans,  or  an}r  other 
eastern  seaport  to  Manila  can  call  at  San  Francisco,  Yokohama,  and 
Hongkong  en  route  by  adding  720  miles  to  the  length  of  a  voyage  by 
way  of  Honolulu  and  Guam.  Manila,  it  will  also  be  noticed,  is  some- 
what nearer  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  by  way  of  the  Nica- 
ragua Canal  than  by  way  of  Suez. 

The  manner  in  which  the  Nicaragua  Canal  will  affect  the  distances 
between  our  eastern  seaboard  and  Australia  is  shown  b}^  Table  V: 

Table  V. — Distances,  in  nautical  miles,  between  the  eastern  seaboard  of  the  United  States 
and  Australia  via  the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes. 


To  Adelaide  via— 


From— 


Sydney 
and  Mel 

bourne, 


Portland 

H<  .stun 

New  York  .. . 
Philadelphia 
Baltimore  ... 

Norfolk 

<  lharleston  . . 
Savannah  . . . 
Jacksonville. 

Port  Tampa  . 

Pensacola  ... 

Mobile 

New  <  Orleans 
Galveston  . .. 


Brito,      St.Yin- 
Tahiti,  cent  and 

I  'ape  111" 


(i 1 

Hope. 


954 
919 
759 

099 
679 
549 

:;:;<.» 
345 

303 
Si  6 
922 
9  (9 
956 
139 


12,446 

12,  159 
12,67  i 
L2.641 
12,736 
12,61  I 
12,761 
12,821 
12,846 

12.213 

13,  117 
13,  189 

13,513 

13, 72;. 


To  Melbourne 
via— 


Brito, 
Tahiti, 

and 
Sydney. 


10,446 
10,  ill 
10,251 
10, 191 
10,171 
10,041 
9,231 
9,837 
9,  795 
9,808 
9,  1 1 1 
9,  in 
9,  lis 
9,631 


St.  Vin- 
cent, 

Cape  of 
Good 

Hope, 

and 

Ade- 
laide. 


12,951 
12,967 

13,083 
13,149 

13,211 
13,122 

L8.269 

13,329 

13,354 
13, 751 
13,955 
13,997 

L4.051 

I  1,233 


To  Sydney  via- 


Brito 

and 

Tahiti.' 


St  Vin- 
cent, 

(i 1 

Hope, 
Ade- 
laide, 
and  Mel- 
bourne. 


9,871 
9,836 
9,676 
9,616 
9,596 
9,  166 
9,256 
9,262 
9,  220 

8,733 
8,839 
8, 866 
8,873 
9,056 


13,  529 
18,642 
13,668 

13,,  721 

13,819 
18,697 
18,844 
13,904 
13,929 
14,326 
i  1,630 
I  1,572 

11.626 

14,808 


To  Wellington  via- 


Brito 

and 

Tahiti.1 


8,911 
8,876 

s,  716 
S,ti5li 
8,632 
S.510 
8,  296 

8,302 

8, 260 
7,773 
7,879 
7,906 

7,913 

8,096 


St.  Vin- 
cent, 
Good 
Hope, 
and  Mel 

bourne. 


14,204 

11.217 

14,899 

II,  191 
1  1.372 

i  1,519 
14,579 
14,604 
15,001 
16,205 

15,217 
15, 301 
15,  188 


Straits 
of  Ma- 
gellan. 


11,419 
LI,  384 

11,  11  I 
11.  164 
11,  176 
11,140 
11,349 
11,378 
11,353 
11,514 
11,718 
11,760 
11,814 
11,996 


«  The  course  from  Brito  to  Sydney  direct,  omitting  call  at  Tahiti,  would  be  52  miles  less, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


451 


The  distance  from  New  York  to  Australia  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  is  practically  the  same  as  by  the  Suez  Canal,  and  the  Cape  route 
has  the  advantage  of  more  favorable  winds  and  currents  and  of  a  cooler 
temperature.  Vessels  going  from  our  eastern  coast  to  Australia 
always  round  the  Cape;  accordingly,  the  comparisons  of  Table  V  are 
between  the  Nicaragua  and  Good  Hope  routes.  Steamers  bound  for 
Australia  via  the  Cape  usually  call  at  St.  Vincent  for  coal;  hence  the 
distances  given  in  the  table  include  a  call  at  that  island.  The  route 
between  the  American  isthmus  and  Australia  and  New  Zealand  is  by 
way  of  the  centrally  located  island  of  Tahiti,  which  will  doubtless 
become  an  important  coaling  station  upon  the  opening  of  the  isthmian 
canal. 

New  York  is  3,982  miles  nearer  Sydney  by  way  of  Brito  and  Tahiti 
than  via  St.  Vincent,  Good  Hope,  Adelaide,  and  Melbourne.  Adelaide 
is  1,816  a  miles  nearer  New  York  and  3,587  miles  nearer  New  Orleans 
by  Brito  and  Tahiti  than  by  Good  Hope.  Wellington  will  be  brought 
5,617  b  miles  nearer  New  York  by  the  Nicaragua  Canal. 

The  places  in  Australia,  the  East  Indies,  and  southern  China  equally 
distant  from  New  York  by  the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes  are  shown 
on  pi.  86.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  line  passing  through  points 
equidistant  from  New  York  via  the  two  canals  crosses  the  western  part 
of  Australia,  runs  west  of  the  Philippines,  and  touches  the  continent 
of  Asia  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  island  of  Hainan  considerably  to 
the  west  of  Hongkong. 

In  Table  VI  the  distances  from  Liverpool  to  Australasia  and  the 
Orient  by  way  of  the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes  are  contrasted. 

Table  VI. — Distances  from  Liverpool  to  the  East  by  the  Suez  and  Nicaragua  routes. 


Suez  route. 

Nicaragua  route. 

Differ- 
ence— 

To— 

Porta  of  call. 

Nau- 
tical 
miles. 

Ports  of  call. 

Nau- 
tical 
miles. 

Suez  — ; 
Nicara- 
gua+. 

Adelaide 

Melbourne  .. 
S5'dney 

Aden,"  Colombo,  King  George 
Sound. 

Aden,"  Colombo.  King  George 
Sound,  Adelaide. 

Aden,"  Colombo,  King  George 
Sound,     Adelaide,     Mel- 
bourne. 

Aden, "Colombo,  KingGeorge 
Sound,  Melbourne. 

Aden,"  Colombo,  Singapore. . . 

do 

11,151 
11,659 
12,234 

12,919 

9,677 

9,731 
11,362 

11,640 

Brito,  Tahiti,  Sydney,  Mel- 

bourne.b 
Brito,  Tahiti,  Sydney  b 

Brito,  Tahiti* 

13,489 
12, 981 
12, 406 

11,446 

13,937 

13, 777 
13, 554 

12, 187 

-2,338 

-1,322 

172 

Wellington.. 

.....doc 

+1,503 

Manila 

Hongkong... 

Brito,  San  Francisco,   Yoko- 
hama.11 
do<=  

-4,260 

-4,046 
-2, 192 

547 

Tientsin 

Yokohama  . . 

Aden,  Colombo,    Singapore, 

Hongkong,  Shanghai. 
do 

Brito,  San  Francisco,  Yoko- 
hama. 

"Direct  voyage  from  Aden  to  King  George  Sound  would  shorten  these  routes  540  miles. 
b  Direct  voyage  from  Brito  to  Sydney  would  shorten  these  routes  52  miles, 

c  Direct  voyage  from  Brito  to  Wellington  would  shorten  this  distance  by  185  miles  and  make  the 
difference  1,688  miles. 
d  A  stop  at  Shanghai  would  add  to  this  route  535  miles. 
e  A  stop  at  Shanghai  would  add  to  this  route  319  miles. 

With  the  exception  of  Wellington,  the  Pacific  ports  named  in  Table 
VI  are  nearer  Liverpool  via  the  Suez  Canal  than  by  way  of  Nicaragua. 
From  Liverpool  to  Sydney,  however,  the  distance  via  Brito  and  Tahiti 

a  Omitting  stop  at  Tahiti  would  add  52  miles  to  this  figure,  and  if  Melbourne  were 
reached  by  Wellington  rather  than  by  Sydney,  it  should  be  increased  by  232  miles. 
b  Omitting  stop  at  Tahiti  would  add  185  miles  to  this  figure. 


452 


KEPOKT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


is  only  172  miles  more  than  via  Suez,  Colombo,  Adelaide,  and  Mel- 
bourne. Yokohama  is  but  547  miles  farther  from  Liverpool  via  Brito 
and  San  Francisco  than  via  the  easterly  route. 

The  route  from  Liverpool  to  Japan  and  China  by  way  of  the  Ameri- 
can Isthmus  passes  close  to  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  seaboards  of 
the  United  States.  A  vessel  would  add  but  323  miles  to  the  length  of 
the  voyage  from  Liverpool  to  Greytown  by  calling  at  New  York  City, 
the  port  having  the  largest  foreign  commerce  of  any  city  in  the  world 
and  an  export  traffic  going  in  all  directions.  By  calling  at  the  south 
Atlantic  or  Gulf  ports  of  the  United  States,  the  raw  and  manufactured 
cotton,  which  is  exported  in  large  quantities  from  the  United  States 
across  the  Pacific,  could  be  added  to  the  vessel's  cargo.  A  call  at  San 
Francisco,  or  some  other  west  coast  port  of  the  United  States,  would 
enable  the  vessel  to  participate  in  the  grain  and  lumber  trade  from  the 
United  States  to  Oriental  countries.  If  the  vessel  making  the  trip 
from  Liverpool  to  Asia  is  sailed  under  the  American  flag,  it  can  par- 
ticipate in  the  coasting  trade  between  the  two  seaboards  of  the  United 
States. 

By  consulting  pi.  86,  on  which  the  points  in  Australasia  and  the  East 
Indies  equally  distant  from  Liverpool  are  located,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  line  connecting  the  places  equidistant  from  Liverpool  by  way  of 
the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes  passes  between  New  Zealand  and  Aus- 
tralia, runs  east  of  the  main  island  of  Japan,  and  touches  the  continent 
of  Asia  on  the  Manchurian  coast  some  distance  north  of  Vladivostok. 
As  far  as  distance  alone  is  determinative,  the  commerce  of  Liverpool 
with  Australia  and  the  Far  East  is  tributary  to  the  Suez  route;  but  the 
commercial  factors  other  than  distance  will,  in  all  probability,  so  affect 
the  routes  of  trade  as  to  cause  some  of  the  outbound  and  inbound 
trade  of  Liverpool  with  the  East  to  make  use  of  the  westerly  route. 

For  the  purpose  of  showing  the  relative  advantages,  as  far  as  dis- 
tance is  concerned,  which  New  York  and  Liverpool  will  possess  for  the 
Eastern  trade  after  the  isthmian  canal  has  been  completed,  Table  VII 
has  been  prepared: 

Table  VII. — Comparisons  of  distances,  in  nautical  miles,  from,  New  York  and  Liverpool  to 
Australasian  and  Asiatic  ports  -via  the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes. 


From  New  York  (via  Nicaragua). 

From  Liverpool  (via  Suez). 

Differ- 

To— 

Route. 

Miles. 

Route. 

Miles. 

(Sucz, -; 
Nicara- 
gua,+). 

Brito,  Tahiti 

8,716 
9,676 

10, 759 

11,207 

11,047 
10, 507 

10, 824 

9,457 

Aden, 'Colombo,  King  George 
Sound,  Melbourne. 

Aden, "Colombo,  KingGeorgc 
Sound,     Adelaide,     Mel- 
bourne. 

Aden ,"  Colombo,  King  George 
Sound. 

Aden,  Colombo,  Singapore... 

.do 

12, 949 
12,234 

11,151 

9,677 

9,731 
10, 590 

11, 362 

11,640 

+4,233 
+2,658 

dob 

Adelaide 

Manila 

Brito,  Tahiti,1-  Sydney,0  Mel- 
bourne. 

Brito,   San   Francisco,  Great 
Circle,  Yokohama. 

do 

+    392 
-1,530 

-1,316 

+      83 

do 

Aden,    Colombo,  Singapore, 

Hongkong. 
Aden,    Colombo,   Singapore, 

Hongkong,  Shanghai. 
do 

do 

+    538 

Yokohama  .. 

Brito,  San  Francisco,  Great 
Circle. 

+2, 183 

"Omitting  stop  at  Colombo  will  shorten  voyage  510  mill's. 

>'  Omitting  stop  at  Tahiti  will  shorten  voyage  52  miles. 

0  If  vessel  goes  by  Wellington  and  Melbourne  voyage  will  be  shortened  232  miles. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CATSTAL    COMMISSION. 


453 


New  York  will  be  nearer  than  Liverpool  to  New  Zealand  and  the 
commercially  important  half  of  Australia.  Liverpool  by  way  of  the 
Suez  route  will  be  nearer  than  New  York  by  way  of  the  Nicaragua 
route  to  the  Philippines,  Hongkong,  and  southern  Asia.  Shanghai 
will  be  almost  the  same  distance  from  New  York  as  from  Liverpool, 
the  advantage  in  favor  of  New  York  by  way  of  Brito,  San  Francisco,' 
the  Great  Circle,  and  Yokohama  being  83  miles — the  route  from 
Liverpool  by  way  of  the  Suez  including  a  call  at  Colombo,  Singapore 
and  Hongkong.  Northern  China,  Manchuria,  and  Japan  will  be  con- 
siderably nearer  New  York  than  to  Liverpool. 

PI.  86  shows  that  the  line  connecting  the  points  equally  distant  from 
Liverpool  and  New  York  by  the  Suez  and  Nicaragua  routes,  respec- 
tively, runs  through  the  central  part  of  Australia,  through  the  western 
part  of  New  Guinea,  east  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  touches  the 
mainland  of  Asia  a  little  north  of  Shanghai. 

The  foregoing  seven  tables  have  shown  the  effect  which  a  Nicaragua 
Canal  would  have  upon  the  ocean  distances  from  our  eastern  seaboard 
to  the  Pacific  countries  of  America,  Australia,  and  Asia.  These  tables 
have  also  shown  the  manner  in  which  the  comparative  distances  from 
our  eastern  seaboard  and  from  Europe  would  be  modified  by  the  Nica- 
ragua Canal.  In  Table  VIII  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  Canal  routes 
are  contrasted  and  the  distances  from  typical  Atlantic  and  Gulf  ports 
of  the  United  States  and  from  representative  European  cities  to  the 
western  coast  of  the  American  continents  and  to  trans-Pacific  countries 
by  way  of  each  canal  route  are  given: 

Table  VIII. — Comparison  of  distances,  in  nautical  miles,  from  American  and  European 
Atlantic  ports  to  Pacific  ports  via  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  canals. 


From — 

Via— 

To  Port 
Town- 
send  via 
San  Fran- 
cisco. 

To  San 
Fran- 
cisco. 

To  Guay- 
aquil. 

To  Cal- 
lao. 

To  Iqui- 
que. 

To  Val- 
paraiso. 

To  Coro- 
nel. 

New  York 

/Nicaragua . . 

1  Panama 

/Nicaragua . . 

\  Panama 

/Nicaragua . . 

\  Panama 

(Nicaragua . . 

1  Panama 

[Nicaragua . . 

[Panama 

/Nicaragua . . 

\  Panama 

fNicaragua . . 

[Panama 

("Nicaragua . . 

(Panama 

/Nicaragua . . 

\  Panama 

(Nicaragua . . 

1  Panama 

[Nicaragua . . 
[Panama 

5,696 
6,074 
5,485 
5,872 
5,276 
5,673 
4,753 
5,328 
4,893 
5,473 
5,076 
5,574 
8,426 
8,813 
8,943 
9,242 
8,664 
8,963 
8,414 
8,713 
8,148 
8,447 

4,921 
5,299 
4,710 
5,097 
4,501 
4,898 
3,978 
4,533 
4,118 
4,698 
4,301 
4,799 
7,651 
8,038 
8,168 
8,467 
7,889 
8,188 
7,639 
7,938 
7,373 
7,672 

3,246 
2,864 
3, 035 
2,662 
2, 826 
2,463 
2,303 
2,098 
2,443 
2,263 
2, 626 
2,364 
5,975 
5,603 
6,493 
6, 032 
6,214 
5,753 
5,964 
5,503 
5,698 
5,237 

3,751 
3,359 
3,540 
3,157 
3,331 
2,958 
2,808 
2,593 
2, 948 
2,758 
3,131 
2,858 
6,481 
6,098 
6,998 
6,527 
6,719 
6,248 
6,469 
5,998 
6,203 
5,732 

4,393 
4,021 
4,182 
3,819 
3,973 
3,638 
3,450 
3,255 
3,590 
3,420 
3,773 
3,520 
7,123 
6,760 
7,640 
7,189 
7,361 
6,910 
7,111 
6,660 
6,845 
6,394 

4,928 
4,630 
4,767 
4,428 
4,558 
4,229 
4,035 
3,864 
4,175 
4,029 
4,358 
4,129 
7,708 
7,369 
8,225 
7,798 
7,946 
7,519 
7,696 
7,269 
7, 430 
7,003 

5,161 

4,838 
4,950 

Charleston 

Port  Tampa 

New  Orleans 

Galveston 

Liverpool 

Hamburg 

Antwerp 

Bordeaux 

Gibraltar 

4,636 
4,741 
4.437 
4,218 
4,072 
4,358 
4,237 
4,541 
4,338 
7,891 
7,577 
8,408 
8,006 
8,129 
7,727 
7,879 
7,477 
7,613 
7,211 

454 


REPOET    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Table  VIII. — Comparison  of  distances,  in  nautical  miles,  from  American  and  European 
Atlantic  ports  to  Pacific  ports  via  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  canals. 


From— 

Via — 

To  Yoko- 
hama via 
San  Fran- 
cisco.11 

To  Shang- 
hai via  San 
Francisco" 
and  Yoko- 
hama. 

To  Manila 

via  San 
Francisco  * 
and  Yoko- 
hama. 

To  Sydney 
via  Tahiti. b 

To  Mel- 
bourne1' via 
Tahiti0  and 

Sydney. 

To  Wel- 
lington 

via 
Tahiti.  <» 

New  York 

(Nicaragua . . 

1  Panama 

/Nicaragua.. 

(Panama 

(Nicaragua . . 

1  Panama 

(Nicaragua . . 

(Panama 

(Nicaragua . . 

(Panama 

(Nicaragua . . 

(Panama 

(Nicaragua.. 

1  Panama 

(Nicaragua . . 

(Panama 

JNicaragua.. 
1  Panama . . 
/Nicaragua.. 

(Panama 

(Nicaragua.. 
(Panama 

9,457 
9,835 
9,2-46 
9, 623 
9,037 
9,344 
8,514 
9,069 
8,654 
9,234 
8,837 
9, 335 
12, 187 
12, 574 
12, 704 
13,003 
12, 425 
12, 724 
12,175 
12, 474 
11,909 
12, 208 

10, 507 
10, 885 
10, 297 
10, 684 

9,957 
10, 367 

9,564 
10, 119 

9,704 
10, 284 

9,887 
10, 385 
13, 237 
13, 624 
13,754 
14, 053 
13, 475 
13, 774 
13, 225 
13, 524 
12,959 
13,258 

11,207 
11,585 
10, 997 
11,384 
10, 505 
10, 809 
10, 264 
10, 819 
10,404 
10,984 
10, 587 
11,085 
13, 937 
14, 324 
14,454 
14, 753 
14,175 
14, 474 
13, 925 
14,224 
13, 659 
13, 958 

9,676 
9,852 
9,466 
9,650 
9,250 
9, 451 
8,733 
9,086 
8,873 
9,251 
9,056 
9,352 
12,406 
12, 591 
12, 923 
13, 020 
12, 644 
12, 741 
12, 394 
12. 491 
12, 128 
12, 225 

10,251 

10,427 

10, 041 

9,858 

9,831 

10,006 

9,308 

9,661 

9,448 

9,826 

9,631 

9,927 

12, 981 

13, 166 

13, 498 

13, 595 

13, 219 

13,316 

12, 969 

13, 066 

12, 703 

12, 800 

8,716 

8, 892 
8,505 

Charleston 

Port  Tampa 

New  Orleans 

Galveston 

Liverpool 

Hamburg 

8,2% 
8,491 
7,773 
8,126 
7,913 
8,291 
8,016 
8, 392 
11,446 
11,631 
11,963 
12, 060 
11,684 

Bordeaux 

Gibraltar 

11,781 
11,434 
11, 471 
11,168 
11,265 

»  Via  Honolulu  add  374  miles  for  Nicaragua  and  252  for  Panama. 

b  Omitting  Tahiti  reduces  voyage  from  Brito  by  52  miles. 

"Voyage  from  Brito  to  Sydney  by  way  of  Wellington  is  232  miles  less  than  by  way  of  Tahiti;  from 
Panama  it  is  405  miles  less. 

d  Voyage  from  Brito  to  Wellington  direet  is  185  miles  shorter  than  via  Tahiti,  and  from  Panama  it 
is  358  miles  shorter. 

Table  VIII  shows  very  clearly  that  the  Panama  route  is  the  more  advan- 
tageous for  the  west  South  American  trade,  both  with  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  For  the  commerce  of  Europe  and  the  United  States 
with  every  other  Pacific  country  with  the  exception  of  New  Zealand, 
to  which  the  distances  are  practically  equal,  the  Nicaragua  is  shorter 
than  the  Panama  route.  If  the  call  be  made  at  Tahiti  on  the  voyage 
between  Wellington  and  the  American  Isthmus,  the  Nicaragua  route 
is  somewhat  shorter  than  the  one  across  Panama  for  the  trade  of  North 
Atlantic  countries  with  New  Zealand.  If  this  voyage  be  made  without 
the  call  at  Tahiti,  distance  byway  of  the  two  canal  routes  is  practically 
the  same. 

For  convenience  of  comparison,  the  following  brief  table  is  service- 
able. The  distances  from  New  York,  New  Orleans,  and  Liverpool  by 
way  of  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  Canal  routes  to  San  Francisco, 
Yokohama,  Hongkong,  Sydney,  Wellington,  and  Iquique  are  shown: 


New  York. 

Nicaragua. 

Panama. 

4,921 
9,  167 
11,366 

9,676 
8,716 
4,393 

6,299 
9,835 
11,744 
9,852 
8,892 
4,021 

New  Orleans. 


Nicaragua.   Panama 


Liverpool. 


Nicaragua.   Panama 


San  Francisco 

Yokohama 

Hongkong 

Sydney  via  Tahiti  ... 
Wellington  via  Tahiti 
Iquique 


4,118 
8, 654 
10, 563 
8,873 
7,913 
3,590 


4,698 
9,234 

11,143 
9,261 
8,291 
3,420 


7, 661 

12, 187 
14,096 
12, 406 
11,4 46 
7, 123 


8,038 

rj,.r>7i 
1 1.  (83 
12,591 
11,631 
6,760 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  455 

Chapter  XVIII. —  Cargo  tonnage  of  the  existing  maritime  commerce 
that  might  use  an  isthmian  canal,  1898-99. 

The  attempt  is  made  in  the  following  chapters  to  measure  with  all 
possible  accuracy  the  amount  of  the  ocean  shipping  and  commerce 
which  would  use  the  isthmian  waterway  at  the  present  time  if  the  route' 
were  in  existence.  The  latest  statistics  of  ocean  shipping  and  of  the 
commodity  traffic  of  which  maritime  commerce  is  composed  have  been 
carefully  examined  and  are  analytically  set  forth  in  these  chapters  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  the  volume  of  the  traffic  reservoir  from 
which  the  commerce  of  the  canal  would  be  drawn. 

The  results  of  three  distinct  statistical  investigations  are  here  pre- 
sented, two  of  which  were  made  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
and  one  by  the  new  Panama  Canal  Company.  The  investigations  hav- 
ing been  made  without  reference  to  each  other,  afford  an  exceptional 
opportunity  for  a  comparison  of  results  obtained  by  different  methods 
and  for  testing  the  accuracy  of  the  conclusions  reached  by  the  several 
inquiries. 

One  of  the  two  studies  made  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
examined  the  statistics  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  our  own  country, 
and  those  of  several  European  countries,  for  the  purpose  of  determin- 
ing how  many  tons  of  cargo  or  how  much  freight  the  trade  of  those 
countries  might  have  contributed  to  the  traffic  through  an  American 
interoceanic  canal  in  1899.  The  investigation,  the  results  of  which  are 
presented  in  this  chapter,  has  gone  fully  into  every  essential  detail 
concerning  which  information  was  obtainable;  and  in  the  compar- 
atively limited  field  where  estimates  were  unavoidable  because  of 
insufficient  official  data,  the  figures  have  been  subjected  to  such  criti- 
cal tests  as  were  applicable. 

The  other  statistical  investigation  conducted  by  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  finding  out  the  tonnage  of 
the  vessels  which  would  pass  through  the  canal  :i  it  were  now  in  exist- 
ence. This  inquiry  involved  a  study  of  the  statistics  kept  by  the  lead- 
ing commercial  nations  of  the  entrances  and  clearances  of  the  vessels 
now  engaged  in  the  commerce  between  the  ports  so  situated  that  their 
maritime  trade  might  have  made  use  of  an  interoceanic  canal.  The 
third  investigation  described  in  the  following  chapters  is  the  one  made 
by  the  new  Panama  canal  company  to  ascertain  the  tonnage  of  the 
vessels  that  during  recent  years  have  been  engaged  in  commerce  that 
might  have  passed  through  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
the  new  Panama  canal  company  having  courteously  permitted  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  to  present  in  this  report  the  results  of  an 
elaborate  study. 

NATURE  AND   LIMITATIONS  OF   THE    INFORMATION  AVAILABLE    FROM 
OFFICIAL   STATISTICS. 

The  statistics  of  the  internal  commerce  of  the  United  States  and  of 
other  countries  give  the  volume  of  business  in  tons.  The  traffic  of 
the  railways,  rivers,  and  canals,  and  the  productions  of  our  mines  and 
furnaces  are  measured  by  the  ton  unit,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
products  of  our  farms  and  forests  when  in  the  possession  of  the  trans- 
portation agent.     The  statistical  units  of  weight  most  familiar  to  the 


456  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

people  of  the  United  States  are  the  short  ton  of  2,000  pounds  and  the 
"long"  ton  of  2,240.  The  long  ton  is  not  employed  so  much  in  this 
country  as  it  formerly  was,  but  in  the  United  Kingdom  the  ton  of 
2,240  pounds  is  still  more  generall}7  used  than  the  short  ton.  In  coun- 
tries that  have  adopted  the  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures 
the  ton  weighs  2,204  pounds. 

In  the  Government  statistics  of  ocean  commerce  no  record  is  made 
of  the  cargo  or  weight  tonnage  of  the  commodities  carried,  and  the 
volume  of  business  done  is  expressed  in  terms  of  vessel  tonnage.  The 
"  gross  register  tonnage"  of  a  ship  is  its  capacity  in  cubic  feet  divided 
by  100,  and  its  "net  register  tonnage"  is  determined  by  dividing  by 
100  the  cubic  feet  of  space  available  in  the  vessel  for  cargo.  Maritime 
commercial  statistics  are  usually  given  in  net  register  tonnage.  To 
those  who  are  directly  concerned  with  maritime  commerce  the  statis- 
tics of  vessel  tonnage  are  a  readily  understood  index  of  the  volume  of 
commodity  traffic;  but  to  many  if  not  most  men  engaged  in  industrial 
pursuits  the  cargo  ton  of  2,000  or  2,240  pounds  is  the  customary  unit 
employed  in  measuring  the  volume  of  trade,  and  figures  of  net  tonnage 
have  little  significance  until  they  have  been  converted  into  tons  of 
weight. 

It  was  believed  that  a  statement  of  the  cargo  tonnage  or  the  amount 
of  freight  that  would  make  use  of  an  isthmian  canal  if  it  were  now  in 
existence  would  be  of  value  for  several  reasons.  The  business  world 
being  accustomed  to  consider  the  amount  of  traffic  in  terms  of  the 
cargo  ton,  a  statement  in  that  unit  of  the  volume  of  available  canal 
traffic  would,  it  was  thought,  convey  definite  information  that  would 
be  readily  comprehended  without  being  translated.  The  statistics  of 
the  cargo  tonnage  of  ocean  commerce  permit  comparisons  to  be  made 
with  the  statistics  of  internal  traffic,  while  statements  of  vessel  ton- 
nage do  not.  The  saving  in  freight  rates,  furthermore,  that  the  open- 
ing of  an  isthmian  canal  would  make  possible  can  be  more  intelligently 
considered  by  knowing  the  volume  of  cargo  freight  that  would  now 
use  the  waterway.  Ocean  rates,  like  railway  freight  charges,  are 
levied  on  the  cargo  ton  of  weight  or  measurement,  but  unlike  the 
statistics  of  railway  traffic,  those  of  maritime  commerce  give  no  data 
regarding  freight  tonnage. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics  in  the  Department  of  the 
Treasury  collects  the  statistics  of  our  foreign  trade,  and  in  its  monthly 
and  annual  publications  gives  the  value  of  imports  and  exports  by 
classes  of  commodities  and  by  ports.  Tables  are  also  published  giving 
the  values  and,  in  many  cases,  the  quantities  of  the  commodities 
exported  from  each  port  to  foreign  countries  as  a  whole;  similarly, 
the  values  and  usually  the  quantities  of  the  imports  entering  our 
several  ports  from  foreign  countries,  taken  collectively,  are  given. 
Though  these  tables  are  elaborate  and  of  great  value,  they  do  not  give 
the  amount  of  trade  by  articles  and  quantities  carried  on  between  our 
several  ports  and  the  countries  with  which  we  exchange  commodities. 

It  is  not  possible  to  obtain  the  actual  cargo  tonnage  of  the  total  foreign 
trade  of  the  United  States  directly  from  our  official  statistics,  because 
the  published  tables  seldom  give  the  weights  of  the  commodities,  fre- 
quently do  not  state  the  quantities,  and  in  no  instance  is  the  ocean 
freight  tonnage  stated.  This  is  equally  true  of  the  commercial  statis- 
tics compiled  by  foreign  countries. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  457 

It  is  likewise  impossible  to  ascertain  from  the  published  tables  the 
kinds  and  quantities  of  commodities  that  constitute  the  trade  carried 
on  through  and  by  our  several  ports  with  different  countries.  Our 
published  statistics  indicate  the  foreign  trade  carried  on  at  each  port 
of  the  United  States;  and  the  distribution  of  our  entire  trade  among 
the  several  countries  is  shown,  but  it  is  in  the  form  of  total  values.  - 
The  Bureau  of  Statistics  possesses  the  data  necessary  for  this  analytical 
presentation,  by  articles,  of  the  trade  of  our  respective  ports  with  each 
foreign  country,  but  the  tables  which  such  a  presentation  would  require 
would  be  so  voluminous  as  to  make  their  publication  for  all  ports 
impracticable.  A  table  would  need  to  be  constructed  for  each  port  or 
customs  district,  showing  its  trade  with  each  foreign  country  in  each 
article  or  class  of  articles  imported  and  exported.  There  are  at  the 
present  time  more  than  50  maritime  custom  districts,  trading  more  or 
less  with  92  foreign  countries,  by  exchanging  some  or  all  of  the  661 
articles  in  the  classified  list  of  the  commodities. 

Not  being  able  to  obtain  from  the  published  tables  the  data  neces- 
sary for  the  calculation  of  the  cargo  tonnage  of  our  ocean  commerce 
that  would  now  make  use  of  an  isthmian  waterway,  the  resort  was  had 
to  the  unpublished  folios,  access  to  which  was  courteously  given  by 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics.  The  facts  concerning  the  trade 
of  each  port  were  copied  from  these  folios,  and  two  sets  of  tables  were 
constructed,  one  for  the  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States  and  one  for 
the  Atlantic.  The  tables  constructed  for  the  Pacific  ports  showed  for 
each  port  the  values  and,  when  obtainable,  the  quantities  of  each  class 
of  articles  imported  and  exported  in  the  trade  carried  on  with  each 
foreign  country  on  the  Atlantic.  Similar  tables  were  made,  giving 
the  trade  of  each  Atlantic  port  with  each  Pacific  country. 

Having  secured  the  mass  of  data  contained  in  these  compilations, 
the  work  of  converting  quantities  and  values  of  commodities  into  their 
cargo  tonnage  equivalents  was  begun,  and  the  results  of  the  calcula- 
tions were  four  comparatively  small  tables  giving  the  values  and  the 
cargo  tonnage  of  the  imports  and  exports  composing  the  trade  which 
our  Pacific  ports  had  with  the  Atlantic  countries  in  1898-99,  and  which 
our  Atlantic  ports  had  with  Pacific  countries  the  same  year.  These 
four  tables  give  the  value  and  the  cargo  tonnage  of  the  maritime  for- 
eign commerce  of  the  United  States  which  might  have  used  the  isth- 
mian canal  had  it  been  in  existence  during  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1899. 

The  discussion  of  methods  as  well  as  results  can  be  given  more  advan- 
tageously with  the  tables  in  hand.  The  four  tables  present  (1)  the 
value  and  cargo  tonnage  of  the  imports  into  each  of  our  Atlantic  ports 
from  the  Pacific  foreign  countries  traded  with;  (2)  the  exports  from 
each  Atlantic  port  to  those  countries;  (3)  the  value  and  cargo  tonnage 
of  the  imports  into  each  Pacific  port  from  each  Atlantic  foreign  coun- 
try dealt  with,  and  (4)  the  value  and  cargo  tonnage  of  the  exports  from 
each  of  our  Pacific  ports  to  each  Atlantic  country  to  which  commodi- 
ties were  sent.  Table  V  is  inserted  in  a  later  connection,  where  the 
totals  of  the  first  four  tables  are  discussed. 


458 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


I. — Atlantic  coast  imports  from  foreign  Pacific  countries,  values  and  cargo  tons,  year  ending 

June  SO,  1899. 


Customs  districts. 

Chile. 

Ecuador  and 
Peru. 

Salvador 
and  British 

Columbia. 

Hawaii. 

■c^u.;    lvalue.. 

$76, 393 
4, 204. 1 

Baltimore Itons 

[value . . 

Itons  ... 

lvalue.. 

$61,640 
14,520 
$61,310 
3,921.9 
$93, 308 
3,413.9 
$101,701 
8, 479. 2 

»$70, 307 
»3,140 

$5 

.  l 

Breton fej»- 

Charleston,  S.C gg™;; 

Delaware fif;; 

New  York 

value .. 

$25,000 

564.3 

lvalue . . 
tons  ... 
value . . 

$2, 245, 533 

103, 490. 3 

$11,723 

879.4 

$2,301,984 
29, 140. 3 

*>  $296, 693 
2, 107. 2 

87,954,770 

95, 866. 4 

value .. 

value . . 

8109,542 

15,517.6 

$463, 672 

Philadelphia -jto] 

5, 4cS0. 6 

Portsmouth  and  Falmouth 

$300 

5 

(value.. 

$35, 295 
1,364.7 

Savannah 1tol 

$43, 240 
488. 1 

(value .. 

^tal {£«» 

$2, 796, 475 
155,821.1 

82,372,291 

32, 280. 3 

$296, 693 
2, 107. 2 

$8, 486. 987 
102, 410. 5 

Customs  districts. 

British  Aus- 
tralia and 
Aukland. 

China. 

Japan. 

Hongkong. 

$7, 999 
89.8 

$125, 680 
2,501.8 

$190,215 

13, 602. 9 

value .. 
tons  ... 

$464,011 

1,607.2 

$145, 232 
784.5 

$94, 265 
2, 567. 5 

8242,292 

7, 118. 3 

lulls   ... 

value  .. 

$13, 628 
350.9 

tuns  . . . 

n                           r\  n 

value . . 
tons  ... 

$20 
.6 

84,305 

44.3 

$■162 

8.6 

$5,921 
77.8 

$328 

2.5 

•Peru. 


>>  British  Columbia,  $14,168. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


459 


I. — Atlantic  coast  imports  from  foreign  Pacific  countries,  etc. — Continued. 


Customs  districts. 

British  Aus- 
tralia and 
Aukland. 

China. 

Japan. 

Hongkong. 

$133, 828 

116.5 

$3,072,191 

29,469.1 

$234 

4.7 

$7, 079, 664 

109,557.4 

$1,424 

Newark Uons 

20.2. 

New  York \j^e" 

$8,510,473 
95, 802. 2 

$1, 437, 966 

Perth  Ambov   /value.. 

Philadelphia {tons6" 

$163,011 
676.8 

$68, 212 
1,935 

$110, 189 
2,306 

$9, 279 
524.4 

$270 

3 

$313 

3.4 

Richmond -w^6'* 

$582 
7.6 

Savannah {tons... 

$200 
3 

Galveston -f7aiue"" 

$472 
6.2 

Key  West |tons   ;; 

MoMe jtons." 

New  Orleans (Value.. 

$76 
1 

$44, 982 
2,717.2 

$49, 186 
1,510.6 

£5, 292 

Pearl  River jvalue.. 

30.3 

Pensaeola {tons.:." 

TamPa {tons.:: 

saiuna {tons.:: 

Total gS»:: 

$3,833,719 
21, 778. 7 

$8,781,665 
101, 381. 5 

$7,480,024 
118,892.3 

$1,886,796 
36, 369 

Customs  districts. 


Philippine 
Islands. 


Total  Hong- 
kong and 
Philippines. 


Total  all 
others. 


Grand  total. 


Baltimore 

Beaufort,  S.C 

Boston  and  Charlestown... 

Bridgeton 

Charleston,  S.C 

Delaware 

Georgetown,  D.  C 

Hartford 

Newark 

New  York 

Norfolk  and  Portsmouth... 

Perth  Amboy 

Philadelphia 

Portsmouth  and  Falmouth 

Providence  

Richmond 

Savannah 

Wilmington,  N.  C 


(value.. 
Itons  ... 
/value . . 
Itons  . .. 
/value . . 
(tons  ... 

!  value .. 
tons  ... 
value . . 
tons  ... 
/value .. 
\tons  ... 
/value . . 
\tons  ... 
/value . . 
\tons  ... 
/value.. 
\tons  ... 
f  value., 
^tons  ... 
/value . . 
Itons  ... 

i  value., 
tons  ... 
value . . 
tons  ... 
/value . . 
(tons  ... 
/value.. 
\tons  ... 
/value., 
(tons  ... 
/value.. 
\tons  ... 

{value . . 
tons  ... 


$190, 215 
13, 602. 9 


$210, 072 
6,795.7 


$400,287 
20,398.6 


$850, 578 
18,216.7 


$1,092,870 
25, 335 


3, 100, 485 
41,468.5 


$328 

2.5 

$1,424 

20.2 

$4,538,451 

56,538.9 


$835, 460 

22, 619. 3 

$61,340 

3,921.9 

$106, 936 

3, 764. 8 

$101,701 

8,479.2 

$29, 325 

609. 1 

$6, 383 

86.3 

$134, 062 

121.2 

$31,461,308 

455,437.9 

$11,723 

879.4 


$1,928,330 

47, 954. 3 

$61,340 

3,921.9 

$106, 936 

3,764.8 

$101,701 

8,479.2 

$29, 325 

609.1 

$6, 711 

88.8 

$135, 486 

141.4 

$35, 999, 789 

511,971.8 

$11,723 

879.4 


$221,819 
3, 142. 2 


$231,098 
3,670.6 


$914, 626 

25, 852 

$300 

5 

$270 

3 

$895 

11 

$35,295 

1,864.7 

$200 

3 


$1,145,724 

29, 522. 6 

$300 

5 

$270 

3 

$895 

11 

$35,295 

1,364.7 

$200 

3 


460  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

I. — Atlantic  coast  imports  from  foreign  Pacific  countries,  etc. — Continued. 


Customs  districts. 

Philippine 
Islands. 

Total  Hong- 
kong and 
Philippines. 

Total  all 
others. 

Grand  total. 

Itons  ... 

8472 
6.2 

8472 
6  2 

\tons  ... 

85,292 
30.3 

8137, 484 
4,716.9 

8142, 776 

\tons  ... 

\tons  ... 

Tampa lvalue.. 

\tons  ... 

\tons  ... 

844 
.5 

844 

.5 

844 

.6 

^1 {gS«:: 

84,172,926 
62, 831. 9 

86, 059, 722 
99,200.9 

834,047,852 
634, 371. 6 

840, 107, 604 
633,672.5 

II. — Atlantic  coast  exports  to  foreign  Pacific  countries,  values  and  cargo  tons,  year  ending 

June  SO,  1899. 


Customs  districts. 

Chile. 

Bolivia, 
Ecuador, 
and  Peru. 

Salvador 
and  British 
Columbia. 

Hawaii. 

British  Aus- 
tralia and 
Auckland. 

„„-,.,. „                               fvalue.. 

86,000 
3,000 

833,248 
12,335 

8524, 099 
20, 691 

tons  . . . 

Beaufort,  S.C \ 

itons  ... 

Boston  and  Charlestown ... 

lvalue . . 

889, 408 
835. 2 

value.. 

value.. 

tons  . . . 

tons  ... 

tons  . . . 

Norfolk  and  Portsmouth  ...• 

value., 
tons  . . . 
value., 
tons  . . . 
value.. 

81,984,661 

44, 480. 7 

86, 638 

3, 250 

■81,936,464 
» 27, 802. 4 

« 87, 700 
•  4, 400 

»>  8282, 072 
"6,339.3 

8659, 387 

12,359.5 

816,813 

8,407 

824,420 

2,267.6 

85,400 

462.7 

815,865,902 
337, 017. 1 

tons  . . . 

value., 
tons  ... 

83, 888 
2,350 

Portland  and  Falmouth « 

tons  ... 

value.. 

tons  ... 

value.. 

(68,242 

11  214 

tons  ... 

value.. 

tons  . . . 

value.. 

tons  ... 

V           XIT 

value.. 

value.. 

•Bolivia  and  Ecuador,  value,  8806,592;  tons,  12,051.8. 
bNew  York  to  British  Columbia,  value,  84,144;  tons,  65.8. 
•Norfolk  and  Portsmouth  to  Peru,  value,  87,700;  tons,  4,400. 
997.5. 


Pensacola  to  Peru,  value,  85,626;  tons, 


BEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    OANAL    COMMISSION. 


461 


II. — Atlantic  coast  exports  to  foreign  Pacific  countries,  etc. — Continued. 


Customs  districts. 

Chile. 

Bolivia, 
Ecuador, 
and  Peru. 

Salvador, 
and  British 
Columbia. 

Hawaii. 

British  Aus- 
tralia and 
Auckland. 

•822, 631 

»3,485.4 

"85,525 

>>  997. 5 

$ll,15d 

1,122.4 

823, 304 

3,884 

/value . . 
(tons  ... 

Total 

82,001,187 
53, 080. 7 

81,972,260 
36, 685. 3 

8282,072 
6, 339. 3 

$739,268 
35,821.7 

816, 582, 105 
374, 763. 7 

Customs  districts. 

China  and 
Hongkong. 

Japan. 

Asiatic  Rus- 
sia and 
Korea. 

French  and 
German 
Oceania. 

(value . . 

(tons  ... 

/value.. 

830, 416 
11, 739 

/value . . 

Boston  and  Charlestown  . 

/value.. 

Itons  ... 

/value.. 

Itons  ... 

/value . . 

(tons  . . . 

/value .. 

(tons  . . . 

/value.. 

(tons  . . . 

(value.. 

8185 

2 

84,841,684 

170, 856. 7 

810, 000 

1,000 

8348 

8 

8970, 369 

80, 650. 3 

(tons  ... 

Norfolk  and  Portsmouth.. 

/value., 
(tons  ... 
/value.. 

812, 073, 176 
"301,835.5 

8807, 935 
8, 954. 3 

817, 763 
993.3 

(tons  . . . 

/value.. 

(tons ... 

i  value.. 

8628, 048 
4,220.8 

1  tons . . . 

/value.. 

1  tons  . . . 

/value.. 

1  tons  . . . 

/value.. 

(tons  . . . 

/value.. 

810, 000 
1,000 

(tons ... 

/value.. 

\tons . . . 

/value.. 

$440, 971 

11,902 

873, 860 

7,386 

814, 289 

433.1 

$444, 696 

12,097.2 

/value.. 

(tons  . . . 

(value.. 

813,898 
421.2 

' 'Itons  ... 

(tons  . . . 

/value.. 

88, 400 

2,100 

823, 574 

3,929 

(tons . . . 

/value.. 

(tons  . . . 

/value., 
(tons  . . . 

Total 

812, 715, 122 
306, 477. 5 

86, 868, 792 
303, 103. 8 

8807, 935 
8,954.3 

$17, 763 
993. 3 

»  Pearl  River  to  Bolivia  and  Ecuador,  value,  822,631;  tons,  3,485.4. 

*  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth  to  Peru,  value,  87,700;  tons,  4,400.    Pensacola  to  Peru,  value,  85,525;  tons, 
997.5. 

•  Of  this  total,  Hongkong's  share  was  81,775,634  and  105,704.7  tons  of  cargo.    New  York  was  the  only 
customs  district  of  the  Eastern  seaboard  that  exported  to  Hongkong  in  1899. 


462 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


II. — Atlantic  coast  exports  to  foreign  Pacific  countries,  etc. — Continued. 


Customs  districts. 

Philippine 
Islands. 

Total  Hong- 
kong and 
Philippines. 

Total  all 
other. 

Grand  total. 

$29, 690 
13, 151. 6 

$29, 690 
13,151.6 

$563,347 

36,026 

$30, 416 

11,739 

889, 408 
8&5.2 

$593. 037 

49,177.6 

8-0,416 

11.739 

$89,  108 

Boston  and  Charlestown {tons   ' 

835. 2 

Bndgeton |tong 

Delaware {tons.!: 

Georgetown,  D.C {tons 

Hartford {tons    " 

8185 

2.5 

836, 693, 340 

804, 934. 1 

$41, 151 

17, 057 

$24, 768 

2, 275. 5 

81, 607, 705 

87, 673. 8 

$185 

Newark {tons..'.' 

2.5 

^w  York  &;; 

Norfolk  and  Portsmouth {tons'6 ' " 

$84, 315 

1,988.9 

$70, 336 

30, 695 

$1,859,949 

107, 693. 6 

$70, 336 

30, 695 

$38,553,289 

912, 627. 7 

$111,487 

47, 752 

824,768 

Perth  Amboy {tons.:! 

2, 275. 5 

$1,607,705 

Philadelphia {tons 

87,673.8 

lvalue 

Portland  and  Falmouth {tons   ' ' 

Providence {tons.:: 

Richmond {tons.:: 

878, 242 
12, 214 

$78,242 

Savannah {tons   " 

12, 214 

Wilmington {tons.:." 

8110,971 

11,902 

$73, 860 

7,386 

$28,187 

854.3 

$444,696 

12, 097. 2 

$22, 631 

3, 485. 4 

$25, 075 

4, 219. 9 

$46, 878 

7,813 

84 10, 971 

Galveston {tvons   ■ 

11,902 

873, 860 

$28, 187 

Mobile {tons.:: 

851.3 

$444,696 

$22, 631 

Pearl  River {tons.:: 

3, 485. 4 

826, 075 

Pensacola {tons..".' 

4,219.9 

846,  878 

TamPa {tons.:: 

7,813 

Total {J5£: 

$1X4,341 
45,  835. 5 

$1,959,975 
161,540.2 

$40, 210, 860 
1,020,514.9 

$42,170,835 
1,172,055.1 

Total,  plus  873  tons  of  miscellaneous  foreign  exports  not  included  in  the  table,  1,172,928.1  tons. 

III. — Pacific  coast  imports  from  foreign  Atlantic  countries,  values  and  cargo  tons,  year 

ending  June  SO,  1899. 


Customs  districts. 

Austria- 
Hungary. 

Belgium. 

Den- 
mark. 

France. 

Germany. 

Italy. 

Nether- 
ln in  is. 

Los  Angeles {tSs!!! 

$1 ,  742 
65.8 

$28, 559 
2, 908. 1 
812, 352 
1,678.1 
811,917 
5,642.4 

$10,580 
112.4 

$76, 3 18 
3, 910. 1 

$574 
1 

82,  193 
21.8 

Oregon, Oreg    --.{toIls    " 

Puget  Sound fens'6"' 

$2 
0.1 

$81 
1.6 

$1,444 

7.3 

$69 

3 

J678, 731 

7,815 

82,555 

19.5 

$10, 331 

148.2 

$12, 929 

2,852.3 

$880, 382 

41,988.9 

$17,601 

5, 085. 6 

$19 
0.8,, 

$92 
1 

SanDiego {t()tls    ' 

02 
16,946.9 
$124,960 
1 1 ,  583. 8 

8188,650 
8,646.4 

$39,  503 
2, 107.  2 

San  Francisco  -.-{tY,ns    " 

Willamette  %££?.". 

^1 Ce.:: 

$1,714 
65.9 

81,093,290 
67  659.3 

$81 
1.6 

8693, 379 

7,957.2 

$1,057,594 
53, 985. 1 

8228,746 

5,  755.  4 

$2, 3X5 
22. 3 

REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


463 


III. — Pacific  coast  imports  from  foreign  Atlantic  countries,  etc. — Continued. 


Customs  districts. 

Sweden 

and 
Norway. 

Switzer- 
land. 

United 
Kingdom. 

East 
Canada. 

West 
Indies. 

Brazil. 

Total. 

$1,377 
7.5 

81,080 
3 

$74, 322 
6, 838. 6 
$716 
79.3 
$26,  SCO 
1,891.1 
$89,  588 

$1,  806,  509 

137,236.3 

$131 , 697 

6, 482. 1 

$100 
3 

$30 

$197, 015 

Los  Angeles ■ 

Inns  .  .  . 

1)3,870.8 

$13, 068 

Oregon,  Oreg •! 

»■• 

1,757.4 

$46 
2 

$68 
2.6 

880, 860 

Puget  Sound  — -. 

7, 597. 1 

$132,586 

$213, 604 
310.5 

$3, 650 
12.1 

15, 148. 8 

$4,657,028 

San  Francisco  ...- 

236, 456. 1 

value.. 

$6, 994 
179. 5 

1176 
7 

$957 
34.9 

$354,446 

Willamette i 

25, 499. 6 

*■ 

Total           j 

value . . 
tons  ... 

$8, 371 
187 

81, 302 
12 

$2, 129, 702 
164,820.9 

$1, 125 
40.5 

$213, 634 
310.5 

$3, 650 
12.1 

$5,435,003 
300,829.2 

IV. — Pacific  coast  exports  to  foreign  Atlantic  countries,  values  and  cargo  tons,  year  ending 

June  30,  1899. 


Customs  districts. 


United 
Kingdom. 


Germany. 


Belgium. 


Italy, 
Switzerland. 


Oregon,  Oreg &" 

Puget  Sound j™1^;; 

San  Francisco {tons6"" 

Willamette jgj™" 

^tai jjs™:: 


$92, 324 

1,612 

$2, 815, 647 

124. 183. 8 
$6, 918, 817 

173, 084. 2 
66,249,843 

274. 689. 9 


> $10, 200 
95.6 

828, 000 


8311,500 
"15,483.6 


11 

817, 931 
(b) 


860, 000 
b  5, 572. 7 


=  $37,340 

=  5,184.8 

a  $176 

"6 


$16, 076, 631 
573, 569. 1 


856, 781 
106.6 


8371,500 
21,056.3 


837,516 
5, 190. 8 


Customs  districts. 


South  Africa. 


East  Canada. 


Argentina. 


Total. 


Oregon,  Oreg. 
Puget  Sound . 


fvalue. 
Itons .. 

/value. 
Itons.. 

San  Francisco {tons6' 

rvalue. 
Itons.. 


Willamette. 


8648, 723 
56, 519. 2 
8346, 839 
13,032.3 
$776, 767 
32, 048. 4 


$3, 252 
594.8 


$37, 693 
12, 497. 6 


$102, 524 

1, 707. 6 

83, 539, 679 

191,312.3 

$7, 605, 530 

209, 279 

$7,104,717 

312, 317 


•Total  /value. 

10tal itons.. 


$11,772,329 
101,599.9 


83,252 
594.8 


837, 693 
12, 497. 6 


$18, 352, 450 
714, 615. 9 


» Including  Denmark. 
11  Including  Germany. 


0  All  trade  with  Italy. 

d  All  trade  with  Switzerland. 


Estimates  of  total  scattering  foreign  exports,  value,  $1,078;  tonnage,  715,693. 

In  constructing  these  tables  the  trans-Atlantic  trade  of  our  Gulf  and 
Atlantic  ports  was  omitted  because  it  would  not  be  tributary  to  the 
canal,  and  the  figures  include  only  the  ocean  foreign  commerce  now 
carried  on  by  our  Atlantic  and  Gulf  ports  with  Pacific  countries,  and 
between  our  Pacific  ports  and  countries  on  the  Atlantic.  In  the  case 
of  each  port  named  only  that  part  of  its  foreign  trade  is  given  that 
might  be  directly  affected  by  the  opening  of  the  canal. 

According  to  the  classification  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Sta- 
tistics, the  imports  number  333  classes  and  the  exports  328.  For  each 
item  in  this  list  of  661  commodities  the  value  was  obtainable;  for  some 
of  the  classes  the  number  or  quantities  of  articles  were  reported,  and, 
for  many  commodities,  weights  were  given  in  the  official  statistics. 


464  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

In  all  cases,  however,  the  weights  given  were  net,  covering  only  the 
commodity  and  not  the  packing  or  "tare"  which  constitutes  a  part  of 
the  freight  cargoes  whose  weights  were  to  be  ascertained. 

In  order  to  determine  the  weight  of  the  tare  corresponding  to 
the  weight  or  value  of  the  ordinary  unit  of  each  of  the  many  com- 
modities considered,  a  large  amount  of  detailed  information  had  to  be 
secured  from  business  men  concerning  the  manner  of  shipping  the 
various  articles.  The  difficulties  of  this  and  other  parts  of  the  inves- 
tigations were  somewhat  complicated  by  the  fact  that  many  commodi- 
ties of  bulky  character  are  handled  b}r  ocean  vessels  as  measurement 
cargo,  40  cubic  feet  being  reckoned  as  a  ton  instead  of  2,240  pounds, 
the  weight  ton  commonly  employed  in  maritime  traffic.  In  determin- 
ing the  true  cargo  tonnage  of  goods  shipped  by  the  measurement  ton 
it  was  necessary  to  ascertain  the  cubic  contents,  boxing  included,  of 
some  unit  of  quantity. 

To  reduce  commodity  values  to  weights,  to  find  the  average  tare  for 
net  weights,  to  learn  whether  shipments  were  made  by  weight  or 
measure,  and,  if  by  measure,  to  find  the  weight  or  value  of  a  meas- 
urement ton,  an  extensive  correspondence  was  carried  on  with  men 
engaged  in  foreign  trade.  Representative  business  men  of  the  lead- 
ing commercial  cities  were  requested  to  give  the  assistance  needed,  and 
by  means  of  personal  interviews  and  a  large  correspondence  a  mass  of 
information  was  secured  covering  the  great  bulk  of  both  our  import 
and  export  trade.  In  order  to  insure  the  greatest  possible  accuracy 
for  the  tables  of  cargo  tonnage,  inquiries  regarding  each  line  of  for- 
eign trade  have  been  made  of  representative  firms  of  several  of 
the  large  seaports,  and  in  some  instances  several  firms  were  corre- 
sponded with  concerning  each  commodity  about  which  information 
was  required. 

This  correspondence  extended  over  several  months  and  required  the 
sending  out  of  several  thousand  individual  letters;  but  b}^  means  of 
the  knowledge  obtained  from  the  business  men,  who  generously  gave 
the  time  required  to  reply  to  the  requests  for  information,  it  was  pos- 
sible to  prepare  the  above  tables  by  converting,  item  b}^  item,  into 
equivalent  cargo  tons,  the  values  of  nearly  all  of  the  articles  that  our 
various  ports  would  have  imported  and  exported  by  way  of  an  isthmian 
canal  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1899.  Although  it  was 
not  possible  to  get  the  requisite  data  for  converting  every  item,  there 
are  but  5.7  per  cent  of  the  imports,  and  2.4  per  cent  of  exports  included 
in  the  above  tables  that  were  not  converted  according  to  the  method 
just  described.  The  small  quantity  of  imports  and  exports  for  which 
it  was  not  possible  to  secure  satisfactory  factors  to  use  in  changing 
values  to  cargo  tons  were  converted  by  using  for  the  multiplier  the 
average  ratio  of  values  to  tons. 

These  residuary  values  and  quantities  consisted  largely  of  these 
unclassified  articles  of  import  and  export.  In  classifying  the  multitude 
of  commodities  handled  in  international  trade,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
include  in  the  larger  divisions  of  the  classification  a  group  entitled  "All 
other."  For  instance,  in  the  general  classification  of  the  exports  of  the 
United  States  the  division  "Iron  and  steel  and  manufactures  of"  eon- 
tains  42  specific  classes  and  also  such  general  groupings  as  "All  other 
manufactures  of  iron  and  steel,"  "All  other  machinery,"  and  "Tools 
not  otherwise  specified."  For  converting  the  indefinite  or  unspecitied 
classes  it  was  necessary  to  assume  that  the  relation  of  the  values  to  the 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    OANAL    COMMISSION.  465 

cargo  tonnage  was  the  .same  as  it  was  for  the  specified  classes  of  their 
general  division  of  the  classification.  The  value  of  "All  other  machin- 
ery," for  example,  was  converted  by  assuming  that  the  ratio  of  value 
to  weight  and  bulk  was  equal  to  the  average  for  the  11  specified  classes 
of  machinery;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  results  obtained  in  this  man- 
ner were  nearly  correct.  This  same  method  of  conversion  was  applied- 
to  the  unspecified  classes  of  imports. 

It  was  not  practicable  in  the  case  of  every  general  grouping  entitled 
"All  other,  etc.,"  to  secure  an  average  ratio  to  use  as  a  factor  for  con- 
verting values  to  tons;  consequently,  a  part  of  the  values  comprised 
within  these  general  groups  was  included  with  the  residuary  quantities 
that  were  dealt  with  according  to  the  method  described  in  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs: 

After  having  converted  the  specified  classes  of  imports  and  exports 
and  as  many  as  possible  of  the  classes  or  grouping  entitled  "All  other" 
or  "Not  otherwise  specified,"  it  was  found  that  96  per  cent  of  the 
total  value  of  the  maritime  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States  avail- 
able for  canal  traffic  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1900 — in 
round  numbers,  $101,000,000  out  of  $105,000,000— had  been  accounted 
for. 

The  remaining  4  per  cent  unaccounted  for  consisted  partly  of  the 
unclassified  imports  and  exports — the  general  residuum  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  tables  of  imports  and  exports  published  by  the  Bureau  of 
Statistics,  and  designated  "  all  other  articles  not  elsewhere  specified" — 
and  were  also  made  up  partly  of  the  commodities  concerning  which 
the  Commission  secured  no  information  in  regard  to  the  relation  of 
values  to  cargo  tons. 

A  classification  of  commodities  could  hardly  be  constructed  that 
would  find  an  appropriate  class  for  every  article  listed  in  the  mer- 
chants' invoice  or  sales  book,  and  a  final  grouping  of  "all  other  articles 
not  elsewhere  specified  "  is  practically  necessary  in  making  up  tables 
of  imports  and  exports  such  as  are  published  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Statistics.  The  total  value  of  the  unclassified  commodities 
that  had  to  be  dealt  with  in  constructing  the  above  tables  of  cargo  tons 
of  the  traffic  available  for  an  isthmian  canal  was  small,  and  the  change 
from  value  to  tons  was  made  by  assuming  these  articles  to  have  the 
same  average  weight  and  capacity  as  had  equal  values  of  typical  and 
carefully  selected  classified  articles.  The  average  of  these  other  com- 
modities was  taken  as  the  standard. 

The  classified  commodities  concerning  which  no  information  was 
secured  to  assist  in  the  conversion  of  their  values  into  equivalent  cargo 
tonnage  consisted  to  a  limited  extent  of  shipments  so  small  in  quantity 
as  not  to  justify  an  investigation  of  them,  but  most  of  these  commodi- 
ties were  made  up  of  articles  which  varied  so  much  in  value,  bulk,  and 
packing  that  no  reliable  estimates  regarding  them  could  be  secured 
from  shippers. 

Imported  commodities  constituted  the  greater  part — 65  per  cent — 
of  the  values  that  had  to  be  converted  by  means  of  general  averages. 
This  was  to  be  expected  in  view  of  the  fact  that  our  exports  consist  so 
largely  of  such  articles  as  raw  materials  and  heavy  manufactures  whose 
weight  and  measurement  are  readily  ascertainable,  while  our  imports 
contain  a  large  variety  of  manufactures  and  other  articles  whose  weight 
and  bulk  are  difficult  to  determine. 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 30* 


466  KEPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

This  fact  is  well  illustrated  by  comparing  the  import  and  export 
trade  of  our  Pacific  ports.  The  exports  from  the  Pacific  ports  were 
made  up  so  largely  of  raw  materials  or  food  products  that  over  99.9 
per  cent  could  be  converted  from  values  and  quantities  to  tons.  On 
the  contrary,  in  the  case  of  the  imports  from  Europe  to  the  Pacific 
coast — a  rich  agricultural  section  with  but  little  manufacturing  activ- 
ity— data  could  be  secured  to  convert  only  88  per  cent  of  the  total. 
The  amount  of  these  imports,  however,  is  small,  and  the  necessity  of 
converting  12  per  cent  of  their  total  value  by  indirect  methods  was 
consequently  not  a  serious  matter.  Ninety -five  per  cent  of  the  Atlantic 
imports  from  the  Pacific  was  directly  converted,  and  for  the  Atlantic 
exports  to  the  Pacific  the  percentage  was  96.5  per  cent. 

The  commodities  for  which  no  specified  data  could  be  secured — 
$4,000,000  worth — were  converted  by  means  of  general  averages,  ob- 
tained in  the  manner  described  below.  The  imports  and  exports  of 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  seaboards  were  converted  by  using  different 
factors  because  of  the  diverse  characteristics  of  the  trade  of  the  two 
coasts. 

For  all  the  exports  of  the  Pacific  coast,  except  a  few  from  San  Fran- 
cisco, factors  were  obtained  for  the  direct  conversion  of  each  com- 
modity from  values  to  tons,  and  the  San  Francisco  exports  not  otherwise 
accounted  for  were  assumed  to  average  the  same  as  the  other  exports 
from  that  city  to  Europe. 

Twelve  per  cent  of  the  imports  to  the  Pacific  coast  from  Atlantic 
countries  had  to  be  converted  by  securing  an  acceptable  average  ratio 
of  values  to  tons.  More  than  25  per  cent  of  the  imports  came  from 
England  to  San  Francisco  and  comprised  a  wide  range  of  articles. 
These  San  Francisco  imports  from  England  included  coal  and  precious 
stones  as  two  important  items,  and  after  deducting  the  values  of  these 
two  commodities  the  remaining  San  Francisco  imports  were  used  to 
obtain  the  factor  by  which  the  values  of  the  unconverted  12  per  cent 
residuum  of  Pacific  coast  imports  from  Atlantic  countries  was  changed 
from  values  to  cargo  tons. 

Of  the  Atlantic  coast  exports  to  Pacific  countries  those  sent  to 
British  Australasia  are  the  most  typical  and  the  most  important, 
amounting  to  over  one-third  of  the  whole.  Inasmuch  as  these  exports 
to  Australasia  consisted  of  substantial  amounts  of  nearly  all  classes  of 
commodities  shipped  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  Pacific,  it  was 
thought  that  their  average  was  the  best  one  to  take  for  converting  from 
values  to  tons  the  small  share  of  the  export  trade  to  the  Pacific  that 
had  not  been  directly  accounted  for. 

The  unconverted  Atlantic  imports  from  the  Pacific  were  reduced  to 
tons  by  making  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  imports  the  standard.  This 
was  done  because  from  those  countries  the  widest  range  of  the  most 
typical  articles  was  received. 

The  methods  and  standards  followed  in  changing  the  values  of  the 
imports  and  exports  here  under  consideration  into  cargo  tons  of 
weight  or  measurement  have  been  full}r  explained  because  it  is  upon 
those  methods  and  standards  that  the  accuracy  of  the  results  primarily 
depends.  While  the  results  obtained  are  necessarily  approximately 
rather  than  absolutely  exact,  it  is  believed  that  the  figures  contained 
in  the  foregoing  tables  are  as  close  to  the  truth  as  they  can  be  brought 
by  careful  statistical  work.  Having  described  the  manner  in  which 
the  tables  were  constructed  and  how  the  results  presented  in  them 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


467 


were  obtained,  attention  may  now  be  directed  to  an  analysis  of  the 
tonnage  totals.  To  facilitate  comparison  the  totals  of  Tables  I  to  IV 
are  summarized  in  the  following  Table  V: 

V. — Vahie  and  cargo  tonnage  of  the  trade  ivhich  the  United  States  woidd  have  had  through 
Cm  isthmian  canal  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  SO,  1899. 


Pacific  coast. 

Atlantic  coast  other 
than  with  Hong- 
kong and  Philip- 
pines. 

Atlantic  coast  with 
Hongkong     and 
Philippines. 

Total  Atlantic. 

Values. 

Cargo 
tons. 

Values. 

Cargo 
tons. 

Values. 

Cargo 
tons. 

Values. 

Cargo 
tons. 

Imports 

85, 435, 003 
18, 352, 450 

300,829.8;f33,751,161 
715.682.91  40.210.860 

534,371.6  56,059,678 
1,020,514.91  1,959,975 

y9, 200. 9 
151, 540. 2 

839, 810, 839 
42,170,835 

633, 572. 5 
1,172,055.1 

Total..   , 

23, 787, 453  1 ,  016, 512. 7|  73, 962, 021 

1, 555, 886. 5 

8, 019, 653 

250,741.1 

81,981,674 

1,805,627.6 

Grand  total:  Values,  8105,769,127;  tons,  2,823,013.3  (including  873  tons  miscellaneous  exports  of  for- 
eign exports). 

The  total  value  of  the  maritime  commerce  of  the  United  States  that 
might  have  used  an  isthmian  canal  to  advantage  during  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1899,  was  $105,769,127.  Of  this  total  trade  the 
Pacific  ports  had  $23,787,453  worth,  and  the  Atlantic,  including  their 
trade  with  the  Philippines  and  Hongkong,  $81,981,674  worth. 
Whether  all  the  trade  carried  on  between  our  eastern  ports  and  the 
Philippines  and  Hongkong  may  properly  be  included  in  this  total 
value  of  the  commerce  of  the  United  States  available  for  canal  traffic 
is  an  important  question  that  is  considered  at  length  in  the  discussion 
which  follows  regarding  the  entrances  and  clearances  of  the  vessels 
that  would  have  used  a  canal  during  the  past  year.  In  this  connection 
it  is  sufficient  to  note  that  the  value  of  the  trade  of  the  Atlantic  coast 
ports  of  the  United  States  with  Hongkong  and  the  Philippines  has 
been  stated  separately. 

The  value  of  the  exports  from  our  west  coast  to  Europe  in  1899, 
$18,352,450,  and  the  corresponding  cargo  tonnage,  715,682.9  tons, 
were  abnormally  small  because  of  the  severe  drought  of  the  year 
1897-98.  The  larger  part  of  tonnage  export  of  that  section  consists 
of  grain,  and  during  the  year  1898-99  the  grain  exports  were  less 
than  50  per  cent  of  their  average  for  the  five  years  preceding.  If  the 
value  of  the  grain  exports  of  the  Pacific  coast  for  the  fiscal  year  1898 
be  substituted  for  those  of  1899  in  the  above  table,  the  total  value  of 
the  west  coast  exports  would  have  equaled  $40,299,881. 

The  exports  other  than  grain  had  practically  the  same  value  in  1898 
and  in  1899.  Had  the  grain  exports  of  1899  been  equal  to  those  of 
1898,  or,  in  other  words,  had  their  amount  been  normal,  the  cargo  ton- 
nage of  the  west  coast  exports  would  have  been  1,328,757  tons  instead 
of  715,682.9  tons,  the  figures  in  the  above  table;  and  the  total  cargo 
tonnage,  instead  of  having  been  2,823,013.3  tons,  as  stated  in  the  table, 
would  have  been  612,874.1  tons  more,  or  3,435,887.4.  This  larger 
total  is  a  much  more  accurate  expression  than  is  the  smaller  total  of 
the  cargo  tonnage  of  maritime  foreign  commerce  available  for  canal 
traffic  during  the  last  two  3Tears.  This  larger  sum  will  be  used  in  the 
comparison  that  will  subsequently  be  made  with  the  tonnage  estimates 
derived  by  other  methods  of  investigations  that  will  be  described  later. 


468  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

THE   AVERAGE   VALUES   OF  THE   CARGO   TON. 

Besides  revealing  the  total  value  and  total  cargo  tonnage  of  the 
import  and  export  trade  which  our  country  might  have  had  by  way 
of  the  proposed  isthmian  waterway  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1899,  the  tables  indicate  some  interesting  differences  in  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  trade  of  our  Atlantic  seaboard  as  compared  with  the  com- 
merce of  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  value  of  the  Atlantic  coast  exports  listed  in  the  tables  was 
$42,170,835,  and  the  cargo  tonnage  of  these  exports  amounted  to 
1,172,055  tons.  This  makes  the  average  value  of  the  cargo  ton  to 
have  been  $35.98.  In  the  case  of  the  Atlantic  coast  imports  consid- 
ered in  the  tables  the  total  value  was  $39,810,839,  the  total  cargo 
tonnage  633,572.5  tons,  and  the  average  value  of  the  ton  £62. 84. 

The  average  values  of  the  cargo  ton  will  doubtless  seem  low  to  many 
persons.  It  must  not,  however,  be  forgotten  that  the  tonnage  here 
given  is  made  up  of  the  commodities  packed  for  shipment.  A  large 
amount  of  weight  and  space  are  taken  up  by  the  packing.  Moreover, 
in  the  case  of  many  commodities,  2,240  pounds  of  the  articles  would  be 
much  more  valuable  than  40  cubic  feet  of  it  would  be,  even  when  no 
allowance  is  made  for  the  space  occupied  by  the  packages  containing 
the  goods.  The  average  values  just  cited  are  those  of  the  ton  of  freight 
as  found  in  the  holds  of  the  ocean  vessel. 

The  cargo  ton  in  these  tables  and  throughout  this  discussion,  it  may 
be  well  to  note,  is  in  some  cases  2,240  pounds;  but  in  other  instances, 
and  more  f requentlv,  it  is  the  measurement  ton  of  40  cubic  feet.  It 
was  impossible  to  make  a  distinction  between  the  weight  ton  and  the 
measurement  ton  in  compiling  the  above  tables,  because  both  are  used 
by  shippers  and  ocean  carriers  without  distinction. 

The  difference  between  the  average  values  of  the  cargo  ton  of 
imports  and  that  of  the  exports  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
exports  to  the  Pacific  markets  consist  largely  of  bulky  manufactures 
of  iron  and  wood,  of  coal  and  petroleum  oil,  whereas  the  average 
value  of  the  imports  from  Pacific  countries  is  kept  high  by  the  Manila 
hemp,  the  products  of  Japan  and  China,  Australian  wool,  and  the  hides, 
skins,  and  furs  from  Australia  and  South  America. 

The  cargo  ton  values  of  both  the  import  and  export  trade  of  the 
Pacific  coast  with  Atlantic  countries  are  low.  The  total  value  of  the 
imports   considered  was  $5,435,003,  and,  their  cargo  tonnage  being 

300.829.8  tons,  the  average  ton  value  was  $18.07.     The  $18,352,450 
worth  of  exports  included  in  the  tables  comprised  a  cargo  tonnage  of 

715.682.9  tons,  the  average  ton  value  being  £25.64. 

The  principal  Pacific  coast  exports  were  wheat,  flour,  barley,  and 
lumber,  and  those  commodities  tended  to  lower  the  average  ton  value. 
Their  effect,  however,  was  to  some  extent  offset  by  the  exportation  of 
canned  salmon  and  vegetables  and  canned  and  dried  fruits.  The  small 
ton  value  of  the  Pacific  coast  imports  from  Atlantic  countries  is 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of  the  tonnage  is  made 
up  of  coal,  salt,  cement,  and  glass.  The  textiles,  gloves,  and  other 
high  priced  European  articles  have  but  a  small  influence  on  the  ton 
value. 

The  amount  of  cargo  tonnage  which  vessels  can  carry  per  gross  or  net 
register  tonnage  varies  with  different  ships,  but  the  ordinary  ratio 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  469 

between  cargo  and  register  is  well  known.  In  the  following  chapter 
tables  are  given  which  show  the  net  register  tonnage  of  the  vessels 
engaged  in  the  commerce  that  would  have  used  an  isthmian  canal  in 
1899.  A  comparison  of  the  figures  of  cargo  tonnage  of  the  part  of  our 
foreign  trade  that  has  been  studied  with  the  net  register  tonnage  of  the 
ships  that  carried  that  trade  will  roughly  check  the  accuracy  of  both- 
the  cargo  and  the  vessel  tonnage  statistics  presented  as  the  result  of 
this  investigation.  Before  making  this  comparison,  however,  it  will  be 
best  to  wait  until  the  tables  of  vessel  tonnage  contained  in  the  discussion 
that  follows  later  have  been  presented  and  analyzed. 

TONNAGE  OF  THE  COMMERCE  BETWEEN  EUROPE  AND  THE  WEST  COAST  OF 
SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA  AND  BRITISH  COLUMBIA  AND  HAWAII. 

Up  to  this  point  the  cargo  tonnage  discussed  has  been  that  of  the 
United  States  only.  Our  own  present  trade  that  would  pass  through 
the  canal  merited  a  detailed  study  because  of  the  importance  of  secur- 
ing as  much  information  as  possible  regarding  the  industrial  and  com- 
mercial value  of  the  canal  to  the  people  of  the  United  States;  but  it 
was  not  thought  that  the  cargo  tonnage  of  the  trade  which  Europe  now 
has  with  the  west  coast  of  South  and  Central  America,  and  with  Brit- 
ish Columbia  and  Hawaii,  need  be  changed  from  values  and  quantities 
into  cargo  tons  in  the  same  detailed  way  that  the  values  of  our  own 
available  canal  commerce  were  converted  into  their  tonnage  equivalents. 

The  large  mass  of  information  which  the  investigation  of  American 
trade  had  furnished  regarding  the  relation  of  values  and  quantities  to 
cargo  tonnage  was  equally  applicable  to  the  commerce  of  foreign 
countries;  and  this  information  enabled  the  conversion  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  trade  of  other  countries  to  be  made  easily  and  quickly. 
The  commodities  not  changed  from  values  to  tons  by  the  direct  method 
were  converted  by  means  of  averages  chosen  in  a  manner  similar  to 
those  methods  used  in  the  conversion  of  American  imports  and  exports. 

It  was  not  considered  necessary  to  determine  the  cargo  tonnage 
which  every  foreign  country  now  has  available  for  canal  traffic.  By 
taking  the  nine  European  countries — the  United  Kingdom,  France, 
Germany,  Belgium,  Holland,  Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  Spain,  and 
.  Sweden — nearly  all  the  commerce  which  foreign  nations  would  have 
with  the  west  coast  of  America  and  Hawaii  was  reached.  Norway  has 
no  commerce  with  this  section,  and  that  of  Greece  and  Russia  is  slight. 
The  trade  of  Europe  with  our  west  coast  was  included  in  the  study  of 
our  canal  commerce. 

The  first  of  the  following  tables  gives  the  cargo  tonnage  of  the  trade 
which  the  nine  European  countries  just  named  had  with  the  west  coast 
of  South  and  Central  America  in  the  calendar  year  1898 — the  figures 
from  Belgium  being  for  1899 — and  shows  how  the  countries  shared  in 
this  commerce.  It  also  indicates  how  the  trade  was  divided  among 
the  several  west  coast  American  nations.  The  table  is  divided  into 
two  sections  for  the  purpose  of  showing  both  the  import  and  export 
cargo  tonnage  for  South  America  and  Central  America  separately. 
In  another  table  the  trade  of  Europe  with  Hawaii  and  British  Columbia 
is  shown. 


470 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Cargo  tonnage  of  the  trade  between  Europe  and  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  and  Central 

America,  1898. 

EUROPEAN  IMPORTS. 


American  coun- 
tries. 

United 
King- 
dom. 

France. 

Germany. 

Bel- 
gium.* 

Hol- 
land. 

Austria- 
Hun- 
gary. 

Italy. 

Spain. 

Swe- 
den. 

Total. 

SOUTH  AMERI- 
CAN. 

9,522 

954, 792 

15,292 

54,083 

9,622 
1,694,435 

Chile 

294,037 

4, 832 

126, 507 

293, 668 

6,397 

30, 342 

124, 519 

4 

16, 876 

12, 461 

39 

6,063 

5,715 

1,888 

547 

4,141 

28, 413 

68, 547 

1 

11, 814 

308, 777 

Total 

425, 430 

330, 407 

1, 033, 689 

141,399 

81,008 

40 

16, 877 

8,150 

4,141 

2,041,147 

CENTRAL  AMER- 
ICA. 

3,770 

390 

3,107 

2, 395 

M.330 

48,895 
•  10, 130 

215 

1, 752 

58, 962 

10, 520 

Nicaragua 

130 

89 
117 

3, 326 

2,512 

1" 

Total 

9, 662 

4,330 

59, 025 

345 

1,958 

75, 320 

EUROPEAN  EXPORTS. 


SOUTH  AMERI- 
CAN. 

10, 870 

119, 348 

17, 443 

43,320 

45 

3, 812 

778 

1,314 

10, 915 

Chile 

460, 255 
11,303 
97,440 

64, 473 
6,140 
13,158 

118, 862 
1,798 
4.900 

2 

14, 745 

781,497 

37, 462 

1 

9,798 

169, 931 

Total 

568, 998 

83,771 

190, 981 

125, 560 

3 

24, 543 

5,949 

999, 805 

CENTRAL  AMER- 
ICAN. 

11,221 

2,081 
7, 583 
7,970 

a  2, 105 

10,224 
•  7, 783 

596 

44 

3,421 

500 

939 

22, 980 

12,013 

Nicaragua 

1 

88 

11,005 



8,558 

Total 

28, 855 

2,105 

18,007 

4,501 

1,028 

54,556 

»  Belgian  figures  are  for  1899.  °  Nicaragua  and  Salvador. 

•>  Including  Costa  Rica  and  Honduras.  d  Including  Nicaragua  and  Salvador. 

« Including  Nicaragua  and  Salvador. 

It  will  be  seen  that  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  entire  cargo  tonnage  of 
the  trade  between  the  nine  European  countries  and  the  west  coast  of 
Spanish  America  consisted  of  imports  from  South  America,  and  that 
four-fifths  of  these  imports  were  from  Chile.  This  indicates  the  pres- 
ent prominence  of  the  nitrate  of  soda  trade. 

In  cargo  tonnage  Germany  ranks  first  among  the  nine  nations  in  the 
trade  with  the  west  coast  of  Spanish  America,  but  in  value  of  com- 
merce the  United  Kingdom  is  much  ahead  of  Germany  because  of  the 
high  value  of  the  British  exports.  Germany's  large  import  tonnage 
is  made  up  mostly  of  nitrate  of  soda  for  use  in  her  chemical  industries, 
and  her  exports  contain  some  coal,  but  consist  largely  of  manufactures. 
The  coal  exports  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  heavy,  but  the  exports, 
as  a  whole,  derive  their  value  mainly  from  the  manufactures. 


DIAGRAM 

OF  TONNAGE 

1888 

AND 

1895- 

-1899 

SAILING      VES3ELS 

CO                                                                                                                                   LO                ID                N                00                ff) 

co                                     Yfc-AR                                       <n           en            en           er>            o>       TONS 
co                                                                                                          co             co             CO             CO             oo 

54 

52 

5,600.0  0  0 

48 

46 

44 

42 

4poo,ooo 

33 

36 

34 

32 

3000,000 

28 

26 

24 

22 

2000,000 

18 

16 

14 

12 

ipO0,O0O 

8 

6 

4 

2 

O 

T 

DTAL 

GR 

OO^J- 

Gfi 

CH{£L.? 

^ 

GR 

OUP  4 

,_- — •■" 

-\ 

GR 

OUP  3 

REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


471 


The  cargo  tonnage  of  the  total  exports  of  the  nine  European  coun- 
tries to  the  section  of  the  American  continents  under  discussion  was 
1,054,361  tons,  and  the  imports  2,116,467  tons.  The  following  table 
'■hows  how  the  trade  was  divided  between  the  South  American  and 
Central  American  countries: 


Summary  of  cargo  tonnage  of  European  imports  and  exports — Trade  with  South  and 

Central  America,  1898. 


South 
America. 

Central 
America. 

Total. 

Tons. 

2,041,147 
999, 805 

Terns. 

75, 320 
54, 556 

Tons. 

2,116,467 

1,054,361 

Total 

3, 040, 952 

129, 876 

3, 170, 828 

3, 170, 828 

Whether  the  entire  commerce  of  Europe  with  the  west  coast  of 
South  America  would  make  use  of  the  isthmian  canal  will  be  consid- 
ered in  the  chapter  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  the  vessel  tonnage  that 
would  now  pass  through  the  canal,  and  to  the  consideration  of  the 
question  of  tolls.  In  general,  the  canal  will  secure  nearly  all  of  this 
trade  unless  the  tolls  should  be  so  high  as  to  make  the  longer  and  less 
desirable  route  around  the  Horn  or  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan 
more  profitable.  The  only  trade  that  would  not  pay  a  moderate  toll 
for  the  privilege  of  using  the  canal  is  that  of  Chile  south  of  the  for- 
tieth parallel  of  latitude,  and  the  commerce  of  that  section  is  not,  and 
can  hardly  become,  of  much  consequence. 

The  cargo  of  freight  tonnage  of  Europe's  trade  with  Hawaii  and 
British  Columbia  in  the  fiscal  year  1899  is  shown  in  the  following- 
table: 

Cargo  tonnage. — European  trade  with  Hawaii  and  British  Columbia. 


Hawaii. 

British 
Columbia. 

Total. 

Tons. 
33,793 

Tons. 

37, 334 
24, 699 

Tons. 
71, 127 
24, 699 

Total 

33,793 

62, 033 

95, 826 

In  this  table  the  figures  are  based  on  statistics  kept  by  Hawaii  and 
British  Columbia.  The  vessels  entering  Hawaii  take  cargoes  mainly 
of  sugar  to  the  United  States,  hence  there  are  no  exports  from  Hawaii 
given  in  the  table.  The  British  Columbia  trade  during  the  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1899,  was  but  little  more  than  two-fifths  that  of  the  pre- 
vious year,  and  for  that  reason  the  totals  of  the  above  table  are  unduly 
small,  but  for  the  sake  of  presenting  the  latest  data  it  has  been  thought 
best  to  retain  the  figures  for  the  year  1899. 

The  cargo  tonnage  of  the  European  trade  with  the  west  coast  of 
Mexico  is  not  obtainable  because  the  European  statistics  do  not  sepa- 
rate the  commerce  with  the  east  coast  of  Mexico  from  that  with  the 
west  coast. 


472  EEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  total  freight  tonnage  of  the  trade  between  European  countries 
and  western  South  and  Central  America,  British  Columbia  and  Hawaii, 
during  the  latest  statistical  year  for  which  information  was  obtainable, 
was  3,266,651  tons.  This  total  does  not  comprise  the  commerce  with 
the  west  coast  of  Mexico.  Moreover,  it  does  not  include  any  of  the 
commerce  between  Europe  and  Eastern  countries — a  part  of  which,  for 
reasons  stated  later,  would  pass  through  the  American  canal.  In  study- 
ing the  tonnage  of  cargo  that  the  commerce  of  the  United  States  might 
have  furnished  the  canal  in  1898  and  1899,  the  total  was  found  to  be 
3,435,887  tons.     The  sum  of  these  two  totals  is  6,702,541. 

This  represents  the  tons  of  cargo  which  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States  and  the  commerce  between  nine  European  countries  and  the 
west  coast  of  America  might  have  passed  through  an  American  isth- 
mian canal  during  Europe's  fiscal  year  1898  corresponding  with  the 
calendar  year,  and  our  fiscal  year  ending  with  June,  1899.  These  are 
figures  applying  to  the  commerce  of  the  past,  carried  under  the  con- 
ditions then  prevailing.     They  do  not  refer  to  the  future. 

(Note. — The  totals  in  this  and  the  subsequent  statistical  chapter  differ 
somewhat  from  those  published  in  the  preliminary  report  of  the  Isth- 
mian Canal  Commission,  November  30, 1900.  In  several  instances  the 
statistics  of  the  final  report  of  the  Commission  are  for  a  different  year 
than  were  the  figures  comprised  in  the  totals  given  in  the  preliminary 
report.) 


DIAGRAM  OF  TONNAGE 

1888  AND  1895- 

-1899 

STEAMSH  I  PS 

co                                                                                                    10           <£>            t~«            co            <j) 

cO                                    YEAR                                     W          W           ffl           5          oi      "TO  N  S 

.  gj                                                               T     _    MH                                                                00                 CO                 CO                 «0                 CO 

54 

52 

5,000,000 

48 

46 

44 

42 

4,000,000 

38 

36 

34 

32 

3,OO0;OOO 

zs> 

26 
24 
22 
2,000,000 

1  8 

16 

14- 

12 

l.ooo.ooo 
8 

-"»■ 

y 

p 

/ 

f  ! 

^ 

gp2 

JpJ-- 

1 

— 1 — 

— — ■ 

k^ 

2 

o 

GROU 

p    1 

_^ 

XC 

- 

-ig^-Ot) 

P-4 

SROU 

^ 

P3 

'      "        "■ 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  473 

Chapter  XIX. — Tonnage  of  the  vessels  employed  in  the  commerce  that 
would  have  used  an  isthmian  canal  in  1899. 

In  ascertaining  the  tonnage  of  the  vessels  now  engaged  in  the  world's 
commerce  that  would  make  use  of  an  isthmian  canal  two  methods  may 
be  employed.  One  source  of  information  is  the  records  of  entrances 
and  clearances  of  vessels  kept  by  the  leading  commercial  nations,  and 
this  information  is  fairly  satisfactory,  although,  as  will  be  shown  pres- 
ently, careful  analysis  is  necessary  to  avoid  erroneous  conclusions. 
The  other  method  of  getting  at  the  vessel  tonnage  now  available  for 
the  use  of  a  canal  is  to  make  a  record  of  the  movements  or  the  voy- 
ages of  all  ships  whose  routes  are  such  that  the  vessels  would  natur- 
ally pass  through  the  canal. 

This  latter  method  of  recording  vessel  movements  and  computing 
the  tonnage  from  the  records  thus  made  was  adopted  by  the  New  Pan- 
ama Canal  Company  six  years  ago,  and  the  conclusions  reached  by 
their  elaborate  investigation  are  set  forth  in  the  chapter  which  follows 
the  present  one.  In  this  chapter  is  presented  a  discussion  of  the  sta- 
tistics of  entrances  and  clearances  of  the  vessels  whose  commerce  would 
have  taken  them  through  the  canal  had  such  a  waterway  been  in  exist- 
ence during  the  calendar  year  1899.  In  a  few  instances  it  was  neces- 
sary to  take  the  figures  for  the  year  1898. 

Inasmuch  as  all  important  commercial  nations  record  the  entrances 
and  clearances  of  the  vessels  trafficking  at  their  ports  and  state  with 
which  countries  the  vessels  trade,  it  is  theoretically  a  simple  matter  to 
determine  the  tonnage  of  the  vessels  at  present  following  routes  for 
which  the  canal  route  would  be  substituted.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, the  statistics  of  entrances  and  clearances  have  certain  important 
limitations,  due  to  the  fact  that  different  countries  follow  dissimilar 
rules  in  making  their  statistical  records.  In  some  cases  also  the  rec- 
ords are  incomplete — as,  for  instance,  the  figures  recording  the  tonnage 
of  vessels  trading  between  Europe,  Mexico,  and  Central  America  do 
riot  indicate  whether  the  European  entrances  from  those  countries  are 
from  the  Atlantic  or  from  the  Pacific  coast.  The  same  limitation 
exists  as  to  European  clearances  to  that  section  of  the  world. 

The  lack  of  uniformity  of  methods  of  collecting  statistics  of  entrances 
and  clearances  nuty  either  result  in  a  duplication  of  tonnage  records  or 
in  an  understatement  of  the  tonnage  engaged  in  the  commerce  of 
certain  countries,  and  it  is  unfortunate  that  the  statistics  of  interna- 
tional trade  are  not  compiled  in  accordance  with  uniform  rules.  A 
vessel  entering  a  German  port  is  recorded  as  coming  from  the  country 
that  supplied  the  vessel  with  the  largest  share  of  its  cargo.  If  this 
vessel  were  to  enter  a  British  port,  she  would  be  recorded  as  having 
sailed  from  the  most  distant  countiy  from  which  cargo  was  brought. 
The  French  practice  is  the  same  as  *the  English.  In  compiling  the 
statistics  of  clearances  it  is  the  practice  of  Great  Britain  to  record  a 
vessel  as  clearing  for  the  most  distant  country  for  which  she  has  cargo. 
The  German  figures  credit  the  clearances  to  the  country  to  which  the 
most  cargo  is  bound.     The  French  practice  is  like  the  English. 

Correspondence  with  the  collectors  at  a  number  of  the  ports  of  the 
United  States  reveals  the  surprising  fact  that  our  statistics  of  entrances 
and  clearances  are  compiled  by  various  methods  at  different  ports. 
The  New  York  statistics  record  a  vessel  as  clearing  for  the  first  or 
nearest  country  to  which  cargo  is  taken.  The  vessel  is  entered  from 
the  most  distant  country.     At  other  ports,  however,  different  practices 


474  REPOJST    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

prevail,  four  variations  in  methods  having  been  reported  by  our 
collectors  of  customs. 

A  German  vessel  en  route  from  Chile  may  call  at  a  Belgian  or 
Dutch  port  and  appear  both  in  their  statistics  of  entrances  and  in  the 
German  records.  Likewise  a  vessel  outbound  from  Germany  might 
be  duplicated  in  European  statistics.  A  vessel  from  a  European  port 
may,  and  usually  does,  call  at  a  number  of  PaciSc  American  countries. 
However,  the  avoidance  of  duplication  because  of  the  numerous  stops 
made  in  American  ports  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter,  because  only 
the  records  of  the  entrance  and  clearance  at  the  European  end  need 
to  be  considered.  In  the  following  tables  and  discussion  no  figures 
have  been  used  except  those  taken  from  the  statistics  kept  in  Europe 
and  in  the  United  States. 

There  is,  furthermore,  some  danger  of  confusion  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  keeping  Europe's  trade  with  the  east  coast  of  South 
America  separate  from  that  with  the  west  coast.  This  danger,  how- 
ever, is  only  slight,  because  most  of  the  lines,  both  European  and 
American,  carry  nothing  for  east  coast  ports.  It  is  over  2,000  miles 
between  Chilean  and  Argentina  ports,  consequently  vessels  find  it 
unprofitable  to  run  part  loaded  between  the  ports  of  those  two  coun- 
tries. Vessels  load  full  cargoes  from  the  North  Atlantic  to  the  west 
coast,  and  also  full  cargoes  from  the  west  coast  to  the  North  Atlantic. 
The  trade  of  the  east  coast  is  mainly  handled  by  vessels  that  do  not  go 
around  to  the  west  side. 

Although  the  American  statistics  of  entrances  and  clearances  are  not 
compiled  in  accordance  with  uniform  rules,  there  are  probably  no  dupli- 
cations in  the  figures.  In  fact,  the  practice  of  New  York,  from  which 
the  major  share  of  our  commerce  moves,  of  recording  a  vessel  as  clear- 
ing for  the  first  port  of  call  for  the  discharge  of  cargo,  is  apt  to  lead 
to  understatement  rather  than  an  exaggeration  of  the  volume  of  out- 
bound traffic  destined  for  countries  that  will  be  reached  by  way  of  an 
isthmian  canal.  In  the  case  of  European  statistics  the  following  dupli- 
cations are  possible: 

1.  German  vessels  outbound,  as  suggested  above,  may  call  at  Hol- 
land or  Belgium  and  be  recorded  there.  These  German  vessels  out- 
bound might  possibly,  though,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  seldom  if  ever 
do,  call  en  route  at  British  ports.  One  German  line  calls  at  a  French 
port. 

2.  German  vessels  inbound  may  call  at  a  French,  Belgian,  or  Dutch 
port,  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  do  not  call  at  Belgian  or  Dutch 
ports.  Most  of  the  trade  from  the  west  coast  of  South  America  to 
Europe  is  carried  in  full  cargoes,  and  German  vessels  are  pot  apt  to 
make  calls  en  route  at  European  ports.  This  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  the  Belgian  clearances  in  the  South  American  trade  consists 
almost  entirely  of  steam  tonnage,  while  the  entrances  are  made  up 
mostly  of  sailing  vessels.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Netherlands.  In 
regard  to  the  French  statistics  there  is  some  uncertainty. 

3.  Two  British  lines  to  and  from  the  west  coast  of  South  America 
call  at  French  ports.  Tims  the  French  statistics  are  liable  to  include 
some  tonnage  entered  in  the  British  and  some  contained  in  the  German 
figures.  The  probable  amount  of  such  duplication  will  be  considered 
below  in  the  discussion  of  the  tables  which  follow. 

4.  In  the  case  of  Spanish  statistics  of  entrances  and  clearances,  it  is 
possible  that  some  British,  souk-  French,  and  some  Italian  tonnage 
may  he  included. 

Such  are  the  possible  kinds  of  duplication.      It  is,  however,  only  in 


DIAGRAM  OF  TONNAGE 

1888 

AND 

1895- 

■1899 

STEAMSHIPS  AND  SAI  LING    VESSELS    COMBINED 

«o                                                                                        10           <o           r^          oo           <y) 

g                                        YEAR                                        g            g            g           g            g        TONS 

y 

88 

86 

84 

82 

8,0  0  0,000 

78 

76 

74 

72 

7,0  00,000 

68 

66 

64 

62 

6,0  00,0  00 

58 

56 

54 

52 

5,0  0  0,0  0  0 

48 

46 

4-4- 

42 

4,000,000 

38 

36 

34. 

32 

3,000,000 

28 

26 

24 

2  2 

2,0  00,0  0  0 

1  8 

1  6 

1  4- 

1   2 

1,000,000 

8 
6 
4- 
2 
O 

yr 

TO 

T_f^— - 

1 

! 

| 

1 

^4~— ~~_ 

, 

A  R 

01 1  p  a 

00+ — " 

"   '      " 



sRO 

jp_!_-}^ 

—       ~ 

GR  OU 

P    4 ■" 

UHOU 

P    3 

REPOET    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


475 


the  statistics  of  the  west  coast  of  South  American  trade  that  duplica- 
tions are  possible,  and  to  assist  in  determining  the  extent  to  which 
duplications  probably  occur  it  will  be  best  to  study  a  table  showing 
the  figures  of  entrances  and  clearances  in  the  trade  of  European 
countries  with  the  west  coast  of  South  America.  The  following  table 
summarizes  the  apparent  vessel  tonnage  of  the  trade  of  European, 
countries  with  western  South  America.  It  is  compiled  from  the  latest 
available  figures,  which  in  the  case  of  the  United  Kingdom,  France, 
Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  and  Italy  were  for  the  year  1899,  and  for 
the  other  countries  were  for  1898.  The  totals  of  the  table  are  subject 
to  such  modification  as  may  be  found  necessary  in  order  to  eliminate 
the  results  of  duplication. 

European  entrances  and  clearances,  vessels  trading  with  west  coast  of  South  America. 


Entrances. 

Clearances. 

Total  en- 
trances 
and  clear- 
ances. 

Chile. 

Peru. 

Ecua- 
dor. 

Total. 

Chile. 

Peru. 

Ecua- 
dor. 

Total. 

United  Kingdom 

227,260 
94, 570 
45, 312 

252, 792 
12,416 
77, 156 

276, 306 
2,272 

68, 343 

16, 180 

a  14, 635 

"  4, 078 

802 

2, 149 

297, 752 

110, 750 
59, 947 

256, 870 
13,218 
77, 156 

325, 358 
2,272 

372, 053 
102, 789 

3,348 
128, 125 

4,924 

139, 599 

122, 667 

472 

70, 513 
788 

10, 066 

452,632 

103, 577 

3,348 

141,577 

10, 180 

139, 599 

153, 251 

472 

750, 384 
214, 327 

63, 295 

German  Empire. 
Italy 

13, 452 
5, 256 

398,447 

23, 398 

216, 755 

28, 896 

20, 156 

8,496 

22, 088 

478,609 

2,744 

Total 

988,084 

132,  934 

22, 305 

1, 143, 323 

873, 977 

98,505 

32, 154 

1,004,636 

2, 147, 959 

»  Entered  as  Peru  and  Bolivia. 


b  Pacific  South  America  other  than  Chile. 


The  table  shows  that  the  European  statistics  of  entrances  and  clear- 
ances of  the  vessels  engaged  in  the  trade  with  western  South  America 
apparently  comprise  a  total  of  2,147,959  tons.  In  order  to  determine 
more  nearly  what  the  actual  vessel  movement  was,  it  is  necessary  to 
eliminate  duplications  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  do  so.  Efforts  have 
been  made  to  secure  information  from  the  statistical  departments  of 
European  Governments,  not  only  regarding  the  regulations  which  they 
follow  in  the  compilation  of  their  statistics,  but  also  concerning  the 
movements  of  vessels.  The  information  obtained,  however,  was  not 
sufficient  to  make  possible  the  avoidance  of  a  resort  to  estimates  in 
making  reductions  from  the  statistical  tables  above  given. 

Great  Britain  and  Germany  are  so  situated  that  they  are  the  Euro- 
pean termini  of  vessel  movements  between  Europe  and  South  America. 
Accordingly,  the  German  and  British  figures  for  entrances  and  clear- 
ances may  well  be  taken  without  alteration.  Such,  however,  is  not 
the  case  with  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  France,  and  Spain,  at  whose 
ports  both  German  and  British  vessels  call  en  route.  At  Spanish  ports 
French  and  Italian  vessels,  as  well  as  British,  make  more  or  less  fre- 
quent calls.  An  examination  of  the  Dutch  and  Belgian  entrances  and 
clearances  shows  that  the  vessels  arriving  consist  of  sailing  vessels,  and 
that  those  departing  are  nearly  all  steamers.  This  would  indicate  that 
the  incoming  traffic  is  carried  by  chartered  sailing  vessels  with  full 
cargoes.  These  sailing  vessels,  after  discharging  their  cargo,  doubt- 
less depart  for  a  British  port  in  search  of  outbound  coal  cargoes.  The 
steamers  clearing  from  the  Belgian  and  Dutch  ports  are  in  all  proba- 
bility mostly  German  vessels,  although  some  British  tonnage  may  be 
represented.  In  view  of  these  facts,  it  seems  that  the  Belgian  and 
Dutch  figures  for  entrances  should  be  retained  in  the  total  without 


476  KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

alteration,  but  that  some  reduction  should  be  made  in  the  clearances  to 
avoid  recording  a  vessel  a  second  time  whose  tonnage  has  already  been 
included  in  German  clearances.  The  total  clearances  from  Belgium 
and  the  Netherlands  are  106,995  tons,  but  these  clearances  can  not  all 
have  been  entered  in  the  German  figures,  because  the  German  clear- 
ances are  much  less  than  the  entrances.  It  seems  probable  that  the 
larger  part  of  the  tonnage  of  German  vessels  recorded  as  clearing  for 
South  America  goes  in  ballast  to  Antwerp  and  is  not  recorded  in  the 
German  clearances.  Just  how  much  reduction  should  be  made  in  the 
clearances  of  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands  must  be  entirely  a  matter 
of  judgment,  but  it  has  been  thought  proper  to  take  30,000  tons  from 
the  total. 

The  largest  amount  of  duplication  in  the  tonnage  figures  doubtless 
occurs  in  the  French  statistics.  There  is  one  French  line  of  steamers 
plying  between  France  and  the  western  coast  of  South  America;  Eng- 
lish vessels  call  at  French  ports,  and  one  German  line  makes  calls 
en  route  at  two  French  ports.  The  I'rench  entrances  are  172,107  tons 
greater  than  the  clearances,  and  if  is  probable  that  this  excess  of 
entrances  over  clearances  is  to  be  accounted  for  b}r  the  tonnage  of 
chartered  sailing  vessels  which  bring  full  cargoes,  mainly  nitrate 
of  soda,  to  France.  This  difference,  then,  ought  to  be  included  in 
the  French  figures.  Furthermore,  the  figures  which  cover  the  entrances 
and  clearances  of  the  French  line  ought  to  be  included.  Probably 
50,000  tons  of  entrances  and  a  like  amount  of  clearances  will  cover  the 
vessel  movements  of  that  line  of  steamers.  It  is  probable  that  the 
remainder  of  the  total  entrances  and  clearances  as  shown  in  the  French 
figures  is  also  comprised  in  the  British  and  German  statistics.  It  has 
therefore  been  thought  proper  to  deduct  from  the  French  figures  as 
shown  in  the  table  206,502  tons — that  is,  the  difference  between  272,107 
(the  sum  included)  and  478,609,  the  total  shown  in  the  table. 

Both  British  and  French  vessels  call  at  Spanish  ports,  and  probably 
Italian  vessels  occasionally  do.  The  amount  of  commerce  which  Spain 
has  with  the  west  coast  of  South  America  is  not  much,  and  probably 
the  figures  for  the  entrances,  77,156  tons,  cover  all  the  commerce 
which  that  country  has  with  the  American  section  under  consideration. 
The  clearances  are  very  much  larger  than  the  entrances,  but  the  amount 
of  outbound  commerce  is  slight.  It  seems  certain  that  the  Spanish 
figures  for  clearances  represent  English  and  French  vessels  that  have 
already  been  recorded  in  clearance  statistics  before  reaching  Spanish 
ports.  Accordingly,  it  is  believed  that  accuracy  demands  the  subtrac- 
tion of  the  Spanish  clearances  from  the  totals  of  the  above  table.  The 
entrances  and  clearances  of  Italy  are  small,  and  doubtless  represent 
the  actual  vessel  movement  between  Italy  and  western  South  Amer- 
ica. The  same  may  be  said  of  Sweden.  Russia  does  not  appear  in 
the  table  because  there  were  no  vessel  movements  between  her  ports 
and  western  South  America  during  the  year  under  consideration. 

The  reductions  which  the  foregoing  analysis  suggests  ought  to  be 
made  amount  to  376,101  tons,  which,  taken  from  2,147,959  tons,  the 
total  of  the  table,  makes  the  revised  total  1,771,858  tons.  The  abso- 
lute accuracy  of  this  corrected  total  can  not  be  asserted.  At  best  it 
is  only  approximately  accurate,  and  must  be  so  considered.  It  may 
possibly  be  as  much  as  100,000  tons  in  error,  although  that  is  hardly 
probable.  There  are  various  ways  of  checking  these  figures  so  as  to 
determine  whether  they  are  approximately  correct  or  whether  they 
are  largely  in  error.     One  method  of  checking  them  will  be  discussed 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  477 

in  a  later  chapter  where  the  totals  reached  by  the  three  separate  and 
distinct  statistical  investigations  presented  in  this  report  are  com- 
pared. A  study  has  been  made  of  the  importation  of  nitrate  of  soda 
into  European  countries,  the  most  important  export  from  western 
South  America;  and  the  tonnage  of  British  coal  exports  havealsobeen 
considered.  The  figures  of  nitrate  and  coal  movements  arc  in  general 
accord  with  the  distribution  of  vessel  tonnage  suggested  in  the  above 
revision  of  the  totals  of  the  table  of  entrances  and  clearances.  Further- 
more, the  information  that  has  been  obtained  regarding  the  routes  of 
steamers  owned  by  European  companies  operating  vessels  in  the  South 
American  trade  has  supplemented  the  data  supplied  by  foreign  gov- 
ernments in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  probable  that  the  revised  total 
of  1,771,858  tons  fairly  approximates  the  facts. 

IMPORTANCE    OF   THE   CHILEAN    COMMERCE. 

Every  student  of  the  industries  and  commerce  of  western  South 
America  must  be  impressed  with  the  great  importance  of  that  region 
to  the  industries  of  Europe  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States, 
and  also  to  the  prospective  traffic  that  will  make  use  of  an  isthmian 
canal.  In  1899,  according  to  the  above  figures,  this  section  had  a  com- 
merce with  Europe  of  1,770,000  tons,  an  amount  equal  to  nearly  one- 
fifth  of  the  heavy  tonnage  then  passing  the  Suez  Canal. 

The  greater  part  of  this  west  coast  South  American  trade  consists  of 
Chile's  foreign  commerce,  and  Chile's  prominent  place  is  due  to  the 
nitrate  of  soda  beds  in  the  northern  part  of  that  country.  Over  three- 
fourths  of  the  Chilean  exports  consist  of  nitrate  of  soda,  and  more 
than  a  million  tons  of  shipping  were  employed  in  carrying  that  com- 
modity. The  export  of  that  article,  moreover,  is  rapidly  increasing, 
and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  will  continue  to  grow  for 
several  decades  to  come. 

The  average  annual  exports  of  nitrate  of  soda  from  Chile  for  the 
three  calendar  years  1897,  1898,  and  1899  were  1,226,000  metric  tons 
of  2,201  pounds,  the  exports  for  the  year  1899  having  been  1,360,000 
metric  tons.  The  increase  during  the  previous  fifteen  years  amounted 
to  910,000  tons.  If  the  growth  in  the  export  of  this  commodity  during 
the  succeeding  fifteen  years  should  prove  to  be  no  greater  than  it  was 
during  the  previous  period  of  equal  length,  the  nitrate  tonnage  in  1911 
will  amount  to  2.300,000  Aveight  tons. 

This  estimate  of  the  increase  in  the  use  of  nitrate  is  a  conservative 
one,  because  it  assumes  that  only  an  equal  quantity  increase  will  take 
place  during  the  coming  period,  and  not  a  proportional  percentage 
increase.  If  it  were  assumed  that  the  same  percentage  of  growth 
would  continue  until  1911,  the  figures  for  nitrate  shipments  of  that 
vear  would  amount  to  4,250,000  tons,  and  the  Chilean  export  trade  as 
a  whole  would  exceed  5,000,000  cargo  tons.  Estimates  based  upon 
the  assumption  of  a  geometric  ratio  of  increase  might  properly  be 
considered  excessive,  but  those  which  result  from  the  application  of 
the  arithmetical  rate  of  increase  will  doubtless  be  accepted  as  moderate, 
in  view  of  the  constantly  enlarging  demand  for  nitrate  in  the  manu- 
facture of  fertilizers. 

Besides  being  an  exporter  of  nitrate  of  soda,  Chile  is  the  outlet  for 
the  mines  of  Bolivia,  and  also  has  copper  and  other  mineral  deposits 
of  its  own,  as  well  as  a  variety  of  industrial  resources  which,  together 
with  the  characteristics  of  the  people,  combine  to  make  the  country 


478 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


industrially  and  commercially  progressive.  During  the  past  decade 
the  nitrate  of  soda  has  comprised  approximately  three-fourths  of  the 
cargo  tonnage  of  the  exports  of  Chile. 


VESSEL   TONNAGE    OF   EUROPEAN   TRADE   WITH    WESTERN   CENTRAL 
AMERICA   AND   MEXICO. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  the  amount  of  the  trade  and  shipping 
passing  around  the  Horn  or  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan  between 
Europe  and  the  west  coast  of  Central  America  and  Mexico,  because 
Mexico  and  all  the  Central  American  countries  except  Salvador  have 
ports  on  both  oceans,  and  Germany  and  Italy  are  the  only  European 
countries  whose  statistics  designate  to  which  coast  of  these  countries 
the  published  figures  apply.  The  figures  for  Salvador  and  the  Ger- 
man and  Italian  entrances  and  clearances  for  the  trade  with  the  other 
ports  on  the  west  coast  of  Central  America  and  Mexico  are  shown  in 
the  following  table.     German  figures  are  for  1898;  others  for  1899. 

Tonnage  of  European  entrances  and  clearances  of  vessels  engaged  in  European  trade  with 
western  Central  America  and  Pacific  coast  of  Mexico. 


Country. 


German  Empire 

Italy 

United  Kingdom  with  Salvador. 
Portugal  from  Salvador 


Total 


Entrances, 
Central 
America. 


Tuns. 
15, 512 


363 
2,504 


Clearances. 


Central 
America. 


Tons. 
13,118 
5,873 
1,595 


Pacific 
Mexico. 


Tons. 
31,502 


31, 502 


Total  entrances  and  clearances,  70,367  tons. 

The  combined  entrances  and  clearances  recorded  in  this  table  amount 
to  but  70,367  tons.  The  figures  refer  only  to  vessel  movements  around 
South  America.  The  vessel  tonnage  engaged  in  the  traffic  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  is  considered  in  a  later  connection.  The  statistics 
of  other  European  countries  indicate  that  commerce  is  carried  on  Avith 
Central  American  and  Mexican  ports,  but  an  estimate  only  can  be  made 
of  the  share  of  the  tonnage  that  should  be  credited  to  the  Pacific  shore. 
Considering  the  importance  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  the  maritime 
and  commercial  world  and  the  independent  ship-charter  trade  from 
Central  America  and  Mexico  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  other 
European  countries  not  mentioned  in  the  tables,  it  i^  safe  to  double 
the  total  of  the  above  figures,  and  probably  140,000  tons  may  be  taken 
as  a  fair  estimate  of  the  direct  vessel  movement  between  Europe  and 
Pacific  Central  America  and  Mexico.  A  large  part  of  the  trade 
between  Europe  and  western  Central  America  and  Mexico  is  handled 
via  Panama.  The  vessel  tonnage  of  the  Panama  trade  is -considered 
in  a  later  connection.  Reference  is  here  made  only  to  the  direct  ves- 
sel movement  between  western  Central  America  and  Europe  around 
South  America.  In  connection  with  this  estimate  of  140,000  tons, 
attention  may  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  larger  part  of  the  popula- 
tion, industry,  and  trade  of  Central  America  is  on  the  Pacific  side, 
where  for  climatic  reasons  the  growth  in  population  has  thus  far 
mainly  occurred. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  479 

TRADE   OF  THE  WEST   COAST  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  BRITISH  COLUMBIA, 
AND   HAWAII    WITH  EUROPE. 

The  reports  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics  give  in  detail 
the  entrances  and  clearances  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  foreign  trade  of 
each  of  our  customs  districts.  The  statistics  of  the  tonnage  of  vessels 
engaged  in  the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States  that  would  avail  itself 
of  the  isthmian  canal  are  taken  from  our  Government  records.  The 
figures  taken  are  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 1899.  In  the  fol- 
lowing table  is  given  the  trade  of  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States, 
of  British  Columbia,  and  of  Hawaii  with  Europe  in  the  year  1899. 
The  Canadian  and  United  States  figures  are  for  the  year  ending  June  30; 
the  Hawaiian  are  for  the  calendar  year.  The  Hawaiian  and  British 
Columbian  statistics  are  taken  from  the  official  publications  of  those 
countries. 

Entrances  and,  clearances,  trade  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States,  British  Columbia, 
and  Hawaii  with  Europe,  1899. 


European  trade  with — 

Entrances. 

Clearances. 

Tons. 

213, 798 
26, 655 
25, 032 

Tons. 
360, 258 

15, 437 

Totals 

266,485 

375,695 

Combined  total,  642,180  tons. 

The  trade  between  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  and  Europe 
comprised  213,798  tons  net  register  of  entrances  and  360,254  tons  of 
clearances,  a  total  of  571,052  tons.  During  the  same  year  the  com- 
merce between  our  Pacific  coast  and  South  Africa  employed  55,071 
net  tons  of  shipping,  but  that  is  not  included  in  the  totals  reached  in 
this  chapter.  That  trade  would  find  the  canal  route  about  1,500  miles 
shorter,  and  if  the  tolls  were  low  the  canal  would  probably  be  used.a 
A  large  number  of  vessels  cleared  for  Panama  with  traffic  for  Europe 
by  way  of  the  Panama  Railroad,  but  that  traffic  is  not  being  considered 
here.       r 

The  total  entrances  and  clearances  for  the  trade  of  British  Columbia 
with  Europe  in  1899  amounted  to  but  13,092  tons;  the  previous  year 
they  were  106,185  tons.  There  are  no  clearances  from  Hawaii  to 
Europe  recorded.  The  ships  take  Hawaiian  sugar  to  the  United  States 
and  clear  thence  for  Europe  or  elsewhere. 

UNITED   STATES  ATLANTIC    COAST   TONNAGE  WITH   PACIFIC    COUNTRIES. 

Vessels  trading  between  our  Atlantic  coast  and  the  west  coast  of 
South  America,  eastern  Australia,  Oceania,  Japan,  and  China  will 
use  the  isthmian  canal,  with  the  possible  exception  of  a  part  of  the 
vessels  passing  to  and  from  Hongkong  and  the  Philippines.  A  portion, 
and  probably  the  larger  share,  of  the  Hongkong  and  Philippine  trade 
will  use  the  canal. 

a  In  the  preliminary  report  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  the  vessel  tonnage 
tutals  included  this  item  of  55,074  tons. 


480 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


The  records  kept  at  the  United  States  customs  offices  show  the  fol- 
lowing entrances  and  clearances  in  the  trade  between  our  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  seaboard  and  the  foreign  Pacific  countries.  The  first  table  refer 
to  the  Pacific  countries  of  South  America;  the  second  to  the  Orient, 
i.  e.,  to  Japan,  Siberia,  China,  Hongkong,  the  Philippines,  Australia, 
and  New  Zealand: 

Entrances  and  clearances,  United  States  Atlantic  coast  trade  with  Hawaii  and  foreign  coun- 
tries of  Pacific  America,  year  ending  June  30,  1899. 


Country. 

Entrances. 

Clearances. 

Tons. 

1,608 

9,045 

68,277 

23, 919 

Tons. 
2,057 

4, 229 

Chile                                                        

31, 274 

25, 955 

Total . . 

102,849 

63, 515 

Total  entrances  and  clearances,  166,364  tons. 

Entrances  and  clearances,  United  States  Atlantic  coast  trade  with  oriental  countries,  fiscal 

year  1899. 


Country. 


Entrances. 


Clearances. 


Japan  

Siberia 

China 

Hongkong  . . . 
Philippines  . . 

Australia 

New  Zealand 


Tons. 
51,284 


39, 536 
32, 621 
44,999 


4,912 


Tons. 
174, 036 
6,975 
49, 347 

42, 996 
25,  696 
115.561 
39,456 


Total. 


173, 352 


454, 070 


Combined  total,  627,422  tons. 

The  total  entrances  and  clearances  between  our  eastern  seaboard  and 
Hawaii  and  the  countries  of  western  South  America  for  the  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1899,  were  166,364  tons.  There  was  no  direct  vessel 
movement  during  that  year  between  our  Atlantic  coast  and  British 
Columbia  and  Pacific  Mexico  or  Central  America. 

The  table  of  vessel  movements  between  the  eastern  ports  of  the 
United  States  and  trans-Pacific  countries  shows  a  total  of  454,070  tons 
of  clearances  and  173,352  tons  of  entrances,  a  combined  total  of  627,422 
tons.  There  were  special  difficulties  encountered  in  securing  the  sta- 
tistics of  the  vessel  movements  between  our  eastern  seaboard  and 
Eastern  countries,  because  the  published  figures  of  entries  and  clear- 
ances do  not  truly  record  the  actual  movements  of  vessels.  This  is 
due  both  to  our  practice  of  recording  the  statistics  and  to  the  fact  that 
vessels  stop  going  and  coming  at  European  and  other  countries  on  their 
voyages  between  the  United  States  and  the  Orient. 

The  figures  of  the  above  table  comprise  only  the  tonnage  of  vessels 
which  the  records  of  our  custom-houses  show  to  have  made  a  voyage 
from  our  eastern  ports  to  countries  east  of  Singapore,  or  to  have 
entered  direct  from  those  countries.  As  a  matter  of  fact  many  ves- 
sels take  cargoes  from  the  United  Slates  to  Europe,  then  load  for  the 
East,  whence  they  may  return  to  the  United  States  cither  by  way  of 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  481 

Europe  or  by  sailing-  in  the  opposite  direction.  A  large  part  of  our 
exports  to  the  East  are  sent  to  Europe  and  there  reshipped.  Likewise 
a  good  portion  of  our  imports  from  trans-Pacific  countries  comes  to  us 
by  way  of  Europe.  The  above  table  is  defective  for  two  reasons.  It 
gives  no  information  concerning  the  vessel  tonnage  employed  in  car- 
rying our  exports  that  went  to  Eastern  countries  by  way  of  Europe 
and  our  imports  that  came  from  those  countries  by  some  European 
city.  Again,  it  understates  the  tonnage  of  the  ships  that  come  from 
Eastern  countries  to  the  United  States.  Many  of  them  come  by  way 
of  Java  and  are  entered  from  the  Dutch  East  Indies;  others  come  by 
way  of  Europe  and  are  entered  as  from  there.  Some  come  from 
Chile. 

A  more  adequate  measure  of  the  tonnage  of  the  shipping  engaged  in 
commerce  with  oriental  countries  would  be  secured  by  doubling  the  ton- 
nage of  vessels  making*  the  voyages  directly  to  those  countries.  This 
larger  total,  908,140  tons,  is  probably  too  small,  but  it  has  been  adopted 
as  the  best  figure  obtainable  by  the  study  of  the  statistics  of  entrances 
and  clearances  and  the  known  facts  regarding  commercial  movements. 
One  reason  foi  thinking  it  unduly  small  is  that  the  vessel  tonnage  of  the 
commerce  between  our  Pacific  coast  and  the  trans-Pacific  countries 
east  of  Singapore  in  1899  amounted  to  1,591,000  tons.  While  the  ves- 
sel tonnage  of  this  Pacific  trade  was  doubtless  greater  than  the  vessel 
tonnage  of  the  American  Atlantic  trade  with  the  countries  east  of 
Singapore,  it  does  not  seem  probable  that  the  latter  tonnage  was  less 
than  three-fifths  of  the  former.  Another  reason  for  thinking  that  the 
vessel  tonnage  engaged  in  the  commerce  between  our  eastern  seaboard 
and  Eastern  countries  was  fully  as  much  as,  if  not  more  than,  908,140 
tons  during  the  fiscal  year  1899  is  that  the  Panama  Canal  Company's 
record  of  vessel  movements  between  the  American  Atlantic  seaboard 
and  the  Pacific  section  east  of  90  degrees  east  of  Paris  makes  the  total 
tonnage  for  the  calendar  year  1,271,357  tons.  This  total  includes 
Singapore  and  Sumatra  and  Java#  and  should  be  larger  than  the  total 
of  908,110  tons,  but  probably  less  than  363,000  tons  larger.  By  their 
method  of  study,  which  is  described  in  the  following  chapter,  they 
could  follow  the  movements  of  each  ship  engaged  in  the  trade,  and 
consequently  a  chartered  vessel  that  engaged  in  the  trade  of  a  Euro- 
pean or  some  other  intermediate  country  in  going  from  our  eastern 
seaboard  to  the  East  or  in  returning  would  be  included  in  their  record, 
whereas  it  probably  would  not  in  the  American  entrance  or  clearance 
records.  It  is  of  course  possible  that  the  records  of  the  New  Panama 
Canal  Company  may  overstate  the  tonnage  that  would  be  required  to 
handle  the  commerce  between  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the  United 
States  and  the  countries  east  of  Singapore,  if  all  the  vessels  engaged 
in  this  trade  were  to  confine  themselves  to  this  traffic  alone,  but  their 
records  presumably  accurately  state  the  tonnage  of  the  vessels  which 
annually  get  from  our  eastern  seabord  to  Australia,  the  Philippines, 
Hongkong,  China,  Siberia,  Japan,  and  come  back  again.  The  dis- 
cussion of  the  effect  which  canal  tolls  may  have  upon  the  commerce 
between  our  Atlantic  seaboard  and  Australia,  southern  China,  and  the 
Philippines  is  deferred  to  a  subsequent  chapter,  where  it  is  considered 
in  detail. 

Our  exports  to  Australia  are  growing  rapidly,  and  the  present  clear- 
ances to  that  continent  and  New  Zealand  comprise  a  fair-sized  total. 
The  canal  may  be  expected  to  facilitate  our  export  trade  to  Australia, 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2 31* 


482  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

and  will  probably  cause  our  imports  from  that  region  to  come  to  us 
more  directly.  The  vessel  that  takes  American  goods  to  Australia 
usually  loads  there  with  Australian  products  for  Europe,  returns  thence 
to  this  country  with  pick-up  cargo  or  ballast,  and  the  American  im- 
porter gets  his  Australian  wool  and  other  products  at  the  London  sales. 
The  opening  of  a  direct  canal  route  between  New  York  and  Australia 
may  change  this,  at  least  to  some  extent,  and  lead  to  a  more  direct 
return  trade  from  Australia.  Direct  importation  would  enable  us  to 
secure  the  goods  from  Australia  more  quickly  and  cheaply  and  be  of 
assistance  to  our  manufacturers,  who  are  requiring  increasing  quanti- 
ties of  the  raw  materials  obtained  in  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and 
Oceania. 

From  New  York  and  the  North  Atlantic  ports  of  the  United  States 
the  distance  to  the  Philippines  and  Hongkong  by  the  American  canal 
route  will  not  be  very  much  less  than  by  Suez;  consequently  the  trade 
of  our  eastern  seaboard  with  those  and  other  places  so  nearly  antipodal 
will  be  divided  between  the  easterly  and  westerly  routes.  The  shipper 
will  have  the  advantage  of  the  competition  of  the  carriers  using  the 
different  canals.  The  coast  between  Shanghai  and  possibly  Yokohama 
on  the  east,  and  Singapore  and  possibly  India  on  the  west,  will  be 
traversed  in  both  directions  by  vessels  bound  for  American  ports. 

The  overlapping  of  trade  routes  in  the  East,  and  the  tendency  of 
vessels  to  follow  the  routes  where  the  greatest  volume  of  traffic  can  be 
secured,  may  possibly  bring  some  of  the  East  Indian  trade  across  the 
Pacific  and  through  the  American  canal.  One  of  the  advantages  of 
the  route  by  the  American  Isthmus  will  be  the  cheaper  coal,  and 
another  inducement  to  vessel  owners  will  be  the  shorter  trip  in  trop- 
ical latitudes,  where  many  commodities  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  heat 
and  humidity. 

Although  a  part  of  the  Hongkong  and  Philippine  trade  with  our 
Atlantic  seaboard  will  unquestionably  make  use  of  the  Suez  route,  the 
figures  in  the  above  table  have  beet*  allowed  to  stand  without  reduc- 
tion, because  the  statistics  of  entrances  and  clearances  collected  at  our 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  ports  do  not  include  all  of  the  present  commerce  of 
the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  with  trans-Pacific  countries  that 
might  use  the  American  canal  were  it  available. 

In  considering  the  vessel  tonnage  of  the  existing  commerce  that 
might  use  an  isthmian  canal  some  account  should  be  taken  of  the  ship- 
ping that  now  plies  between  Asiatic  countries  and  our  Pacific  coast. 
With  China,  Japan,  and  Siberia  this  amounts  to  333,(589  tons.  With 
Hongkong  and  the  Philippines  the  tonnage  is  464,978,  and  for  both 
sections  combined  798,667  tons.  A  large  but  indeterminable  part  <>i" 
this  trade  between  the  Pacific  coast  and  trans-Pacific  countries  origi- 
nates and  ends  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Doubtless  the  greater 
share  of  this  trade  will  always  go  overland  to  and  from  the  Pacific 
coast;  but  some  considerable  portion  will  be  diverted  to  the  isthmian 
route  after  the  canal  has  been  opened.  If  this  diverted  trade  and  ton- 
nage should  amount  to  but  20  per  cent  of  the  total,  it  would  equal 
about  160,000  tons,  a  tonnage  nearly  equal  to  that  which  the  table 
above  shows  our  Atlantic  coast  vessel  movement  to  and  from  Hong- 
kong and  the  Philippines  to  have  been  in  1899. 

While  the  Suez  Canal  will  get  some  of  the  commerce  of  eastern  Asia 
and  the  Philippines  with  our  Atlantic  seaboard  after  the  isthmian  canal 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  483 

has  been  opened,  it  is  believed  that  this  traffic  through  the  Suez  may 
be  offset  by  the  amount  of  the  vessel  tonnage  of  our  present  Pacific 
coast  import  and  export  trade  that  would  use  an  American  canal. 
Furthermore,  while  the  Suez  route  will  draw  from  Manila  and  points 
north  and  east,  the  isthmian  route  will  also  secure  tonnage  from  the 
territory  lying  south  and  west  of  Manila.  It  is  thought  that  these 
facts  warrant  the  inclusion  of  all  the  Atlantic  coast  tonnage  to  and  from 
China,  Japan,  Hongkong,  and  the  Philippines  in  the  estimate  of  the 
vessel  tonnage  that  would  find  use  of  the  canal  advantageous.  Such 
an  estimate  as  this  can  be  only  approximately  correct,  because  it  is 
impossible  to  predict  closely  the  routes  which  the  East  Indian  and 
south  Asiatic  trade  will  actually  follow  after  the  American  inter- 
oceanic  canal  shall  have  completed  the  water  route  round  the  world. 

The  foregoing  discussion  has  made  no  reference  to  the  effect  which 
the  canal  will  have  in  diverting  from  its  present  rail  and  water  routes 
a  portion  of  the  commerce  now  carried  on  by  way  of  our  Pacific  coast 
ports  between  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States  and  Australia, 
Hawaii,  and  the  rest  of  Oceania.  There  are  excellent  steamship  con- 
nections between  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
Hawaii,  and  Australia,  and  the  traffic  and  travel  of  the  Eastern  United 
States  to  and  from  those  countries  is  in  part  conducted  through  Pacific 
coast  gateways.  The  isthmian  canal  and  the  steamship  connections  by 
way  of  it  will  undoubtedly  affect  the  present  routes  for  some  of  the 
traffic  now  carried  on  between  our  Eastern  States  and  those  countries. 

The  entrances  and  clearances  of  the  vessels  trafficking  between  our 
Pacific  coast  and  Australia,  Hawaii,  and  other  islands  of  Oceania  are 
shown  in  the  following  table: 

IX. — Entrances  and  clearances,  United  States  Pacific  coast  trade  with  Australasia  and  other 

Oceania,  fiscal  year  1899. 


Entrances. 

Clearances. 

Hawaii 

Tons. 
246, 432 
148, 876 
8,351 

Tons. 
205, 987 
94, 037 
7,960 

Australasia 

Other  Oceania 

Total 

403, 659 

307, 984 

Combined  total,  711,643  tons. 

Although  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  a  portion  of  the  traffic  covered 
hy  the  above  table  would  have  gone  through  the  canal  had  it  been  in 
existence  in  1899,  there  is  no  way  of  deciding  what  percentage  would 
have  taken  the  isthmian  route.  None  of  this  tonnage  has  been 
included  in  making  up  the  totals  reached  in  this  chapter. a 

aThe  statistical  total  of  vessel  tonnage  published  in  the  preliminary  report  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  included  79,218  as  the  tonnage  of  our  Pacific  coast  trade 
with  Australasia  and  other  Oceania  which  it  was  estimated  would  be  at  once  diverted 
to  the  canal.  Communications  received  from  several  officials  of  the  transcontinental 
railways  express  the  opinion  that  a  considerable  share  of  the  foreign  traffic  now  car- 
ried^ over  the  mountains  by  rail  will  be  diverted  to  the  canal  line,  that  is  to  say,  is 
traffic  at  present  available  for  the  canal.  However,  in  order  to  be  conservative  and 
to  avoid  assumptions  whenever  possible,  there  is  none  of  this  Pacific  coast  Oceania 
tonnage  included  in  the  totals  of  this  report. 


484  REPOBT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

VESSEL     TONNAGE     ENGAGED    IN    THE     PRESENT     TRAFFIC     ACROSS    THE 

ISTHMUS   OF   PANAMA. 

In  none  of  the  preceding  tables  is  there  a  statement  of  the  tonnage 
engaged  in  the  traffic  now  carried  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  by 
rail.  This  transisthmian  traffic  is  a  part  of  the  Atlantic-Pacific  trade 
of  both  Europe  and  America.  Four  lines  of  steamers  now  run  north 
from  Panama  on  the  west  coast,  two  lines  run  south,  and  the  business 
of  those  steamers  would  become  canal  traffic. 

More  than  a  million  tons  of  shipping  enter  the  port  of  Colon  each 
year,  but  that  tonnage  would  not  be  a  fair  index  of  the  amount  that 
would  go  through  the  canal.  Colon  is  a  port  of  call  for  nearly  all  the 
lines  of  steamships  connecting  the  Gulf,  West  Indian,  and  Caribbean 
waters  with  the  United  States  and  with  all  the  leading  European  coun- 
tries. A  call  at  Colon  is  but  an  incident  in  the  vo}rageof  the  steamers 
trafficking  in  the  Gulf  and  Caribbean,  but  the  situation  at  Panama  is 
different.  The  geographical  location  of  that  city  is  such  that  a  large 
part  of  the  steamers  from  the  North  or  South  make  Panama  the  begin- 
ning or  end  of  their  voyages.  Before  the  3'ear  1899  the  lines  from  the 
South  did  not  go  north  of  Panama  and  none  from  the  North  went 
south  of  Panama.  Since  then  the  lines  from  the  South  have  extended 
their  route  beyond  Panama,  and  that  city  has  now  become  a  port  of 
call  as  well  as  a  terminal  point.  If,  however,  the  year  1898  be  taken, 
the  tonnage  of  Panama  may  be  considered  as  indicative  of  the  tonnage 
which  the  present  transisthmian  trade  would  cause  to  use  the  canal. 

During  the  year  1898  119  steamers,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 
336,998  tons,  entered  this  port.  Panama  has  some  sail  tonnage,  which 
is  omitted  from  the  calculations  here  made  because  most  of  the  sailing 
vessels  are  either  local  or  are  empkryed  in  bringing  coal  from  Australia 
for  the  steamship  lines.  This  business  would  disappear  with  the  open- 
ing of  the  canal  and  the  establishment  at  the  Caribbean  entrance  of 
coaling  stations  supplied  with  coal  from  the  United  States. 

Whether  both  the  entrances  and  clearances  at  Panama  should  be 
included  in  computing  the  canal  tonnage  which  the  commerce  at  Panama 
would  have  contributed  to  the  traffic  of  an  isthmian  waterway  in  L898, 
or  whether  only  the  entrances  should  be  counted,  constitutes  an  inter- 
esting question  in  statistics.  The  clearances  were  practically  identical 
with  the  entrances,  and  if  they  were  included,  the  above  total  would  be 
doubled.  Reasons  for  doubling  the  entrances  may  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  there  were  presumably  no  vessels  engaged  in  the  traffic  entering 
at  Panama  that  did  not  find  the  business  profitable,  and  that  these  ves- 
sels in  taking  cargo  from  the  west  coast  of  North  or  South  America 
for  the  American  or  European  Atlantic  stopped  their  eastbound  voyage 
at  Panama  instead  of  at  some  Atlantic  port  simply  because  there  was 
no  waterway  across  the  Isthmus.  They  would  have  made  a  round  trip 
through  the  canal  and  back  to  the  west  coast  had  they  been  able  to  do  so. 

The  reasons  why  only  the  entrances  have  been  counted  in  the  statis- 
tical calculations  of  this  chapter  are: 

1.  That  the  existence  of  a  canal  and  the  avoidance  of  transshipment 
of  cargo  at  Panama  would  have  enabled  the  same  tonnage  of  vessels  to 
have  carried  a  larger  amount  of  traffic. 

2.  The  vessels  entering  and  clearing  Panama  are  also  engaged  en 
route  in  a  coasting  trade  of  some  importance.  The  through  business 
done  at  Panama  included  only  a  part  of  the  transportation  business  of 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  485 

the  vessels  which  entered  that  port,  even  in  181*8,  when  it  was  a  ter- 
minal instead  of  a  point  of  call  en  route. 

3.  This  last  fact  is  shown  by  the  total  tonnage  of  freight,  northbound 
and  southbound,  handled  by  the  Panama  Railroad  in  1898 — 268,156  tons 
of  freight.  In  most  cases  the  net  register  vessel  tonnage  is  consider- 
ably less  than  the  cargo  tonnage;  and  for  this  reason,  principally,  it' 
has  been  thought  best  to  count  only  the  entrances  at  Panama,  336,998 
tons,  in  arriving  at  the  total  available  canal  traffic.11 

COASTING   TRADE   OP  THE   UNITED   STATES   AVAILABLE   FOR  THE  CANAL. 

The  coasting  trade  between  the  two  seaboards  of  the  United  States 
carried  on  by  way  of  Cape  Horn  or  the  Straits  of  Magellan  is  the  only 
additional  tonnage  item  requiring  examination.  The  Horn  route  has 
been  followed  since  the  days  of  '49,  and  while  it  will  probably  be 
deserted  after  the  completion  of  the  canal,  it  or  the  Straits  of  Magellan 
will  be  increasingly  used  until  that  time.  Until  recently  this  traffic 
has  been  handled  by  sailing  vessels,  but  the  line  of  seven  new  steamers 
recently  installed  in  this  trade  will  largely  displace  the  sailing  vessels 
that  have  had  a  practical  monopoly  of  the  traffic  for  a  half  century. 

Owing  to  the  large  annual  fluctuations  to  which  this  trade  has  been 
subject,  an  average  of  Pacific  entrances  from  Atlantic  ports  and 
Atlantic  entrances  from  Pacific  ports  during  the  last  ten  years  has  been 
taken.  These  averages  combined  give  a  total  of  109,312  tons  per  year. 
The  Atlantic  entrances  averaged  26,323,  and  those  of  the  Pacific  82,989, 
showing  that  Europe  is  the  selling  market  of  the  Pacific  States  and 
our  Atlantic  States  are  the  buying  market.  Two-thirds  of  the  vessels 
sailing  to  our  west  coast  from  our  Atlantic  seaboard  clear  from  our 
west  coast  to  Europe,  cross  thence  to  our  Atlantic  ports  to  load  for 
the  Pacific  slope. 

The  entrance  and  clearance  totals  for  the  various  categories  of  com- 
merce studied  in  the  preceding  pages  are  summarized  in  the  following- 
table.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  figures  are  for  the  latest  avail- 
able statistical  year,  which  in  most  instances  was  1899. 

Summary  of  entrances  and  clearances,  commerce  of  Europe  with  Pacific  America,  and 
commerce  of  eastern  seaboard  of  the  United  States  with  Pacific  countries. 

Europe  with —  Tons. 

Western  South  America 1,  771,  858 

Western  Central  America  and  Mexico 140,  000 

Pacific  coast  of  United  States,  British  Columbia,  and  Hawaii 642, 180 

Eastern  seaboard  of  United  States  with — 

Western  South  America  and  Hawaii 166,  364 

Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States 109,312 

Trans-Pacific  countries 908, 140 

Panama  traffic  ( 1898) 336, 998 

Total 4, 074, 852 

The  total  of  the  above  summary,  4,074,852  tons  net  register,  com- 
prises the  vessel  tonnage  of  the  trade  of  Europe  with  Pacific  America, 
and  of  our  Atlantic  seaboard  with  Pacific  countries.  Every  possible 
effort  has  been  made  to  analyze,  verify,  and  correct  the  statistical  data 
consulted.  It  was  thought  better  to  err,  if  at  all,  on  the  side  of  under- 
statement. 

a  The  tonnage  totals  published  in  the  preliminary  report  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  included  both  the  entrances  and  clearances  at  Panama. 


486  REPOKT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  above  total  differs  somewhat  from  the  total  published  in  the 
preliminary  report  of  the  Canal  Commission,  mainly  because  three 
items  have  been  omitted  that  were  included  in  the  former  statement. 
The  sums  omitted  amount  to  471,290  tons  net  register.  Had  they 
been  included  the  vessel-tonnage  total  of  this  report  would  have  dif- 
fered from  that  of  the  preliminary  report  by  only  35,986  tons,  the 
total  here  given  being  that  much  less.  Since  publishing  the  prelimi- 
nary report  it  has  been  possible  to  substitute  1899  figures  for  those 
of  1898  for  a  few  foreign  countries.  For  some  of  the  countries  the 
figures  for  1899  were  larger  than  those  for  1898,  but  in  the  case  of 
British  Columbia  the  tonnage  for  1899  was  63,393  tons  less  than  1898. 

Attention  was  called  in  the  previous  chapter  to  the  abnormall}' 
small  export  of  grain  from  our  Pacific  coast  during  the  year  1899.  If 
the  grain  exports  of  the  normal  }Tear  1898  were  substituted  for  those 
of  1899,  the  above  vessel-tonnage  total  would  need  to  be  increased  over 
400,000  tons.  The  grain  exports  of  1898  exceeded  those  of  1899  by 
612,874  cargo  tons,  and  this,  according  to  the  ratio  of  cargo  tonnage 
to  net  register  tonnage  for  the  Pacific  coast  exports  as  a  whole,  would 
be  equivalent  to  408,723  vessel  tons. 

In  closing  this  discussion  of  vessel  tonnage  reference  should  be 
made  to  the  fact  that  this  chapter  has  not  considered  the  commerce  of 
Europe  with  the  western  half  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  a  part  of  which,  it 
is  believed,  for  reasons  elaborated  in  the  succeeding  chapter,  will  make 
use  of  the  American  canal  instead  of  the  Suez  or  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
route.  In  stating  the  entire  amount  of  vessel  tonnage  that  was  avail- 
able for  the  use  of  the  canal  in  1899  some  share  of  the  European  com- 
merce now  using  the  Suez  or  rounding  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  should 
be  included.  What  that  share  should  be  is  considered  at  length  in  the 
next  chapter. 

Chapter  XX. — Traffic  investigation  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany—  Comparison  of  the  results  of  the  three  investigations. 

PLAN   OF   THE    INVESTIGATION. 

The  New  Panama  Canal  Company  divided  that  part  of  the  world's 
commerce  capable  of  being  affected  by  the  proposed  canal  into  the  four 
groups  that  had  been  adopted  in  1890  by  the  Commission  (T Etudes 
appointed  by  the  receiver  of  the  Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal 
Interoceanique.  These  four  groups  were:  (1)  The  commerce  between 
Europe  and  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  American  continent;  (2)  the  com- 
merce between  Europe  and  the  Far  East,  i.  e.,  China,  Japan,  Austral- 
asia, and  Oceania,  and  the  French  and  Dutch  East  Indies;  (3)  the  com- 
merce between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  America,  and  (4)  the 
commerce  between  the  Atlantic  coast  of  America  and  the  Eastern 
countries  included  in  group  2. 

Briefly  stated,  the  plan  adopted  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company 
to  determine  what  part  of  the  world's  present  ocean  tonnage  would 
make  use  of  an  American  interoceanic  canal  was  to  record  and  follow 
the  movements  of  all  vessels  engaged  in  the  commerce  being  carried  on 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  This  recoi'd  of  vessel  move- 
ments was  taken  from  Lloyd's  two  publications,  the  Daily  Shipping 
and  Mercantile  Gazette  and  the  Weekly  Shipping  Index,  where  the 
canal  company  was  able  to  secure  information  concerning  the  arrivals, 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  487 

departures,  and  whereabouts  of  all  ocean  vessels,  about  12,500  in  num- 
ber, as  their  records  subsequently  showed. 

During  the  years  1895  and  1896  the  plan  followed  in  making  up  the 
record  was  to  go  through  each  issue  of  Lloyd's  daily  and  weekly  pub- 
lications and  place  against  each  vessel  whose  route  was  such  as  to  bring 
it  within  one  of  the  four  groups  of  commerce  just  mentioned  a  check 
indicating  to  which  group  the  ship  was  to  be  accredited. 

Lists  of  the  vessels  thus  checked  were  arranged  alphabetical^,  show- 
ing for  each  of  the  four  classes,  and  for  sailing  vessels  and  steamers 
separately,  the  facts  regarding  each  ship  that  were  given  in  Lloyd's 
Gazette  and  Index.  These  eight  alphabetical  lists — four  for  steamers 
and  four  for  sailing  vessels — were  then  turned  over  to  draftsmen,  who 
charted  the  movements  of  the  vessels  named  in  the  eight  lists  by  using 
sheets  of  paper  which  had  the  names  of  the  ships  in  a  column  at  the 
left,  and  which  were  divided  into  perpendicular  columns  headed  with 
the  names  of  the  twelve  months  and  with  the  weeks  of  the  year  by 
number  from  one  to  fifty-two. 

The  movements  of  a  vessel  were  shown  on  the  sheet  by  entering  in 
the  column  of  the  proper  week  the  name  of  the  port  and  the  day  of 
the  month  of  the  arrival  of  the  vessel  if  it  was  entering  the  port,  or 
of  the  departure  of  the  ship  if  it  was  clearing.  Horizontal  lines  were 
drawn  connecting  the  entries  of  clearances  with  those  of  arrivals. 
During  1895  eight  sets  of  charts  were  prepared,  sailing  vessels  and 
steamers  being  separately  classified  according  to  the  four  groups  into 
which  the  commerce  being  studied  had  been  divided;  but  after  that 
year  the  groups  of  commerce  were  shown  on  the  charts  b}^  using  four 
different  colors  of  crayon,  and  only  two  sets  of  charts  were  made,  one 
each  for  sailing  vessels  and  steamers.  From  these  sets  of  charts  and 
the  vessel  lists  from  which  the  charts  were  prepared  it  was  an  easy 
matter  to  make  an  annual  computation  showing  the  steam  and  sail 
tonnage  of  the  traffic  of  each  of  the  four  groups  of  commerce. 

Experience  showed  that  the  plan  of  checking  off  and  copying  from 
Lloyd's  lists  the  vessels  according  to  groups  was  somewhat  defective, 
because  on  the  charts  some  vessels  would  disappear  from  one  group 
and  appear  in  another  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  indicate  what  the  inter- 
mediate movements  of  the  vessel  had  been.  It  also  happened  that 
some  vessels  disappeared  from  the  record  after  they  had  touched  at  a 
Pacific  port,  and  that  other  ships  appeared  on  the  record  as  clearing 
from  a  Pacific  port,  without  there  being  any  record  regarding  their 
previous  voyages.  To  obviate  this  defect  it  was  decided  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1897  to  discontinue  checking  the  names  of  vessels  in  the 
Gazette  and  Index  and  preparing  lists  of  the  ships  thus  checked,  and 
instead  of  doing  this  work  to  make  a  card  catalogue  (fiches)  of  every 
ship  named  in  the  Lloyd  publications.  In  this  catalogue  each  ship  had 
its  card,  and  on  this  card  all  desired  information  regarding  the  vessel 
was  entered  and  a  record  kept  of  the  movements  of  the  ship.  The 
graphic  charts  of  the  voyages  of  the  vessels  were  prepared  from  these 
cards. 

During  the  year  1897  the  canal  company  further  improved  its  meth- 
ods of  conducting  the  traffic  investigation.  From  Lloj'd's  Shipping 
and  Mercantile  Gazette  tables  were  prepared  showing  for  each  Pacific 
port,  separately  for  steamers  and  sailing  vessels,  and  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  four  groups  of  commerce,  the  name,  flag,  tonnage,  etc.,  of 


488 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


all  the  vessels  entered  and  cleared.     These  tables  gave  full  informa- 
tion regarding  the  steam  and  sail  commerce  of  each  Pacific  port. 

These  tabular  statements  are  said  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany to  have  "confirmed  the  correctness  of  the  former  work."  The 
preparation  of  these  tables  also  "  established  the  fact  that  the  graphic 
method,  based  upon  the  use  of  the  Weekly  Shipping  Index,  which  has 
the  disadvantage  of  requiring  much  more  time,  is  more  exact,  com- 
plete, and  reliable."    The  company  .further  states: 

The  justification  of  the  method  of  statements  by  ports  is  that  it  has  the  advan- 
tage of  dividing  among  the  ports  interested  the  world's  tonnage  stated  for  each  of  the 
four  groups,  and  thus  facilitates  the  study  of  the  results,  especially  the  inquiry  con- 
cerning that  part  of  the  traffic  with  ports  at  the  limit  of  the  canal's  zone  of  attraction. 
This  method  of  statements  was  employed  to  verify  the  statistics  of  the  year  1898. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1898  the  traffic  of  the  year  1888  was  studied 
according  to  the  methods  that  had  been  developed,  and  tables  were 
made  comparing  the  years  1888  and  1898  to  show  what  development 
had  taken  place  during  the  decade  in  the  commerce  being  investigated. 
The  tonnage  movements  of  1899  have  also  been  charted,  totalized,  and 
tabulated.  The  following-  table,  prepared  by  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company  and  published  here  with  but  slight  changes  in  form,  pre- 
sents the  results  of  the  elaborate  investigations  conducted  by  that 
company.  The  table  shows  the  steam  and  sail  tonnage  of  each  of 
the  four  groups  of  commerce  for  the  calendar  years  1888,  1895,  1896, 
1897,  1898,  and  1899. 

Tonnage  of  vessels  engaged  in  trade  betiueen  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  1888  and  1895 

to  1899. 


Group  1. 

Europe  with 

Pacific 

America. 

Group  2. 
Europe  with 
the  Orient. 

Group  3.  Be- 
tween At- 
lantic and  Pa- 
cific America. 

Group  4.  At- 
lantic America 
with  Orient. 

Total  for 
the  year. 

1888: 

346, 015 
1, 744, 661 

2, 396, 105 
1,659,769 

4,716 
217, 597 

78, 994 
681,877 

2, 825, 830 
4,303,894 

Sail 

Total 

2, 090, 676 

4, 055, 864 

222, 313 

760, 871 

7, 129, 724 

1895: 

570, 637 
2, 130, 876 

3,081,479 
1,087,250 

40, 551 
243, 209 

162, 599 
721,526 

3,  855,  266 
4  182  861 

Sail 

2,701,513 

4, 168, 729 

283, 760 

884, 125 

8,038,127 

1896: 

601,157 
1,944,207 

3, 430, 386 
891,404 

68, 420 

1S8,  145 

266, 354 
792, 214 

4,366,317 

3,816,270 

Sail 

Total 

2, 545, 364 

4,321,790 

256,865 

1,058,568 

8, 182, 587 

1897: 

601,784 
1,677,461 

3, 745, 397 
976, 480 

68,446 

164,891 

271,455 
789, 694 

4,677,082 
3  608  626 

Sail 

Total 

2, 279, 245 

4,721,877 

223, 337 

1,061,149 

8, 285, 608 

1898: 

648, 568 
1, 680, 573 

3, 669, 091 
948, 222 

91,082 

14S,  20 1 

441,246 
835, 682 

4,849,987 
3  612  68] 

Sail 

Total 

2, 329, 141 

4, 617, 313 

239, 286 

1,276,928 

8  462,668 

1899: 

570, 997 
1,804,074 

4,059,392 
1,053,862 

94,319 
107, 830 

699,913 
571 , 444 

5  424,621 

Sail 

3, 537, 210 

Total 

2, 375, 071 

5, 113,  254 

202, 149 

1,271,357 

8,961,831 

REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  489 

The  total  traffic  in  1899  was  larger  than  in  1898.  This,  however, 
was  not  true  of  all  groups,  there  having  been  a  slight  decline  in  groups 
3  and  4.  The  decline  in  the  vessel  movements  of  group  3  during  1 899 
as  compared  with  1898  was  due  to  scarcity  of  ships  and  to  the  sale  of 
a  large  line  of  sailing  vessels  that  had  been  engaged  in  this  traffic. 
During  the  year  1900  a  line  of  steamers,  comprising  seven  ships,  capa- 
ble of  handling  126,000  tons  of  cargo  each  way  annually,  was  inau- 
gurated to  take  the  place  of  the  sailing  vessels  that  were  sold  the  year 
before.  The  slight  decrease  in  the  tonnage  of  group  4  was  likewise 
due  to  the  high  ocean  rates  arising  from  the  scarcity  of  ships.  The 
shipments  from  the  eastern  ports  of  the  United  States  to  the  Orient 
were  handled  more  largely  by  the  transcontinental  railroads  and  the 
Pacific  steamers. 

The  commerce  included  in  groups  1,  3,  and  4  of  the  above  table  is 
considered  as  certainly  tributary  to  the  proposed  American  canal. 
The  commerce  of  Europe  with  eastern  countries,  group  2,  will,  for  the 
greater  part,  make  use  of  the  Suez  route,  but  a  portion  of  the  traffic 
will  find  the  American  waterway  more  advantageous.  What  share  of 
the  total  for  group  2  may  properly  be  credited  to  the  westerly  canal 
route  must  be  a  matter  of  estimate.  A  careful  review  of  the  existing 
trade  routes  and  a  consideration  of  the  forces  that  will  affect  the  ocean 
routes  after  the  American  canal  has  been  opened  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  a  portion  of  Europe's  exports  to  the  western  half  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean— that  is,  to  Japan,  Australia,  and  Oceania— will  be  sent 
through  the  American  canal. 

CONCERNING    USE   OF   AMERICAN   CANAL    BY   COMMERCE   OF  EUROPE 

WITH   ORIENT. 

The  volume  of  traffic  to  Europe  from  the  East  being  larger  than 
that  outbound  from  Europe,  vessels  are  obliged  to  sail  both  for  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States  and  for  eastern  countries  lightly 
loaded,  and  sometimes  in  ballast.  Our  exports  from  Atlantic  ports  to 
Australia,  Oceania,  and  the  Orient  are  in  part  carried  by  ships  that 
cross  the  Atlantic  in  ballast.  When  the  American  canal  has  become 
available  vessels  will  probably  not  infrequently  take  on  a  partial  cargo 
in  Europe  for  countries  in  the  western  half  of  the  Pacific,  and  also 
take  freight  for  the  United  States,  the  West  Indies,  Central  America, 
or  Mexico;  that  is,  vessels  finding  difficulty  in  securing  cargoes  out- 
bound from  Europe  will  sometimes  find  it  advantageous  to  proceed  to 
the  East  by  way  of  America  for  the  purpose  of  discharging  such 
European-American  cargoes  as  may  be  secured,  and  loading  at  one  or 
more  American  ports  a  full  cargo  for  the  Pacific  port  or  ports  of  its 
destination.  In  addition  to  permitting  vessels  in  Europe  to  unite  the 
light  outbound  cargoes  for  the  East  and  for  the  United  States,  and 
enabling  them  to  secure  full  cargoes  in  America  for  the  East,  the 
westerly  route  by  way  of  the  American  canal  will  have  the  advantage 
of  cheaper  coal,  "and  may  possibly  impose  lower  canal  tolls  upon  the 
shipping  than  will  be  exacted  by  the  Suez  Canal.  The  Suez  Canal  is, 
and  doubtless  will  remain,  a  highway  managed  by  a  corporation, 
whereas  the  American  waterwa}r  under  consideration  is  to  be  owned 
and  operated  by  the  Government. 


490  BEPOBT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  distance  from  Liverpool  to  Sydney,  Australia,  by  way  of  the 
Nicaragua  Canal  and  Tahiti  will  be  only  172  miles  greater  than  via  the 
Suez,  Colombo,  Adelaide,  and  Melbourne,  and  this  small  disadvantage 
of  the  westerly  course  will  be  partially  if  not  quite  offset  by  two 
facts  favoring  the  American  canal  route.  From  Liverpool  via  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Adelaide,  and  Melbourne  and  Sydney  is  722 
miles  farther  than  by  way  of  a  Nicaragua  canal  and  Tahiti.  The  use 
of  the  westerly  route  will  enable  vessels  engaged  in  the  European-Aus- 
tralian trade  to  avoid  the  excessive  heat  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  the 
Red  Sea,  and  the  storms  of  the  tempestuous  Indian  Ocean.  The 
American  route,  also,  will  be  favored  by  the  fact  that  a  vessel  on  its 
way  between  Liverpool  and  the  isthmian  canal  will  have  to  go  but  323 
miles  out  of  its  course  to  call  at  New  York — the  greatest  port  of  the 
world — whence  outbound  cargoes  are  practically  always  obtainable. 
With  the  advantages  of  cheaper  coal,  a  cooler  passage  in  the  Tropics, 
quieter  seas,  and  the  attractive  force  of  America's  heavy  tonnage,  the 
American  isthmus  route  will  be  used  instead  of  the  course  through  the 
Suez  ("anal  by  some  of  the  vessels  departing  from  Europe  for  Aus- 
tralia or  other  regions  on  that  side  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Vessels  proceeding  from  Europe  by  way  of  American  ports  and  the 
isthmian  canal  to  Oceania  and  the  East  will  have  the  choice  of  return- 
ing to  Europe  either  by  way  of  the  Suez  or  by  way  of  the  American 
route.  By  whatever  route  the  European  vessels  reach  the  oriental 
and  other  countries  of  the  western  Pacific,  the  route  by  which  they 
return  to  Europe  will  be  determined  by  the  relative  opportunities  for 
obtaining  cargo  by  way  of  the  Suez  and  American  routes,  respectively. 

The  reasons  for  believing  that  a  portion  of  Europe's  imports  from 
the  western  half  of  the  Pacific  will  come  by  way  of  the  American 
route  are  stronger  than  the  reasons  just  cited  regarding  the  use  of  the 
American  canal  for  the  European  export  trade.  A  vessel  finding  itself 
in  the  East  Indies,  Japan,  China,  or  Australia  may  either  take  on 
cargo  for  Europe  and  for  intermediate  points  along  the  Suez  route,  or 
it  ma}T  load  with  such  cargo  as  may  be  available  for  Europe  and  Amer- 
ican countries  and  proceed — in  most  cases  but  partially  loaded — across 
the  Pacific  to  the  western  coast  of  the  United  States,  where  a  great 
abundance  of  cargoes  destined  for  Europe  may  be  obtained,  or  the  ship 
may  go  to  Central  America  and  West  Indian  ports,  where  a  fair  amount 
of  freight  for  Europe  will  usually  be  available,  or  the  vessel  may  pro- 
ceed to  Chile  or  some  other  west  South  American  country,  where  there 
is  always  a  heavy  amount  of  outbound  traffic.  Besides  being  certain 
of  securing  freight  from  South  America  or  North  America  for  Europe, 
a  vessel  returning  from  the  Orient  by  the  American  canal  will  also  have 
the  advantage  above  referred  to  of  being  able  to  secure  coal  more 
cheaply  than  it  can  be  obtained  along  the  Suez  line. 

It  would  seem  probable,  upon  a  priori  ground,  that  vessels  leaving 
Europe,  whether  by  way  of  the  Suez  or  by  way  of  the  American  canal, 
will  frequently  find  the  return  trip  via  America  more  profitable  than 
by  the  route  in  the  opposite  direction.  This  general  proposition, 
moreover,  seems  to  accord  with  the  evidence  regarding  the  present 
round-the-world  movement  of  vessels.  The  entrance  and  clearance 
statistics  of  the  vessels  engaged  in  the  foreign  trade  of  the  west  coast 
of  North  and  South  America  indicate  that  a  large  number  of  vessels 
now  going  out  from  Europe  toward  the  East  return  from  the  west. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  491 

EVIDENCE    OF    INCREASING   NUMBER   OF   ROUND-THE-WORLD    VOYACxES. 

In  the  trade  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  with  Atlantic 
foreign  countries  the  tonnage  of  the  entrances  direct  from  the  Atlantic 
was  63.8  per  cent  of  the  clearances  to  those  ports  in  1889;  but  in  1898 
the  entrances  direct  from  the  Atlantic  were  but  25.3  per  cent  of  the 
clearances  to  the  foreign  countries  of  that  section.  Stated  otherwise, 
in  1889  something  over  one-third,  and  in  1898  about  three-fourths  of 
the  vessel  tonnage  employed  in  carrying  our  west  coast  trade  to 
Europe  arrived  at  our  western  ports  from  other  than  European 
countries. 

Many  vessels  take  cargo  from  Europe  via  the  Good  Hope  route  to 
Australia,  or  other  eastern  countries,  whence  they  proceed  across  the 
Pacific  in  ballast,  or  with  coal  to  our  western  ports  or  to  Chile.  A  to 
and  fro  movement  of  vessels  between  ports  situated  at  great  distances 
from  each  other  is  frequently  unprofitable  unless  there  are  about  equal 
quantities  of  merchandise  to  be  carried  both  ways,  and  whenever  pos- 
sible, chartered  vessels — and  at  the  present  time  they  carry  most  of 
the  world's  ocean  freight — seek  to  avoid  voyages  in  ballast  by  moving 
as  much  of  the  time  as  possible  in  the  direction  of  the  larger  currents 
of  traffic.  Our  Pacific  coast  imports  but  little  and  exports  great 
quantities,  consequently  vessels  endeavor  to  approach  that  section — 
and  the  same  is  true  of  Chile — from  regions  having  a  larger  volume 
of  inbound  traffic. 

In  1888  more  ships  entered  Chile  from  North  Atlantic  countries, 
Europe,  and  the  United  States  than  cleared  from  them,  but  in  1898 
the  reverse  was  the  case.  The  figures  of  the  entrances  and  clearances 
of  the  Chilean  trade  with  Europe  and  our  Atlantic  coast  for  the  years 
1888  and  1898,  as  recorded  by  European  countries  and  the  United 
States,  are  shown  by  the  following  table: 

Chilean  entrances  and  clearances,  direct  trade  with  Europe  and  east  coast  of  United  States, 

1888,  1898. 


1888. 

1898. 

Entrances 

767, 000 
625, 000 

891  000 

Clearances 

982  000 

Per  cent  which  entrances  were  of  clearances:  1888,  122.7;  1898,  89.7. 
Per  cent  of  decline  in  ratio  of  entrances  to  clearances,  1888  to  1898,  28.5. 

The  ships  for  the  exports  of  Chile  to  Europe  and  the  United  States 
were  all  drawn  from  Atlantic  countries  in  1888,  and,  in  addition,  ves- 
sels entered  Chile  from  the  Atlantic  and  cleared  for  Pacific  countries, 
but  in  1898  the  vessels  for  the  exports  from  Chile  to  the  North  Atlan- 
tic must  have  been  drawn  partly  from  Pacific  ports.  According  to  the 
table,  the  tonnage  entering  Chile  from  the  North  Atlantic  was  122.7 
per  cent  of  the  tonnage  that  cleared  for  that  section  in  1888,  whereas 
the  per  cent  was  only  89.7  in  1898,  an  apparent  decline  of  28.5  per  cent 
in  the  ratio.  This  change  was  mainly  due  to  a  movement  of  vessels 
from  Europe  and  eastern  United  States  to  Australia  and  thence 
to  Chile. 

In  compiling  the  above  table  the  European  statistics  of  entrances 
and  clearances  have  been  taken  without  making  reductions  to  eliminate 


492  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

duplications.  Accordingly  neither  the  figures  nor  the  percentages  are 
strictly  accurate.  For  the  purpose  of  the  present  argument,  however, 
the  value  of  the  table  is  not  lessened  lty  the  duplications  contained  in 
the  statistics,  because  a  study  of  the  European  records  of  entrances 
and  clearances  shows  very  clearly  that  there  is  a  greater  duplication  of 
clearances  than  of  entrances.  If  the  duplications  in  the  figures  of  the 
above  table  were  deducted,  the  tonnage  entering  Chile  from  the  North 
Atlantic  would  bear  an  even  smaller  ratio  to  the  clearances  to  that  sec- 
sion  than  is  stated  in  the  table. 

Further  evidence  regarding  the  increasing  movement  of  vessels 
around  the  world  is  shown  by  the  statistics  of  entrances  and  clear- 
ances of  the  Atlantic  coast  trade  of  the  United  States  with  South 
America.  In  the  table  just  given  above  the  European  trade  with 
Chile  is  analyzed.  The  following  table  contains  the  figures  of  the 
entrances  and  clearances  of  the  trade  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  sea- 
boards of  the  United  States  with  the  entire  west  coast  of  South 
America: 

Atlantic  coast  entrances  and  clearances,  trade  of  United  States  with  western  South  America. 


Year. 

Entrances. 

Clearances. 

1889 

44,454 
78, 930 

27, 176 
37,560 

1899 

77.5 

38  2 

Our  east  coast  entrances  from  western  South  America  increased 
during  the  decade  preceding  1899  more  than  the  clearances  did.  The 
clearances  to  South  America  were  less  than  half  the  entrances  from 
that  section  in  1899. 

Mention  was  made  of  the  fact  that  vessels  clearing  from  the  North 
Atlantic  to  Australia  and  other  eastern  countries  frequently  return  by 
crossing  the  Pacific.  In  1899,  155,000  tons  of  vessels  cleared  from  the 
eastern  ports  of  the  United  States  for  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  and 
the  direct  entrances,  all  from  New  Zealand,  were  only  1,912  tons.  This 
does  not  indicate  that  practically  all  the  outbound  vessels  returned  b}7 
way  of  the  Pacific,  because  many,  although  not  all,  of  the  steamers 
returned  by  way  of  Java  or  Europe  and  were  entered  as  from  those 
countries.  Some  of  the  steamers  and  nearly  all  of  the  sailing  vessels 
returned  from  Australia  to  the  United  States  by  way  of  the  west  coast 
of  North  or  South  America.  Under  present  conditions  the  tendency 
is  for  an  increasing  number  of  vessels  starting  out  from  Europe  and 
the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  toward  the  East  to  return  to 
their  starting  point  by  a  continuous  voyage  around  the  world. 

The  effect  of  the  isthmian  canal  upon  ocean  routes  under  consider- 
ation will  be  a  double  one.  It  will  facilitate  a  round-the-world  move- 
ment of  commerce  and  also  establish  conditions  that  may  cause  vessels 
to  pass  from  Europe  as  well  as  from  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States  through  the  American  canal  to  oriental  countries,  to  return,  as 
traffic  inducements  ma}^  determine,  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal  or  across 
the  Pacific  to  the  west  coast  of  North  and  South  America  and  thence 
to  the  point  of  departure.  By  exercising  these  influences  upon  the 
world's  commercial  routes  the  canal  will  secure  a  part  of  the  trade  of 
Europe  with  countries  in  the  western  half  of  the  Pacific. 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  493 

TONNAGE    OF   AVAILABLE    CANAL   TRAFFIC. 

The  records  kept  by  the  Panama  Company  show  that  during  the 
calendar  year  1899  the  commerce  of  groups  1,  3,  and  4  might  have 
contributed  3,  848,577  tons  net  register  to  the  traffic  of  the  isthmian 
canal.  This  sum  does  not  include  any  vessel  tonnage  for  the  commerce, 
crossing  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  addition  of  that  tonnage, 
336,998,  raises  the  total  to  4,185,575.  The  entrances  and  clearances 
for  the  commerce  of  the  eastern  seaboard  of  the  United  States  with 
Pacific  America  and  with  Australia,  Oceania,  the  Philippines,  Japan, 
China,  and  Siberia,  and  the  vessel  movements  between  the  western 
coasts  of  the  American  continents  and  the  North  Atlantic  American 
and  European  ports  were  found  to  amount  to  4,074,852  vessel  tons  net 
register,  including  the  336,998  tons  for  the  commerce  crossing  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama. 

In  addition  to  this  tonnage,  which  comprises  onty  traffic  originating 
or  terminating  in  America,  there  should  be  included  most  of  the  com- 
merce of  Europe  with  New  Zealand  and  the  other  islands  of  the  Pacific 
east  of  Australia.  New  Zealand  will  be  1,503  miles  nearer  Liverpool 
by  the  Nicaragua  Canal  than  via  the  Suez  route  and  2,407  miles  nearer 
than  by  way  of  Good  Hope.  The  distances  to  Liverpool  from  the 
most  important  groups  of  South  Pacific  islands  north  of  New  Zealand 
will  be  from  500  to  5,500  miles  less  via  the  isthmian  canal  than  b}T 
way  of  Suez.  The  entrances  and  clearances  of  New  Zealand's  trade 
with  northwestern  Europe — France  and  countries  farther  north — 
amounted  to  481,178  tons  net  register  in  1899,  and  the  commerce  of 
that  part  of  Europe  with  the  other  islands  of  the  South  Pacific  east  of 
Australia  to  181,743  tons.  Of  this  total  traffic  of  662,921  tons,  prob- 
ably not  less  than  500,000  might  have  advantageously  used  an  isthmian 
canal,  and  this  amount  should  be  added  to  the  tonnage  of  the  canal 
traffic  originating  or  terminating  in  America.  This  makes  the  total 
obtained  by  the  Commission's  investigation  of  the  tonnage  that  might 
have  used  an  isthmian  canal  in  1899  4,574,852  tons  net  register  and 
the  total  obtained  by  adopting  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company's 
figures  for  the  traffic  originating  or  terminating  in  America  4,685,575 
tons. 

The  above  totals  for  the  tonnage  that  might  have  used  an  isthmian 
canal  in  1899  do  not  include  any  of  Europe's  trade  with  Australia  and 
Japan,  a  part  of  which,  for  reasons  stated  above,  would  have  used  an 
isthmian  waterway.  The  distances  from  Great  Britain  to  Sydne}7  and 
Yokohama  by  the  Suez  and  isthmian  canal  routes  are  approximately 
equal,  and  vessels  going  by  America  in  either  direction  en  route 
between  Europe  and  Japan  or  Australia  will  pass  regions  from  which 
there  is  a  heavy  export  tonnage.  If  it  be  assumed  that  only  10  per 
cent  of  the  vessel  tonnage  of  the  Australian  trade  with  the  ports  of 
northwestern  Europe  and  only  5  per  cent  of  the  tonnage  of  the  Jap- 
anese commerce  with  those  ports  would  have  taken  an  American  canal 
route,  the  totals  for  1899  should  be  increased  316,223  tons,  and  be 
raised  from  4,574,852  to  4,891,075  tons,  and  from  4,685,575  to 
5,001,798  tons,  or  to  approximately  5,000,000  tons. 

GROWTH   OF   TRAFFIC,  1888-1898. 

The  total  vessel  tonnage  of  the  four  groups  included  in  the  tables 
prepared  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  rose  from  7,129,724 


494 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


tons  net  register  in  1888  to  8,462,668  tons  in  1898,  an  increase  of  18.7 
per  cent.  There  was  a  large  increase  in  the  commerce  of  groups  1 
and  4.  The  rapid  development  of  the  trade  of  Europe  with  the  west 
coast  of  the  Americas,  particularly  in  Chilean  nitrates,  has  been  dwelt 
upon  elsewhere.  The  commerce  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  America 
with  the  Orient,  group  4,  expanded  largely  during  the  decade  in  spite 
of  the  hindrance  imposed  by  the  length  of  the  present  transportation 
routes. 

The  ocean  commerce,  the  tonnage  of  which  is  comprised  in  group  3, 
that  is  to  say,  the  trade  between  the  two  American  seaboards,  increased 
but  slightly  during  the  decade;  but  this  total  of  less  than  a  quarter  of 
a  million  tons  includes  only  the  tonnage  of  vessels  which  actually  make 
the  trip  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  oceans.  It  does  not  com- 
prise the  traffic  which  now  moves  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
The  traffic  around  South  America  was  less  in  1899  than  it  had  been  in 
previous  years,  the  reason  for  this  being  that  the  sailing  vessels  that 
had  been  engaged  in  the  trade  between  our  two  coasts  were  sold  for 
the  purpose  of  substituting  steamers.  Those  steamships  will  all  be  in 
service  before  the  end  of  1901,  and  the  tonnage  will  then  be  greater 
than  it  was  previous  to  the  year  1899.  After  the  isthmian  canal  has 
been  in  use  for  a  few  years  the  commerce  of  group  3  will  probabty  be 
as  large  as  that  of  any  other  one  of  the  four  groups,  because  it  is  this 
group  in  which  the  coasting  trade  between  the  two  seaboards  of  the 
United  States  will  fall.  The  present  small  proportions  of  this  trade 
between  the  two  coasts  of  the  Americas  and  the  slow  rate  of  its 
increase  indicate  an  important,  although  not  the  only,  commercial  rea- 
son why  the  United  States  proposes  to  construct  an  isthmian  canal. 

In  the  following  table  the  tonnage  of  1888  is  compared  with  that  of 
1898,  and  the  number  of  steamers  and  sailing  vessels  engaged  in  the 
commerce  of  each  group  is  indicated: 

Comparison  of  the  tonnage  of  1SS8  and  1S98. 


Group  1.  Europe 

with  Pacific 

America. 

Group  2.  Europe 
with  the  Orient. 

Group  3.  Be- 
tween Atlantic 
and  Pacific 
America. 

Group  4.  Atlan- 
tic America 
with  Orient. 

Total  for  the 
year. 

Num- 
ber. 

Tons. 

Num- 
ber. 

Tons. 

Num- 
ber. 

Tons. 

Num- 
ber. 

Tons. 

Num- 
ber. 

Tons. 

1888: 

Steam 

Sail 

215 
1,633 

346,015 
1,744,661 

1,275 
1 ,  595 

2,396,105 
1,659,759 

7 
182 

4,716 
217, 597 

46 

571 

78, 994 
681,877 

1,543 
3,981 

2, 825, 830 
4, 303, 894 

Total... 

1,848 

2, 090, 676 

2, 870 

4, 055, 864 

1S9 

222,313 

617 

760, 871 

5, 524 

7, 129, 724 

1898: 

Steam  ... 
Sail 

265 
1,101 

648, 568 
1,680,573 

1,448     3,669,091 
743  \      948,222 

57 
104 

91,082 
148, 204 

202 
527 

141,246 

835, 682 

1,972 
2, 475 

1,849,987 
3,612,681 

Total . . . 

1,366 

2,329,141 

2,191     4,617,313 

161 

239, 286 

729 

1,276,928 

4,447 

8, 462, 668 

Per   cent    of 
increase  or 
decrease 
1888-1898: 

Steam  ... 

Sail 

+ 

87.4 
■3.6 

+ 

53.1 
»42.8 

+ 

1831 
»31.9 

+ 
+ 

468 
22.6 

+ 

71.3 
•16.0 

Total... 

! 

11.  1 

+ 

13.8 

+ 

7.6 

+ 

67.8 

+ 

18.7 

'Decrease. 


In  showing  the  growth  in  the  commerce  of  these  four  groups  indi- 
vidually and  collectively  during  the  decade  1888  to  1898,  the  figures  of 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


495 


the  above  table  afford  the  basis  for  reasoning  regarding  the  probable 
amount  of  tonnage  that  will  lie  ready  to  use  the  canal  at  the  time  of 
its  probable  completion,  but  a  consideration  of  this  is  reserved  for  a 
separate  section,  where  all  the  data  bearing  upon  the  subject  are  ana- 
lvtically  presented. 

There  are  two  other  facts  shown  by  this  table  that  are  of  indirect 
importance  in  connection  with  the  traffic  of  an  isthmian  canal.  One 
is  that  the  increased  traffic  of  1898—18.7  per  cent  larger  than  the  ton- 
nage of  1888 — was  carried  in  1,077  fewer  vessels  than  were  used  ten 
years  before.  The  number  of  ships  decreased  19.5  per  cent  during 
the  decade,  thus  affording  a  good  illustration  of  the  well-known  fact 
that  the  size  of  ocean  vessels  is  growing  rapidly  larger.  The  average 
net  register  of  the  vessels  engaged  in  the  four  groups  of  commerce 
was  1,291  tons  in  1888.  The  steamers  at  that  time  averaged  1,831  tons 
net  register.  In  1898  the  average  for  all  vessels,  both  steam  and  sail, 
was  1,903  tons  net  register  and  for  steamers  2,460  tons. 

THE    SUBSTITUTION    OF   STEAMERS    FOR   SAILING    VESSELS.  % 

The  figures  contained  in  the  table  also  indicate  the  rapidity  and 
extent  to  which  the  steamer  is  supplanting  the  sailing  vessel.  The 
table  shows  that  the  sailing  vessel  lost  ground  most  rapidly  in  the 
commerce  of  group  2,  where  the  Suez  route  has  come  to  be  the  main 
traffic  highway.  These  facts  regarding  the  growth  of  steam  tonnage 
and  the  declining  use  of  the  sailing  vessel  are  graphically  shown  in  the 
accompanying  charts,  which  indicate  for  each  of  the  four  groups  the 
changes  that  have  taken  place  in  both  steam  and  sail  tonnage.  _  The 
first  chart  applies  to  sailing  vessels,  the  second  to  steamers,  while  in 
the  third  the  changes  in  the  total  tonnage,  steam  and  sail  combined, 
are  represented. 

COMPARISON    OF   THE    RESULTS   OF  THE  THREE  TRAFFIC  INVESTIGATIONS. 

Having  now  set  forth  the  results  of  three  separate  investigations 
instituted  to  measure  the  volume  of  the  existing  commerce  that  would 
make  use  of  an  isthmian  canal  were  such  a  waterway  in  existence,  it 
will  be  profitable  to  compare  the  results  of  the  three  inquiries  to  see 
whether  they  tend  to  strengthen  each  other,  or  whether  they  are  so 
different  as  to  cast  doubt  upon  the  accuracy  of  any  or  all  of  the  three 
studies.  The  three  investigations  were  made  not  only  without  refer- 
ence to  each  other,  but  also  according  to  entirely  different  methods. 
Two  of  the  investigations  were  made  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commis- 
sion, and  the  other  under  the  direction  of  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company.  It  is  not  often  in  statistical  and  economic  investigations 
that  such  an  opportunity  for  checking  up  results  is  afforded  as  is  pos- 
sible in  the  present  instance. 

In  the  chapter  on  cargo  tonnage  it  was  found  that  the  freight  ton- 
nage of  the  trade  between  Europe  and  Western  America  and  the  ton- 
nage going  by  water  between  the  eastern  seaboard  of  the  United 
States  and  Pacific  countries  amounted  to  6,703,608  tons  in  1899.  The 
total  entrances  and  clearances  of  the  vessels  engaged  in  this  trade  at 
that  time  equaled  3,965, 540 a  tons  net  register.     This  would  make  the 

This  is  4,074,852  tons  minus  109,312  tons,  the  coasting  trade  between  our  two 
seaboards.  The  6,703,608  tons  of  cargo  do  not  include  any  of  our  coasting  trade, 
hence  the  vessel  tonnage  total  is  reduced  before  comparison  is  made  with  the  total 
cargo  tonnage. 


496  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

average  ratio  of  cargo  tonnage  to  net  register  tonnage  1.69.  The 
records  of  vessel  movements  kept  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany show  a  tonnage  of  3,646,428  net  register  tons  during  the  calen- 
dar year  1899  for  the  commerce  of  groups  1  and  4,  which  correspond 
in  general,  although  not  exactly,  with  the  trade  included  in  the  above 
cargo  tonnage  total.  The  ratio  of  cargo  tonnage  to  the  vessel  tonnage 
of  groups  1  and  4  is  1.83.  This  is  a  somewhat  higher  ratio  than  that 
between  the  cargo  tonnage  and  vessel  tonnage  of  entrances  and 
clearances. 

The  tables  prepared  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  do  not 
include  the  vessel  tonnage  of  the  trade  at  Panama.  Their  method  of 
recording  the  movements  of  vessels  passing  from  ocean  to  ocean  and 
totalizing  those  movements  naturally  would  not  take  account  of  the 
traffic  at  Panama.  In  the  tonnage  total  of  entrances  and  clearances 
obtained  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  the  Panama  traffic  was 
reckoned  to  be  336,998  tons  net  register.  If  this  sum  be  added  to  the 
vessel  tonnage  total  of  groups  1,  3,  and  4  and  the  cargo  tonnage  be 
divided  by  this  larger  figure,  the  ratio  becomes  1.60. 

The  ' '  dead- weight "  cargo  carrying  capacity  of  American  schooners 
of  500  to  2,000  tons  net  register  averages  about  66  per  cent  more  than 
the  net  register,  but  this  ratio  varies  greatly  with  different  vessels. 
The  ordinary  modern  freight  steamer  when  fully  loaded  will  carry 
about  2.25  tons  of  cargo  for  each  ton  net  register. 

Vessels  are  not  fully  loaded  on  all  voyages.  Some  are  obliged  to 
make  trips  in  ballast  in  search  of  cargo,  and  many  more  are  but  par- 
tially laden  on  the  outbound  or  return  voyage  of  a  round  trip.  There 
are  very  few  ports  of  the  world  where  the  volumes  of  exports  and 
imports  are  equal.  Great  Britain  buys  a  much  larger  bulk  of  com- 
modities than  she  sends  out.  The  opposite  is  true  of  the  United  States 
and  western  South  America.  Consequently  the  average  cargoes  of 
ocean  vessels  engaged  in  international  trade  are  much  less  than  their 
maximum  carrying  capacity. 

The  ratio  of  cargo  to  net  register  tonnage,  obtained  above  by  dividing 
the  total  available  canal  freight  tonnage  by  the  corresponding  net  vessel 
tonnage,  are  about  what  might  be  expected  on  a  priori  grounds.  The 
fact  that  these  ratios  are  apparently  correct  is  not  a  definite  proof  of 
the  accuracy  of  the  tonnage  totals  compared,  but  it  is  corroborative 
evidence.  If  any  one  of  these  three  totals  compared  were  grossly  in 
error,  there  could  not  be  such  close  correspondence  in  the  ratios. 

The  total  of  entrances  and  clearances  in  the  trade  of  the  year  1899 
between  Europe  and  Western  America  and  between  the  Eastern  United 
States  and  Pacific  countries,  4,074,852  tons,  is  somewhat  less  than  the 
new  Panama  ( 'anal  Company's  total  of  vessels  engaged  in  this  com- 
merce, if  the  traffic  at  Panama  be  added  to  their  figure  for  groups  1, 
3,  and  4.  The  tonnage  of  these  three  groups  during  the  calendar  year 
1899  was  3,848,577,  and  this  plus  the  entrances  at  Panama  in  1898, 
336,998  tons  (the  vessel  tonnage  adopted  for  the  entire  Panama  traffic), 
amounts  to  4,185,575  tons. 

A  more  detailed  comparison  of  the  tonnage  figures  of  tables  pre- 
pared by  the  Commission  with  those  made  by  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company  would  show  that  the  totals  for  the  two  coasts  of  America 
are  not  very  different.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  trade  of  Hawaii  is 
included  in  group  3  of  the  Panama  Company's  tonnage  table.  If  it  is, 
the  Commission's  figures  are  larger;  if  Hawaii  is  not  comprised  in 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  497 

group  3,  its  inclusion  there  would  make  the  Panama  Company's  figures 
greater.  For  the  trade  between  Europe  and  the  west  coast  of  the 
Americas  the  Commission's  total  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  Panama 
Company's — 178,967  tons  if  the  trade  of  Hawaii  be  included  in  the 
Commission's  figures,  and  153,935  tons  if  omitted.  If  group  3  does 
not  include  the  Hawaiian  commerce,  the  vessel  tonnage  of  that  com- 
merce should  be  subtracted  from  the  figures  of  "entrances  and 
clearances"  before  the  comparison  is  made.  Concerning  this  differ- 
ence of  151,000  or  179,000  tons  between  totals  approximating  two  and 
a  half  millions  it  should  be  said  that  the  periods  covered  by  the  two 
totals  are  not  identical,  and  that  the  two  methods  of  determining  ves- 
sel movements  could  hardly  be  expected  to  }ield  exactly  the  same 
results.  Vessels  do  not  always  make  the  port  they  clear  for.  Acci- 
dents may  prevent,  or  telegraphic  orders  from  the  owner  or  charterer 
may  change  the  course  of  the  vessel. 

It  is  in  the  vessel  tonnage  of  the  commerce  between  the  eastern 
American  seaboard  and  the  countries  of  the  western  part  of  the  Pacific 
(i.  e.,  the  Far  East),  that  the  largest  difference  exists  between  the 
figures  of  the  Panama  Company  and  the  Commission.  The  total  of 
group  1  in  the  calendar  year  1899  was  1,271,357,  while  the  total  of 
entrances  and  clearances  accepted  for  the  fiscal  }^ear  ending' June  30, 
1899,  by  the  Commission  for  the  trade  between  the  eastern  seaboard  of 
the  United  States  and  the  western  Pacific  countries  was  908,110  tons 
net  register.  This  amount,  it  will  be  recalled,  is  twice  the  tonnage  of 
vessels  clearing  direct  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  Japan,  Siberia, 
China,  the  Philippines,  and  Australasia.  Group  1  of  the  French  tables 
includes  some  commerce  (that  of  Singapore  and  the  Dutch  East  Indies) 
not  comprised  in  the  Commission's  figures  for  the  trade  between 
our  eastern  seaboard  and  trans-Pacific  countries.  Moreover,  a  com- 
plete statement  of  the  vessel  tonnage  of  this  commerce  can  not  be 
made  from  our  statistics  of  entrances  and  clearances,  because  a  share, 
not  only  of  the  commodity  traffic,  but  also  of  the  vessel  tonnage  of 
this  commerce,  is  credited  in  our  statistical  records  to  our  trade  with 
Europe.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  vessel  tonnage  engaged  in  the 
commerce  between  our  eastern  seaboard  and  the  countries  of  the 
western  Pacific  is  somewhat  greater  than  908,110  tons  net  register. 
Group  1  applies  to  the  commerce  between  the  entire  east  coast  of  the 
American  continent  and  the  countries  of  the  western  Pacific;  but  there 
can  be  but  very  little  vessel  movement  between  the  Far  East  and  any 
Atlantic  American  countries  other  than  the  United  States. 

The  onl}T  other  tonnage  item  requiring  mention  in  this  comparison 
is  that  of  the  commerce  at  the  city  of  Panama  referred  to  above.  The 
total  of  entrances  and  clearances,  as  determined  by  the  Commission, 
credit  that  traffic  with  336,998  vessel  tons  net  register;  whereas  the 
methods  in  accordance  with  which  the  calculations  of  the  New  Panama 
Canal  Company  were  made  were  such  as  not  to  include  that  tonnage. 

The  results  of  the  three  traffic  investigations  are  such  as  to  affirm 
the  essential  accuracy  of  each.  The  ratio  between  cargo  tonnage  and 
vessel  tonnage  apparently  accords  with  the  facts  of  ocean  commerce. 
In  view  of  the  complexity  of  the  statistical  problem,  the  difference  in 
the  methods  of  dealing  with  the  problem,  and  the  slight  difference  in 
periods  covered,  the  vessel  tonnage  totals  obtained  by  the  commission's 
investigation  of  entrances  and  clearances  and  the  New  Panama  Com- 
pany's record  of  vessel  movements  correspond  as  closely  as  could  be 
expected. 

S.  Doc.  51,  pt  2 32 


498 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Chapter  XXI.—  Growth  of  canal  traffic,  1899  to  1911,.  and  1911,  to  1921,. 

The  factors  affecting  the  growth  of  commerce  are  so  numerous  and 
so  interrelated  that  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  growth  in  traffic  that 
will  take  place  during  the  decade  or  more  that  must  intervene  before 
an  isthmian  canal  can  be  ready  for  use.  The  only  basis  of  calculation 
is  the  increase  of  the  past  under  the  conditions  of  production  and  trans- 
portation and  the  requirements  of  international  trade  that  then  pre- 
vailed. All  of  these  conditions  are  constantly  changing  and  thereby 
affecting  the  volume  and  nature  of  the  commodities  exchanged  and  the 
routes  followed  by  the  commerce  of  the  world. 

Of  one  thing,  however,  there  can  hardly  be  any  uncertainty,  com- 
mercial progress  during  the  near  future  will  be  fully  as  rapid  as  it  has 
been  the  past  ten  or  twenty  years.  The  demands  of  consumers  are 
everywhere  expanding,  and  sections  like  Africa  and  Eastern  Asia,  that 
have  thus  far  had  but  slight  contact  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  are 
being  rapidly  brought  within  the  sphere  of  international  commerce. 
The  costs  of  transportation,  both  inland  and  maritime,  continue  to 
decline  with  the  improvement  of  mechanical  appliances  and  the  accumu- 
lation of  capital  seeking  profitable  investment.  Nations  and  individuals 
are  devoting  themselves  with  energy  to  the  extension  of  trade  and  com- 
merce. This  is  particularly  true  of  the  people  and  Government  of  the 
United  States. 

Such  being  the  case,  the  probable  tonnage  of  the  traffic  that  will  be 
available  for  an  isthmian  canal  at  the  time  of  its  completion  will  doubt- 
less be  conservatively  estimated  by  predicating  a  continuation  of  the 
rate  of  increase  that  has  prevailed  duringthe  past  decade.  In  all  proba- 
bility the  growth  will  be  more  rapid  in  the  future;  it  surely  will  not 
be  slower. 

RATE  OF    INCREASE  SHOWN  BY  TABLES  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY. 

The  statisticians  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  found  that  the 
tonnage  of  the  vessels  trafficking  between  the  two  coasts  of  America, 
between  the  eastern  United  States  and  the  Orient,  between  Europe  and 
Pacific  America,  i.  e.,  the  available  canal  tonnage  originating  or  ter- 
minating in  America,  increased  from  3,073,860  tons  net  register  in 
1888  to  3,845,355  tons  in  1898.  a  gain  of  25.1  per  tent.  In  dete mim- 
ing whether  this  rate  of  increase  per  decade  is  one  whose  use  will 
result  in  a  conservative  estimate  of  the  probable  available  canal  traffic 
in  1911,  references  to  the  progress  in  the  vessel  tonnage  and  value  of 
the  international  trade  of  a  few  typical  regions  will  be  of  assistance. 

The  growth  that  has  taken  place  in  the  commerce  between  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  and  Pacific  foreign  countries  is 
shown  in  the  following  table,  which  compares  the  year  L899  with  that 
of  1889.  The  facts  are  shown  separately  for  western  South  America 
and  all  other  Pacific  countries: 


Tin-  trade  of  the  United  States  Atlantic  coast  with  foreign  countries  on  the  Pacifu 

in  value,  1SS9-1S99. 

— Growth 

\\  nil  South  America.                        With  all  other  Pacific. 

Combined 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Total,     i    Imports,    i    Exports.         Total. 

total. 

1889 

1899 

g:i,:V2.\iir> 
...  168,766 

$8,854,341 
3,942,  139 

87,179,456  830,107,332  817,478,531    847 
9,110,905     34,642,073     38,228,696     72,870,769 

854,765,319 
81,981,674 

Absolute  i  n  - 

1,843,651 
55.  i 

87, 798 

1,931,449       1,534,741 

26.8  |              15.1 

20,750,165     25,284,906 

118.7  J              53.1 

27,216,355 

Per  cent   in- 

49.7 

EEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  499 

The  value  of  the  imports  from  South  America  rose  55.4  per  cent. 
The  total  value  of  our  import  and  export  tiade  with  western  South 
America  increased  26.8  per  cent  during-  the  decade  1889-1899. 

The  commerce  between  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  seaboard  of  the  United 
States,  and  Australia,  Japan,  and  the  mainland  of  Pacific  Asia  has 
grown  more  rapidly  than  our  trade  with  western  South  America.  The 
growth  in  the  value  of  the  imports  was  15.1  per  cent,  and  of  the  exports 
IIS.  7  per  cent,  the  increase  in  the  total  trade  having  been  53.1  per  cent 
Our  ability  to  produce  cheaply  has  enabled  us  to  enter  freely  into  the 
expanding  markets  of  the  western  half  of  the  Pacific,  although  the 
costs  of  transportation,  except  to  Australia  during  the  last  three  years 
of  the  decade  being  studied,  have  necessarily  been  higher  than  our 
rivals  have  had  to  bear.  The  competition  of  the  three  lines  from  New 
York  to  Australia  became  severe  in  1897  and  greatly  facilitated  the 
development  of  the  large  trade  which  we  have  latterly  secured  with 
Australia. 

The  total  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Australasia  more  than 
doubled  during  the  decade  1890  to  1900,  having  been  $32,194,000  in  the 
year  ending  June  30, 1900,  as  against  $15,544,000  in  1890.  Our  exports 
to  that  continent  increased  from  $11,266,000  to  $26,725,000  during  the 
decade. 

INCREASE   IN   TRADE    BETWEEN    EUROPE    AND    WESTERN   COAST    OF 

AMERICA. 

The  European  entrances  from  Chile  increased  from  575,890  tons  in 
1888  to  914,091  tons  in  1898,  a  gain  of  58.7  per  cent.  These  figures 
contain  a  certain  amount  of  duplication,  but  the  elimination  of  those 
duplications  would  not  much  affect  the  percentage.  The  duplications 
in  clearances  from  Europe  are  greater  than  in  the  records  of  entrances, 
and  for  that  reason  the  statistics  of  clearances  are  not  cited  in  this  con- 
nection. On  their  face  the  figures  of  entrances  and  clearances  indi- 
cate that  the  total  trade  between  Chile  and  Europe  was  33.3  per  cent 
greater  in  1898  than  ten  years  before,  and  while  neither  the  statistics 
nor  the  per  cent  of  increase  are  to  be  taken  as  absolutely  correct,  they 
possess  illustrative  value.  The  European  entrances  from  all  the  west 
coast  of  South  America  increased  from  789,278  tons  in  1888  to  1,077,346 
tons  in  1898,  a  gain  of  36.5  per  cent. 

In  the  chapter  dealing  with  the  vessel  tonnage  available  for  the  use 
of  a  canal,  the  cargo  tonnage  of  the  nitrate  of  soda  exported  from  Chile 
was  shown  to  have  grown  from  420,000  to  1,360,000  long  tons  during 
the  fifteen-year  period  ending  with  the  calendar  year  1899.  This 
increase  of  over  200  per  cent  in  the  nitrate  trade  is,  of  course,  due  to 
causes  peculiar  to  it,  and  not  generally  operative  upon  international 
trade  as  a  whole.  Nevertheless,  the  growth  of  the  foreign  trade  in 
such  articles  as  nitrate  of  soda,  phosphate  rock,  lumber,  coal,  iron 
and  steel  products,  and  others  that  might  be  cited,  and  the  practical 
certainty  that  the  increase  will  continue  for  some  decades  to  come, 
must  have  much  significance  in  any  reasoning  regarding  the  probable 
rate  of  increase  that  will  take  place  during  the  coming  decade  and  a 
half,  in  the  commerce  available  for  an  isthmian  canal. 

The  trade  of  Europe  with  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  is 
subject  to  great  fluctuations,  because  it  consists  largely,  although  to  a 
continually  less  degree,  of  the  exports  of  grain,  the  annual  volume  of 


500 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


which  depends  upon  whether  the  crop  yield  is  abundant  or  light,  and 
whether  European  prices  are  high  or  low.  The  entrances  recorded 
at  our  Western  ports  comprise  a  decreasing  number  of  vessels  from 
Europe,  because  the  majority  of  the  ships  reach  those  ports  from  trans- 
pacific points.  The  export  trade  is  particularly  subject  to  fluctuation, 
but  the  last  decade  of  the  last  century  witnessed  a  moderate  growth  in 
the  tonnage  in  vessels  cleared.  There  was,  likewise,  an  increase  in 
the  value  of  the  exports,  which  amounted  to  about  25  per  cent.  The 
exports  of  wheat  are  not  so  heavy  as  they  formerly  were,  but  other 
commodities,  particularly  horticultural  products,  are  acquiring  a  large 
place  in  the  foreign  trade. 

GROWTH  IN  TRANS-PACIFIC   TRADE   OF    THE  WEST   COAST  OF  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 


The  trade  between  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  and  Hawaii, 
Japan,  China,  and  Hongkong  will  not  make  use  of  the  canal,  but  for 
the  purpose  of  discussing  the  rate  at  which  the  Pacific  commerce  is 
growing,  this  trade  may  be  most  advantageously  considered.  In  the 
following  table  the  entrances  and  clearances  of  the  vessels  engaged  in 
that  trade  are  indicated,  the  absolute  increase  in  the  total  tonnage 
during  the  decade  is  shown  for  the  live  countries  separately  and  col- 
lectively. According  to  the  table  the  total  entrances  and  clearances 
increased  191  per  cent  during  the  decade. 

Vessel  tonnage  trade  between  west  coast  of  United  States  and  trans-Pacific  countries. 


Country  and  year. 

Entrances. 

Clearances. 

Total. 

Hawaii: 

1889 

43, 254 
246, 432 

96, 200 
206,887 

139, 454 

1899 

153,319 

313, 865 

Siberia: 

1889 

1,029 
7,633 

1,980 
19,639 

3,009 

1899 

27, 270 



24, 261 

Japan: 

1 889 

29, 480 
165, 701 

2,095 

44,731 

31,575 

1899 

210,432 

178, 857 

China: 

1889 

3,785 
72,  145 

3,  982 
28,790 

7,  767 

1899 

95, 935 

88, 168 

Hongkong: 

1889 

107, 794 
183,  679 

111,507 
207,  130 

222, 301 

1899 

891, 109 

168,808 

Total  entrances  and  clciirniii-o:  lssg,  404,106;  1899,  L, 178,065;  per  cenl  of  gain,  191. 

In  reading  this  table  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  a  consider- 
able tonnage  of  vessels  enter  our  Western  ports  not  to  secure  cargo 
for  the  Orient,  but  to  load  with  grain,  lumber,  or  other  freight  for  the 
North  Atlantic,  and  if  allowances  could  be  made  for  this  the  average 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  501 

percentage  of  gain  would  be  somewhat  reduced.  However,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  clearances  from  our  ports  for  the  five  Pacific  coun- 
tries— and  the  clearances  represent  the  movements  of  vessels  actually 
engaged  in  carrying  our  goods  abroad — show  a  large  increase  in  each 
instance. 

The  foregoing  paragraphs  have  referred  to  the  rate  of  growth  pre- 
vailing in  the  commerce  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  with 
(1)  western  South  America,  (2)  with  all  Pacific  countries  other  than 
South  America,  and  (3)  with  Australia;  reference  has  also  been  made  to 
rate  of  increase  in  Europe's  commerce  (1)  with  the  west  coast  of  South 
America,  (5)  with  Chile,  and  (6)  with  the  Pacific  States  of  the  United 
States;  and  finally  attention  was  called  to  the  progress  being  made  in 
(7)  the  commerce  of  our  west  coast  with  Hawaii,  Australia,  Hongkong, 
China,  Japan,  and  Siberia.  In  only  one  of  these  seven  references  to 
international  trade — the  commerce  between  our  west  coast  and  Europe — 
was  the  rate  of  increase  per  decade  found  to  be  less  than  the  25.1  per 
cent  obtained  by  comparing  records  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany for  1888  with  those  for  1898.  In  most  of  the  seven  special  divi- 
sions of  commerce  above  noted  the  rate  of  growth  was  found  to  be 
much  more  than  25.1  per  cent. 

PROBABLE  AVAILABLE  CANAL  TRAFFIC  IN  1911. 

In  view  of  these  facts  it  would  seem  that  an  increase  of  25.1  per 
cent  per  decade  up  to  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  canal  may  be  very 
safely  and  conservatively  predicated  concerning  the  traffic  that  might 
have  advantageously  used  the  waterway  in  1899.  Predictions  con- 
cerning the  future  ten  or  fifteen  years  must  necessarily  be  based  upon 
the  experiences  of  the  past,  and  unless  the  decade  upon  which  the 
calculations  here  presented  as  to  the  future  are  made  to  rest  was  one 
of  abnormally  rapid  or  slow  commercial  progress  it  may  properly  be 
made  the  basis. 

Taken  as  a  whole  the  decade  preceding  1899  was  probably  one  during 
which  the  world  made  normal  industrial  and  commercial  progress. 
In  the  United  States  the  earlier  years  and  the  last  year  of  the  period 
were  characterized  b}T  great  business  activity,  but  during  fully  a  third 
of  the  decade  a  business  depression  of  unusual  severity  prevailed. 
The  years  from  1893  to  1897  were  more  trying  ones  in  this  country 
than  they  were  in  Europe,  but  business  was  dull  rather  than  active  in 
Europe  during  that  time.  Consequent!}'  it  is  probable  that  estimates 
based  upon  this  decade  will  not  lead  to  an  exaggeration  of  the  facts. 

The  Panama  Canal  Compan}r's  figures  for  the  vessel  movements  of 
the  commerce  originating  or  terminating  in  America,  increased  by  the 
present  transisthmian  traffic  and  816,223  tons  of  Europe's  trade  with 
Oceania,  Australia,  and  Japan,  show  that  the  available  canal  traffic  for 
the  calendar  year  1899  was  5,001,798  tons  net  register.  An  increase 
of  25.1  per  cent  during  the  decade  ending  in  1909  would  raise  the 
amount  to  6,257,219  tons;  and  the  same  rate  of  growth  would  bring 
the  total  to  6,998,733— or,  in  round  numbers,  7,000,000— tons  in  1911. 

If  the  tonnage  of  available  canal  traffic  in  1899,  as  determined  by 
the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission's  study  of  entrances  and  clearances, 
be  made  the  basis  of  estimate,  and  the  increase  of  25.1  percent  per 
decade  be  assumed,  the  figures  for  1909  will  be  6,118,735  net  register 
tons,  and  for  1914  6,813,805  tons. 


502  KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

In  the  foregoing  estimates  of  tonnage  the  figures  refer  to  the  avail- 
able'canal  traffic.  It  is  not  probable  that  all  of  the  commerce  included 
in  the  above  totals  will  at  once  abandon  the  routes  at  present  followed 
and  immediately  make  use  of  the  isthmian  waterway.  It  will  take 
some  time  to  readjust  trade  with  reference  to  the  new  conditions  which 
the  canal  will  establish,  and  possibly  two  years  may  be  required  for 
merchants  and  carriers  to  adapt  themselves  to  all  the  changes  in  the 
routes  and  methods  of  international  trade  that  the  use  of  the  canal 
will  necessitate.  The  totals  to  which  the  three  investigations  of  avail- 
able canal  tonnage  have  led  may  be  designated  as  the  measure  of  all 
the  commerce  that  would  have  used  the  canal  in  1899  had  the  com- 
merce of  our  own  and  foreign  countries  been  adjusted  to  the  condition 
of  trade  which  the  canal  would  have  established.  There  is  no  tonnage 
included  in  the  totals  which  might  not  advantageously  use  the  canal, 
except  during  the  temporary  period  of  transition  from  the  existing 
conditions  governing  international  trade  and  controlling  the  commerce 
between  our  eastern  and  western  seaboards,  to  those  conditions  which 
will  exist  after  the  isthmian  route  has  been  opened. 

ESTIMATE    OF    GROWTH    OF   TRAFFIC   DURING  FIRST  DECADE   OF  THE    USE 

OF  THE   CANAL. 

The  new  interoceanic  communication  will  so  greatly  modify  the 
routes  of  commerce  and  the  conditions  controlling  the  progress  of  the 
industries  and  commerce  of  many  sections  of  the  world  that  the  prob- 
lem of  estimating  the  increase  that  may  be  expected  to  take  place  in 
the  tonnage  using  the  canal  during  the  first  decade  following  the  open- 
ing of  the  waterway  is  a  different  one  from  that  of  predicting  the 
growth  of  available  traffic  up  to  the  time  of  the  completion  of  the 
canal.  The  rate  of  increase  will  be  much  more  rapid  after  the  canal 
has  been  put  into  service  and  its  economic  effects  have  begun  to  be 
realized. 

The  present  small  amount  of  ocean  tonnage  plying  between  the  two 
seaboards  of  the  United  States  affords  a  most  striking  instance  of  the 
restrictions  which  the  absence  of  an  isthmian  canal  imposes  upon  the 
growth  of  a  traffic  that  will  become  large  when  the  isthmian  waterway 
has  been  opened.  During  the  past  decade  the  vessel  movements 
between  our  two  seaboards  have  averaged  less  than  250,000  tons  annu- 
ally, and  until  the  current  year  have  tended  to  decline,  at  a  time  when 
our  domestic  and  foreign  trade  has  been  making  rapid  progress.  Our 
small  trade  with  western  South  America,  a  region  with  which  we 
should,  and  some  day  will,  have  a  large  commerce,  is  another  example 
of  the  restraints  of  existing  transportation  facilities.  The  effect  of  the 
isthmian  canal  upon  the  interoceanic  coastwise  commerce  of  the  United 
States  and  upon  our  trade  with  western  South  America  will  be  revolu- 
tionary, and  the  influence  upon  our  commerce  with  foreign  countries 
of  the  North  Pacific  will  be,  to  say  the  least,  highly  stimulative. 

During  the  decade  following  the  opening  of  the  canal  numerous 
forces  will  operate  to  accelerate  the  growth  of  American  commerce. 
Besides  being  influenced  by  the  new  isthmian  waterway,  commerce 
will  doubtless  be  served  by  a  Pacific  cable,  and  our  trade  will  have  the 
advantage  of  closer  and  more  direct  international  banking  facilities 


EEPOKT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


503 


than  now  exist.  Likewise,  there  is  every  reason  to  expect  a  large 
development  in  our  merchant  marine  during  the  coming  ten  or  fifteen 
years.  The  combined  effect  of  these  four  commercial  agencies  will 
be  to  supplement  our  ability  to  produce  cheaply,  with  facilities  as  favor- 
able as  our  rivals  possess  for  communication  and  transportation  and 
for  the  settlement  of  international  obligations,  and  the  result  will  be 
the  sure  progress  of  our  coastwise  and  foreign  maritime  commerce. 

While  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  traffic  of  the  isthmian  water- 
way during  the  early  years  of  its  operation  will  increase  so  rapidly 
as  did  the  tonnage  passing  the  Suez  Canal,  the  best  basis  for  estimating 
the  probable  increase  that  will  occur  in  the  tonnage  of  the  American 
isthmian  waterway  is  the  rate  of  growth  that  the  traffic  of  the  Suez 
Canal  has  had.  The  number  of  vessels  that  have  passed  through  the 
Suez  Canal  each  year  since  it  was  opened  and  the  gross  and  net  ton- 
nage are  shown  by  the  following  table: 


Suez  Canal  traffic. 


L87 


1878. 

1879. 
1880. 
1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
lsst".. 


1888. 
1889. 

1890. 
1891. 
1892. 
1893. 
1894. 
1895. 
1896. 
1897. 
1898. 
1899. 
1900. 


Year. 


Number 
of  ves- 
sels. 


Gross  ton- 
nage. 


486 

654, 915 

765 

1,142,200 

082 

1, 744, 481 

173 

2, 085, 073 

264 

2, 423, 672 

494 

2, 940, 708 

457 

3, 072, 107 

663 

3,418,950 

593 

3, 291, 535 

,477 

3,236,942 

,026 

4, 344, 520 

7?.7 

5, 794, 491 

,198 

7, 122, 126 

,307 

8,051,307 

,284 

8, 319, 967 

,624 

8, 985, 412 

,100 

8, 183, 313 

,137 

8,430,043 

,440 

9,437,957 

,425 

9, 605, 745 

,389 

9, 749, 129 

,207 

12,217,986 

,  559 

10, 866, 401 

,341 

10, 756, 798 

,  352 

11,2S3,855 

,434 

11,833,637 

,409 

12, 039,  859 

,986 

11, 123, 403 

i,503 

12, 962,  632 

,607 

13, 815, 992 

!,441 

13, 699, 238 

Net  ton- 
age. 


436, 609 
761,467 
1, 160, 743 
1,367,768 
1,631,650 
2, 009, 984 
2, 096, 772 
2, 355,  448 
2, 269, 678 
2, 263, 332 
3, 057, 422 
4, 136, 780 
5, 074, 809 
5,  775, 862 
5, 871, 501 
6, 335,  753 
5, 767,  656 
5, 903, 024 
6, 610, 834 
6, 783, 187 
6, 890, 094 
8, 698, 777 
7,712,029 
7, 659, 068 
8, 039, 175 
8, 448, 383 
8, 560, 284 
7, 899, 374 
9, 238, 603 
9, 895, 630 
9, 738, 152 


504 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


The  growth  in  the  tonnage  using  the  Suez  Canal  is  graphically  shown 
by  the  following  diagram: 


. 

4\ 

f 

J 

■ 

c 

.0 

> 

"v 

A 

J 

V 

_ 

v 

* 

? 

V 

*' 

_J 

000.000 
500,000 
000,000 
500,000 
000,000 
500,000 
000,000 
500,000 
000,000 
500,000 
000,000 
500,000 
000,000 
500,000 
000.00  0 
500,000 
000,000 
500,000 
000,000 
500,000 


CD    cd  co  o   a)    co  o    to    ta  ti   c  co    o   cd    a?   <x)  (O    co   o   co    go    co  <n    cococd    cd    coco    o 

The  increase  in  the  traffic  of  the  Suez  Canal  is  well  shown  by  group- 
ing the  figures  of  the  foregoing  table  into  live-year  periods  and  com- 
paring the  totals  of  these  periods.     This  is  done  in  the  following  table: 

Increase  in  /In-  number  of  vessels  and  tonnage  of  the  Suez  (.'mini  by  quinquennial  periods. 


Year-;. 

Number 

of 
vessels. 

Net  tonnage. 

Increase. 

Percentage 
which  the 
tonnage  of 

each  live  year 
period  is  of 
the  tonnage 
of  187  i 

1870  1874 

1.770 

7,684 
14,542 
16,726 
17,848 
16,989 

5,358,287 
10,995,21 1 
23,916,874 
81,  130   154 
39,899,  1  13 
14,042,274 

Per  cent. 

1875-187'i 

105 

117 
81 

'-'7 
10 

1880-1SS4        

217 

L885  L889            

286 

1890  189 1      

863 

L895  L899                   

401 

If  the  first  five-year  period  were  made  the  basis  of  comparison,  the 
rate  of  increase  would  l>c  so  great  as  to  exaggerate  the  progress  which 
the  traffic  made  during  the  subsequent  quinquennial  periods.  The 
Suez  Canal  could  )>e  used  advantageously  only  by  steamers,  and  in 
1870  the   number  of  steamers  available   for  the  commerce  between 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  505 

Europe  and  the  East  Indies  was  limited.  For  some  years  the  greater 
part  of  the  commerce  continued  to  go  in  sailing  vessels  around  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  After  the  canal  had  been  in  use  a  few  years, 
however,  steamers  were  to  a  large  extent  substituted  for  the  sailing 
vessels,  and  the  Suez  route  for  the  Cape  route  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  business.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  traffic  of  the  five  years  lSso- 
1884  was  217  per  cent  that  of  the  previous  quinquennial  period.  The 
tonnage  of  1885-1881*  was  286  per  cent  of  the  period  from  1875  to 
1879;  the  tonnage  of  1890  to  1891  was  863  per  cent,  and  that  of  1895  to 
1899,  101  per  cent  of  the  traffic  of  the  five  years  1875  to  1879.  During 
the  last  quinquennial  period  of  the  twenty-five  years  from  1875  to 
1899  the  traffic  of  the  Suez  Canal  was  four  times  what  it  was  during 
the  first  five  years.  Had  the  traffic  of  the  years  1870-1871  been  made 
the  basis  of  comparison  the  above  percentages  would  have  been  very 
much  larger. 

Omitting  the  first  two  years,  when  the  traffic  was  comparatively 
light  because  but  few  steamships  were  available  for  the  trade  between 
Europe  and  the  East,  and  making  1872  the  basis  of  comparison,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  traffic  grew  from  1,160,713  net  tons  in  1872  to  5,074,- 
809  net  tons  in  1882,  a  gain  of  337  per  cent.  The  tonnage  of  1875  had 
increased  215  per  cent  by  1885.  The  traffic  of  1890  was  125  per  cent 
greater  than  that  of  1880.  Since  1890  the  absolute  gain  in  the  tonnage 
figures  has  been  large,  although  the  percentage  of  increase  is  less  than 
it  formerly  was.  The  gain  of  16  per  cent  from  1889  to  1899  repre- 
sents an  increase  of  1,210,217  tons  gross  register  and  3,112,-143  tons 
net. 

Should  the  rate  of  increase  in  the  tonnage  of  the  isthmian  canal 
during  the  first  ten  years  be  half  that  of  the  Suez  during  the  second 
decade  of  its  use,  the  rate  would  be  62%  per  cent.  In  view  of  the  much 
larger  rate  shown  by  the  Suez  Canal,  and  in  view  of  the  conditions 
that  will  favor  commercial  progress  at  the  time  of  and  subsequent  to 
the  opening  of  the  American  canal,  62i  per  cent  is  believed  to  be  a 
conservative  estimate. 

THE    ESTIMATE    FOR    1924. 

A  decennial  increase  of  6'2%  per  cent  in  the  estimated  traffic  available 
for  the  canal  in  1911,  as  determined  by  the  figures  obtained  by  using 
the  tables  prepared  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  would  give  a 
tonnage  of  11,372,911  net  vessel  tons  in  1921.  A  62-fr  per  cent  increase 
in  the  estimated  vessel-tonnage  total  of  1911,  reached  by  the  Commis- 
sion's study  of  entrances  and  clearances — 6,813,805 — would  amount 
to  11,121,183.  These  two  estimates  for  1924  averrge  about  11,250,0*  K  > 
tons. 

For  reasons  stated  above  the  entire  amount  of  the  available  canal 
tonnage  can  hardly  be  expected  to  use  the  new  route  during  the  first 
year  or  two  of  the  operation  of  the  waterway,  the  period  required  for 
the  readjustment  of  commercial  arrangements.  This  adjustment  will, 
however,  not  be  delayed  by  a  scarcity  of  steamers,  and  will  be  quickly 
made.  After  two  years  the  full  amount  of  the  available  canal  tonnage— 
the  available  tonnage  of  1916,  not  of  1914 — will  be  passing  the  canal 
in  all  probability,  and  the  62|-  per  cent  increase  in  the  available  ton- 
nage of  1911  may  fairly  be  expected  to  represent  the  actual  tonnage  at 
the  close  of  the  decade  ending  in  1921.  In  this  calculation  it  is  assumed 
that  the  canal  will  have  been  put  in  operation  by  the  beginning  of  1914. 


506  REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Chapter  XXII. — The  question  of  tolls. 

In  levying  tolls,  three  different  purposes  ma}T  control  action.  Such 
charges  may  be  imposed  as  will  cause  the  receipts  to  cover  expenses 
only,  or  to  cover  the  expenses  and  a  fair  rate  of  interest  on  the  capital 
invested,  or  charges  may  be  fixed  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the 
greatest  possible  income  from  the  canal. 

Should  the  principle  of  maximum  revenue  be  adopted,  the  effect  of 
tolls  upon  the  volume  of  traffic  will  need  to  be  carefully  studied, 
because  the  receipts  derived  from  the  operation  of  the  canal  will  be 
the  product  of  two  factors — the  rate  of  toll  and  the  volume  of  traffic. 
The  tonnage  of  traffic  being  dependent  upon  the  tolls  charged,  it  would 
be  necessary,  in  order  to  secure  the  maximum  revenue,  to  ascertain 
what  rate  of  toll  could  be  paid  by  that  volume  of  traffic  which  when 
multiplied  by  the  rate  would  yield  the  maximum  product.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  say  that  there  is  no  fixed  rule  by  which  the  rate  can  be 
determined  that  would  yield  the  greatest  revenue.  If  there  were  such 
a  rule,  it  ought  not  to  be  the  one  adopted  in  fixing  the  tolls  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal. 

The  policy  in  regard  to  tolls  should  be  adopted  with  reference  to  all 
the  purposes  which  the  canal  is  constructed  to  accomplish,  and  no 
argument  need  be  advanced  to  enforce  the  truth  that  the  revenue- 
producing  function  of  the  canal  will  be  a  minor  one  as  compared  with 
its  function  of  promoting  the  industrial,  commercial,  and  social  progress 
of  the  United  States  and  all  countries  whose  trade  will  be  affected  by 
it.  The  exaction  of  charges  that  would  largely  restrict  the  volume  of 
business  done  through  the  canal  would  permit  the  waterway  to  perform 
only  in  part  the  chief  services  it  is  designed  to  accomplish. 

The  canal  is  to  be  constructed  and  operated  hy  the  Government 
primarily  for  the  promotion  of  the  economic  and  political  welfare  of 
the  people  of  the  United  States,  and  the  tolls  charged  will  doubtless  be 
fixed  so  as  not  unnecessarily  to  interfere  with  the  realization  of  this 
purpose.  The  principle  of  maximum  charges  would  be  inconsistent 
with  the  public  welfare,  and  if  tolls  are  levied  the  choice  will  lie 
between  a  rate  that  will  cover  only  the  expense  of  operation  or  a  rate 
that  will,  in  addition,  yield  an  income  on  the  capital  invested. 

Before  beginning  the  discussion  of  tolls  with  reference  to  the 
American  canal,  it  will  be  profitable  to  study  the  experience  of  the  Suez 
Canal.  That  interoceanic  waterway  has  now  been  in  use  over  thirty 
years,  and  the  main  features  and  results  of  the  financial  policy  main- 
tained in  its  management  may  well  be  considered. 

SUEZ   CANAL   TOLLS. 

The  charges  for  passing  the  Suez  Canal  are  9  francs  per  net  vessel 
ton,  the  tonnage  being  determined  by  the  so-called  Danube  measure- 
ment, a  system  adopted  by  the  International  Tonnage  Commission  of 
Constantinople.  Vessels  in  ballast  obtain  a  reduction  of  2£  francs  per 
ton  from  the  regular  toll  charges.  Each  vessel  carrying  passengers  is 
obliged  to  pay  10  francs  for  each  passenger  above  \"2  years  of  age  and 
5  francs  for  each  passenger  between  the  ages  of  •">  and  L2  years.  There 
are.  it;  addition  to  these  tolls,  certain  port  and  transit  dues.  A  towage 
service  is  maintained  for  the  use  of  such  ships  as  may  require  towing, 
and  for  this  service  there  is  a  fixed  schedule  of  charges. 

In  applying  the  Danube  rules  to  the  measurement  of  a  vessel  the 
net  tonnage  resulting  is  considerably  larger  than  the  net  tonnage  of  a 


KEPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


507 


vessel  registered  under  the  British  or  American  flags.  The  following 
table  shows  the  relation  of  gross  to  net  tonnage  as  determined  by  the 
Danube  and  other  measurements  for  three  typical  vessels.  The  toll 
paid  by  these  three  ships  is  given  and  the  amount  which  this  charge 
would  have  been  per  ton  net  register,  British  measurement,  is  stated 
for  two  of  the  vessels,  and  per  net  ton  Norwegian  measurement  for 
the  third  ship: 

Tolls  charged  for  passing  Suez  Caned. 


Name  of  ship. 

Nationality. 

Gross 
register. 

Net  regis- 
ter. 

Net 
register 
tonnage, 
Danube 
measure- 
ment. 

Percentage 

which 
Danube  is 
of  other 
measure- 
ments. 

Tolls  paid. 

Charge 
per  ton 

net. 
British 

and  Nor- 
wegian 

measure- 
ments. 

Sunderland 

Queen  Christiana. 
Bergenhus  

do 

Norwegian  . . . 

Tons. 
3,414.07 
3,596.00 
3, 628. 00 

Tons. 
2, 198. 282 
2,291 
2,361 

2, 571. 45 
2, 747. 66 
2, 986.  72 

117 
119.9 

126 

$4, 466. 61 
4, 775. 84 
5, 376. 09 

82.03 
2.08 
2.19 

The  table  shows  that,  according  to  the  Danube  rules,  the  net  ton- 
nage of  a  vessel  will  average  fully  one-fifth  more  than  when  measured 
according  to  British  or  Norwegian  measurements.  The  toll  charges 
paid  were  considerably  over  $2  per  ton  on  the  net  register  of  the  vessels, 
British  or  Norwegian  measurement.  The  American  measurements  are 
made  by  practically  the  same  rules  as  the  British. 

The  total  transit  dues  of  the  steamer  Bergenhus  were  27,887.95 
francs,  of  which  26,880.45  francs  were  paid  for  tolls — the  charges 
other  than  tolls  amounting  to  1,007.50  francs,  or  $194.45. 

The  traffic  receipts  of  the  Suez  Canal  from  the  first  year  of  its 
operation  to  the  close  of  1900,  the  last  year  for  which  figures  are 
obtainable,  is  shown  by  the  following  table.  The  receipts  are  given 
in  francs  and  in  dollars,  a  franc  having  been  considered  equal  to 
$0,193.  The  number  of  vessels  and  their  mean  net  tonnage  is  also 
given  in  the  table: 

SUEZ    CANAL   TRAFFIC. 

Number  and  size  of  vessels,  receipts  from  tolls. 


Year. 


1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
18"8 
1879 
1880 
1881 

1SN2 

1 B83 

lss4 

1  KK5 

lss6 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 


Mean  net 

Number 

tonnage 

of  vessels. 

per 

vessel. 

486 

898 

765 

995 

1,082 

1,071 

1,173 

1,166 

1,264 

1,290 

1,494 

1,345 

1,457 

1,439 

1,663 

1,416 

1,593 

1,425 

1,477 

1,532 

2,026 

1,509 

2,727 

1,517 

3,198 

1,586 

3,307 

1,746 

3,284 

1,787 

2,624 

1,748 

3,100 

1,860 

3,137 

1, 881 

3,440 

1,930 

3,425 

1,951 

3,389 

2,033 

4,207 

2,067 

Transit 
receipts. 


Francs. 
5, 159, 327 
8,993,733 
16,407,591 
22,897,319 
24, 859, 383 
28, 886, 302 
29, 974. 999 
32, 774; 344 
31,098,229 
29, 686, 061 
39, 840, 488 
51,274,353 
60, 545, 882 
65, 847, 812 
62, 378, 116 
62, 207, 439 
56, 527, 391 
57, 862, 371 
64, 832, 273 
66,167,579 
66, 98  .,000 
83, 422, 101 


Receipts. 


$995, 750 
735, 790 
166. 665 
419, 182 
797, 861 
575, 056 
785, 174 
325, 448 
001,958 
629.  410 
689, 214 
895. 950 
685,355 
708.627 
038, 976 
006. 035 
909, 786 
167,437 
512, 628 
770, 343 
927,912 
100, 465 


508 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


Number  and  size  of  vessels,  receipts  from  tolls — Continued. 


Mean  net 

Number 

tonnage 

of  vessels. 

per 

vessel. 

3,559 

2,167 

3,341 

2,292 

3, 352 

2, 398 

3,434 

2,460 

3,409 

2, 511 

2,986 

2, 645 

3, 503 

2, 637 

3,607 

2, 743 

3,441 

Transit 
receipts. 


Receipts. 


1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 


Francs. 
74, 452, 436 
70, 667, 361 
73, 776, 828 
78, 103, 718 
79, 569, 994 
72, 830, 545 
85, 294, 770 
91,318,772 
90, 623, 609 


514,369,320 
13, 638, 800 
14,238,928 

15. 074. 008 

15. 357. 009 
14,056.295 
16,461,891 
17, 624, 553 
17, 490, 356 


It  is  shown  that  there  has  been  a  fairl}T  stead}T  and  a  comparatively 
rapid  growth  in  the  traffic  receipts  of  the  canal  almost  from  the  time 
when  it  was  opened  for  commerce.  The  traffic  and  the  revenues  were 
comparatively  small  the  first  two  years,  because  there  were  not  many 
steamers  available  for  the  commerce  between  Europe  and  the  East. 
The  transit  receipts  for  the  year  1S99  amounted  to  $17,624,553.  By 
grouping-  the  canal  receipts  into  five-}Tear  periods  and  comparing  those 
periods  with  each  other  the  rate  of  growth  can  be  shown  more  accu- 
rately  than  by  comparing  one  year  with  another.  The  annual  varia- 
tions are  frequently  large,  but  when  quinquennial  periods  are  com- 
pared the  effects  of  these  annual  variations  are  minimized.  In  the 
following  table  the  figures  of  the  preceding  table  are  grouped  accord- 
ing to  quinquennial  periods.  In  comparing  the  periods  the  first  live 
years  are  omitted,  because  if  the  figures  of  that  period  were  made  the 
basis  of  comparison  the  rate  of  increase  would  be  so  great  as  to  give 
an  exaggerated  statement  of  the  growth  that  has  taken  place  since 
1875: 

Increase  in  number  and  size  of  vessels,  and  receipts  of  Suez  Canal,  by  quinquennial  prrimh, 

1875-1899. 


Year. 


Number 
of 

Mean  net 
tonnage 

vessels. 

per 

Vessel 

4,770 

1, 123 

7,684 

1,  130 

11,542 

1,644 

16,  726 

1,879 

17,  848 

2,  Ids 

16, 939 

2,659 

Receipts. 


Percentage 
which  re- 
ceipts of  5- 

year  periods 
areof  receipts 

of  1876-1879. 


1870-1874 
is;:.  1879 
1880-1884 

1S85  ISS'.l 

L890  1894 

1895-1899 


815,116,248 

29,317,016 
54,018,122 
59,366,229 
71,275,425 

7s,  213,  756 


181 
202 
243 
26b 


The  receipts  of  the  period  1880  to  1884,  inclusive,  wore  184  per  cent 
of  those  of  the  previous  five  years.  The  revenues  from  traffic  during 
the  five  years  1885  L889  were  202  per  cent  of  those  obtained  during 
the  period  1875-1879,  whereas  the  revenues  for  the  five-year  periods 
L890-1894  and  1895-1899  were  respectively  243  and  266  per  cent  of  the 
receipts  obtained  in  the  years  1875  to  1879.  The  transit  revenues  of 
the  last  five  years  of  the  quarter  century  was  two  and  two-thirds  those  of 
the  first  five  years.  The  traffic  of  this  hitter  period  was  fourfold  that 
of  the  five  years  which  are  made  the  basis  of  comparison. 

The  Suez  (anal  has  been  a  very  profitable  investment  of  capital. 
There  are  400,000  .shares  of  capital  stock,  with  a  par  value  of  500  francs 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 


509 


each,  and  bonds  which  amounted  to  177,340,000  francs  in  1898.  The 
dividends  paid  on  the  stock  reached  5  per  cent  in  1871,  were  5T"V  per 
cent  in  18(6,  and  6  per  cent  in  1879.  They  have  been  as  high  as  17 
per  cent.  In  1898  the  net  balance  for  distribution,  after  paying  costs 
of  operation,  interest  on  the  bonds,  and  other  expenses,  amounted  to 
46,618,000  francs.  In  the  distribution  of  this  sum  the  shareholders 
received  71  per  cent  of  the  total,  33,098,780  francs,  i.  e.,  16£  per  cent- 
of  the  face  value  of  their  stock  Of  the  remaining  29  per  cent  of  the 
net  earnings,  15  per  cent  went  to  the  Egj^ptian  Government,  10  per 
cent  to  the  founders,  2  per  cent  to  the  directors,  and  2  per  cent  to  the 
employees. 

An  additional  fact  of  much  interest  is  shown  by  the  preceding  tables. 
It  will  be  noted  that  the  number  of  vessels  passing  the  canal  was  no 
greater  in  1899  than  in  1885.  During  those  fifteen  years  the  tonnage 
has  increased  56  per  cent.  The  larger  volume  of  traffic  has  been 
accommodated  by  increasing  the  size  instead  of  the  number  of  the 
ships.  The  mean  net  register  of  the  vessels  using  the  Suez  Canal  will 
very  soon  reach  3,000  tons.  Should  the  present  rate  of  increase  con- 
tinue until  1911,  the  vessels  will  then  average  3,600  tons  net,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  larger  dimensions  about  to  be  given  the  Suez  Canal 
will  result  in  more  rapid  increase  in  the  size  of  vessels  than  is  now 
taking  place. 

The  growth  in  the  size  of  ships  using  the  Suez  Canal  is  graphically 
shown  by  the  following  diagram: 


-— — — — 

— 

• 

<*. 

^ 

<« 

* 

^ 

eJ 

-4 

i  ■ 

?s 

4F 

-m& 

_      -J*.        =1 

-^  '^       -H- 

^       -i-"^ 

i? 

T  -  ^-*^- 

— i 

^25-  - 

d 

?*  -H 

2800 
2700 
2600 
2500 
2400 
2300 
2200 
2IOO 
2000 
!  900 
ISOO 
I  700 
I600 
ISOO 
1400 
1300 
1200 
I  IOO 
IOOO 
800 


Q    ID     03     O      £>     CD     Q     CD      QfDCOIOI&IDQQOIOOOlSaitDCOOQOQ 


510  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

The  tendency  to  increase  the  size  of  ocean  vessels  is  important  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  the  traffic  of  the  isthmian  canal,  be- 
cause the  cost  of  operating  the  canal  will  depend  to  some  extent  upon 
the  number  of  lockages.  The  maximum  traffic  capacity  of  the  canal 
will  also  be  greater  if  vessels  of  large  instead  of  small  dimensions  are 
used,  A  traffic  of  10,000,000  tons  net  per  year  would  require  the 
passage  of  5,000  vessels,  with  an  average  net  register  of  2,000  tons, 
or  about  7  ships  each  way  per  day  on  an  average.  The  same  number 
of  ships  double  the  size  would  make  the  annual  tonnage  20,000,000  tons 
without  any  increase  in  the  number  of  lockages  required. 

In  this  connection  attention  ma}'  properly  be  called  to  the  possible 
traffic  capacity  of  a  twin-lock  canal  such  as  the  isthmian  waterway 
will  be.  Not  many  years  after  the  canal  has  been  put  into  operation 
the  vessels  using  it  will  in  all  probability  average  as  much  as  4,000 
tons  net  register.  If  50  such  vessels  were  to  pass  through  the  canal 
daily.  25  each  way  on  an  average,  the  total  annual  net  tonnage  would 
be  73,000,000  tons.  Inasmuch  as  the  time  ordinarily  required  for  a 
ship  to  pass  a  lock  will  not  exceed  three-fourths  of  an  hour,  a  canal 
with  twin  locks  could  readily  handle  an  average  of  25  vessels  per  day 
each  way,  and  do  so  without  delay  to  commerce,  except,  perhaps,  at  cer- 
tain times  when  the  rush  of  traffic  might  largely  increase  the  average 
daily  number  of  vessels  making  the  passage. 

EFFECT  OF  TOLLS  UPOX  VOLUME  OF  TRAFFIC  OF  SUEZ  CANAL. 

In  the  case  of  the  Suez  Canal  there  is  but  a  comparatively  small 
percentage  of  the  total  available  tonnage  situated  on  the  margin  of 
advantage,  and  for  that  reason  the  Suez  Canal  Company  has  been  able 
to  derive  large  revenues  from  the  maintenance  of  high  tariffs.  The 
trade  of  Europe  with  Australia  is  more  liable  than  an}-  other  important 
category  of  available  commerce  to  be  kept  away  from  the  canal  and 
sent  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  but  a  part  even  of  that  trade  is 
done  b}T  way  of  Suez.  The  passenger  and  mail  steamers  all  use  the 
canal,  while  most  of  the  slow  freight  steamers  take  the  Cape  route 

A  reduction  in  the  Suez  Canal  charges  would  draw  to  that  waterway 
some,  but  not  a  very  large  amount,  of  the  European  trade  with  the  East. 
The  change  from  steam  to  sail  power  is  helping  the  Suez  Company  to 

§ct  the  business  without  reducing  its  charges.  The  high  tolls  of  the 
uez  have  a  greater  deflecting  effect  on  the  commerce  of  the  eastern 
seaboard  of  the  United  States  with  the  East  than  on  the  trade  of  Europe 
with  the  countries  of  that  region,  because  the  saving  in  distance  accom- 
plished by  the  canal  is  much  less  for  the  American  than  for  the  Euro- 
pean commerce.  From  New  York  to  Australia  the  Cape  route  is  no 
longer  than  the  canal  route  for  full-powered  steamers,  and  of  course 
vessels  go  by  the  Cape.  In  going  from  New  York  to  Singapore  and 
points  in  China  and  Japan  the  course  by  way  of  Suez  saves  less  than 
2,000  miles,  and  the  canal  route  is  from  seventh-eights  to  live-sixths 
as  long  as  that  around  Good  Hope. 

Sailing  vessels  leaving  New  York  for  the  Far  East  take  the  Cape 
route,  but  steamers  always  go  through  the  canal.  A  large  reduction  in 
the  Suez  Canal  tolls  would  doubtless  hasten  the  substitution  of  steamers 
for  sailers  and  secure  for  the  canal  a  larger  share  of  the  total  traffic, 
at  least  until  the  American  isthmian  waterway  had  become  available. 


REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  511 

The  traffic  of  the  Suez  Canal  could  be  increased  by  a  reduction  of  50 
per  cent  in  the  transit  charges,  but  the  effect  of  tolls  upon  the  tonnage 
of  the  Suez  waterway  is  not  so  great  as  the  influence  of  the  isthmian 
canal  charges  will  be  on  the  volume  of  traffic  using  that  waterway. 
The  marginal  traffic  is  much  greater  in  the  case  of  the  American  water- 
way, and  high  tolls  will  cause  much  trade  to  adhere  to  existing  ocean 
routes.  Moreover,  the  traffic  between  our  two  seaboards,  which  will  ■ 
constitute  a  large  share  of  the  total  canal  tonnage,  will  be  competed 
for  by  rail  as  well  as  water  routes,  and  the  higher  the  canal  tariffs  are 
the  larger  will  be  the  share  of  the  total  commerce  between  the  eastern 
and  western  sections  of  our  country  that  will  move  try  rail. 

The  commerce  whose  routes  will  be  most  affected  by  the  tolls  of  the 
isthmian  canal  will  be  that  between  Europe  and  Chile,  that  of  the 
Tinted  States  and  Europe  with  Australia,  and  that  of  the  United  States 
with  the  Philippines,  southern  China,  and  a  part  of  that  with  the 
Dutch  East  Indies. 

ISTHMIAN   CANAL   TOLLS   AND   THE    CHILEAN    TRAFFIC. 

Three-fourths  of  the  Chilean  tonnage  consists  of  nitrate  of  soda,  the 
deposits  of  which  are  located  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country  in 
the  middle  part  of  the  west  coast  of  South  America.  The  route  north 
from  the  nitrate  beds  of  northern  Chile  b}T  way  of  an  isthmian  canal 
will  require  the  vessel  to  make  a  detour  of  some  length  to  the  west, 
and  the  average  distances  from  Europe  to  the  nitrate  deposits  will  be 
shortened  about  2,800  nautical  miles  by  the  canal.  About  30  per  cent 
of  the  present  distances  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan  will  be  saved. 
A  saving  of  2,800  miles  would  shorten  the  time  of  the  voyage  for  a  10- 
knot  steamer  eleven  days  and  sixteen  hours.  In  using  the  canal  route 
for  the  purpose  of  saving  this  distance  of  2,800  miles,  something  over 
a  day  would  be  required  for  passing  the  Nicaragua  Canal,  and  some- 
what more  than  a  half  day  for  the  transit  across  Panama.  In  general, 
a  10-knot  steamer  could  shorten  the  time  of  its  voyage  between  Europe 
and  the  central  part  of  western  South  America  ten  da}Ts  by  using  a 
Nicaragua  canal  and  eleven  days  bypassing  through  a  Panama  water- 
way instead  of  going  around  by  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  A  vessel 
operated  at  a  speed  of  9  knots  per  hour,  which  is  the  present  speed  of 
the  larger  share  of  tramp  steamers — the  vessels  in  which  the  major 
portion  of  the  world's  ocean  commerce  is  carried  on — would  shorten 
the  time  of  its  voyage  thirteen  days  by  avoiding  2,800  miles  of  sailing. 
Such  a  vessel  could  get  from  Europe  to  the  middle  part  of  the  west 
coast  of  South  America  eleven  and  one-half  days  sooner  by  way  of  a 
Nicaragua  canal  and  twelve  and  one-half  days  earlier  via  a  Panama 
route. 

Would  the  possibility  of  saving  from  ten  to  eleven  and  a  half  da}Ts 
cause  a  vessel  running  between  Europe  and  Chile  to  pay  tolls  for  the 
privilege  of  passing  an  isthmian  canal,  and  what  charges  could  the 
vessel  afford  to  pay  \  This  depends  mainly  upon  the  costs  of  operating 
the  ship  when  at  sea. 

The  information  received  from  a  firm  operating  several  ships  is: 

The  cost  of  operating  a  modern  freight  steamer  of,  say,  2,500  tons  net  register  ( dead 
weight  cargo  capacity,  say  6,000  tons),  averages  not  exceeding,  say  $175  per  day. 
This  includes  wages,  provisions,  coal,  interest  on  capital  invested,  insurance,  wear 
and  tear 


512  REPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

Another  authority  states: 

We  find  that  the  average  cost  of  operating  a  steamer  of,  say,  8,000  gross  tons  dead 
weight  capacity  (about  3,500  tons  net) ,  which  includes  bunker  coal  as  well  as  cargo, 
making  an  average  speed  of  9  knots  per  hour  between  New  York  and  San  Francisco, 
to  be  about  $300  per  day.  This  covers  cost  of  bunker  coal,  victualing  and  manning, 
and  insurance  only.  The  cost  of  bunker  coal  is  based  upon  the  average  cost  of  same 
to-day. 

This  latter  statement  of  costs  of  operating  ships  does  not  include  the 
expenses  of  interest  on  capital,  nor  is  anything  allowed  for  deprecia- 
tion in  the  value  of  the  ship.  The  addition  of  these  items  would 
somewhat  increase  the  average  daily  expenses.  It  ought  to  be  noted, 
however,  that  the  present  costs  of  coal  are  unusually  high. 

These  two  calculations  as  to  the  costs  of  operating  vessels  give 
results  differing  largely,  doubtless  for  the  reason  that  the  first  calcu- 
lation is  based  on  experience  in  the  operation  of  ships  under  a  foreign 
flag  across  the  Atlantic,  where  coal  is  cheap,  and.  for  the  reason  that 
the  costs  are  for  normal  times  instead  of  the  present,  when  prices  are 
unusually  high,  while  in  the  second  estimate  the  experience  drawn 
upon  consisted  in  the  management  of  vessels  under  the  American  Hag 
at  the  present  time  of  high  prices  and  upon  a  route  where  the  costs 
of  coal  are  very  much  higher  than  in  North  Atlantic  ports. 

The  present  costs  of  chartering  British  steamers  and  operating  them 
at  a  speed  of  9  knots  in  the  trade  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coasts  of  America  are  given  by  a  firm  having  a  large  business. 

The  actual  monthly  and  daily  expenses  incurred  for  two  of  these 
British  ships  by  the  American  firm  chartering  them  is  as  follows: 

1. 

Gross  register tons. .  3,  048 

Net  register  j do..  1,  954 

Dead-weight  capacity,  including  coal  and  stores do..  5,000 

Freight,  at  4s.  6d.  per  dead-weight  ton  per  month  (30  days),  say,  1,125, 

at  $4.86 - $5,467.50 

Coal,  20  tons  per  day,  30  days =600  tons,  at  $3 1,800.00 

Total 7,267.50 

$7,267.50-^30  days=$242.25  per  day. 

2. 

< rross  register tons..         3, 244 

Net  register do..  2,  L04 

Dead-weight  capacity,  including  coal  and  stores do. .  5, 100 

Freight  at  5s.  6d.  per  dead-weight  ton  per  month  (30  days),  say,  1,402-10, 

at  $4.86 1 * $6,  Sl().  15 

Coal,  20  tuns  per  day,  30  days=600  tons,  at  $3 1,800.00 

Total 8, 616. 15 

$8,  616.15-^30  days =$287. 20  per  day. 

In  the  case  of  both  of  these  ships  the  charterer  pays  port  charges, 
agency  fees,  stevedoring,  and  pilotage.  The  vessel  owner  pays  for 
engine  stores,  wages  of  crew,  insurance  on  vessel,  and  victualing,  and 
in  fixing  his  charges  includes  payment  for  wear  and  tear,  and  presum- 
ably a  profit  to  ownei  8. 

The  rates  paid  to  the  owner  by  the  charterer — a  certain  amount  per 
month  per  ton,  dead-weight  capacity-  vary  according  to  the  supply  of 
and  demand  for  ships,  and  at  the  present  time  vessel  rates  are  not 
especially  high.     It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  supply  of  vessels 


REPORT    OF    THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  513 

will  so  increase  within  a  few  years  as  to  reduce  existing  charter  rates 
very  considerably. 

A  saving  of  $175  a  day  for  ten  days  would  amount  to  $1,750,  and 
for  eleven  and  one-half  days  to  $2,022.50.  A  toll  of  $1  per  net  ton 
register  on  a  ship  of  2,500  tons  would  equal  $2,500,  or  considerably 
more  than  such  a  vessel  operated  at  a  speed  of  9  or  10  knots  could  save 
by  shortening  the  voyage  between  Europe  and  Chile  2,800  miles.  How: 
ever,  something  should  be  added  to  these  amounts  saved  by  shortening 
the  voyage,  because  the  insurance  would  be  less  on  the  vessels  that  used 
the  canal  instead  of  passing  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  which  are 
especially  dangerous  to  navigate.  Moreover,  freight  rates  could  be 
made  somewhat  higher  by  the  vessel  that  could  deliver  its  cargo  in  a 
shorter  time.  Time  is  money  in  most  lines  of  trade.  Furthermore, 
men  operating  vessels  would  for  a  like  reason  prefer  to  have  the  ships 
use  the  route  that  would  enable  them  to  do  the  greatest  possible  amount 
of  business  each  year.  It  would  be  difficult  to  put  these  advantages  of 
the  isthmian  over  the  Straits  route  into  their  exact  money  equivalent, 
but  the}7  would  constitute  a  strong  reason  for  using  a  canal  and  for 
paying  something  for  the  privilege.  It  is  probable  that  a  freight 
steamer  of  2,500  tons  net,  even  if  operated  at  a  total  daily  cost  of  no 
more  than  $175  while  running  between  Chile  and  Europe,  would  pre- 
fer to  pay  $1  a  ton  net  register  for  using  an  isthmian  canal  to  taking 
the  route  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

If  the  daily  expenses  of  the  steamer  of  3,500  tons  net  are  $300  when 
run  at  9  knots,  it  could  save  $3,750  by  using  a  Nicaragua  canal,  and 
$4,050  by  a  Panama  waterway,  instead  of  going  around  through  the 
Straits  of  Magellan.  If  the  expenses  were  $300  when  operated  at  a 
speed  of  10  knots,  it  could  save  $3,050  by  way  of  Nicaragua  and  $3,350 
by  way  of  Panama.  A  toll  of  $1  per  net  ton  on  the  ship  would  amount 
to  $3,500,  and  for  the  reasons  just  stated  a  charge  of  that  sum  for  the 
use  of  the  canal  could  profitably  be  paid. 

The  chartered  steamers  above  referred  to  had  a  net  registered  ton- 
nage of  1,951  and  2,101  tons,  respectively.  At  the  rate  of  $1  a  ton 
their  toll  charges  would  amount  to  $1,951  and  $2,101.  A  saving  of 
ten  days  in  making  a  voj^age  would  reduce  the  expenses  of  the  ship 
whose  net  register  is  2,101  tons  $2,872.  It  is  evident  that  these  ves- 
sels would  pay  $1  a  ton  for  the  use  of  an  isthmian  canal  if  they  were 
being  operated  over  a  route  that  the  canal  could  shorten  ten  days. 
They  would,  moreover,  use  the  canal  were  the  costs  of  chartering  and 
operating  them  considerably  lower  than  at  present. 

The  commerce  between  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States  and 
western  South  America  would  be  so  facilitated  by  an  isthmian  canal 
that  a  toll  of  more  than  $1  a  ton  could  be  paid  for  practically  all 
this  trade.  The  distance  from  New  York  to  a  point  as  far  south  as 
Valparaiso  will  be  about  3,100  miles,  or  40  per  cent,  less  by  way  of 
Nicaragua — the  longer  canal  route  for  this  trade — than  via  the  Straits 
of  Magellan;  and  between  ports  on  our  coast  south  of  New  York  and 
cities  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America  north  of  Valparaiso  the 
absolute  and  percentage  reduction  in  distance  will  be  much  greater. 

ISTHMIAN-CANAL   TOLLS   AND   THE   AUSTRALIAN   TRADE. 

For  the  trade  from  New  York  to  Australia  the  best  route  is  that 
by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  distances  by  the  Suez  and  Cape 
routes  being  practically  the  same;  consequents,  when  the  American 
S.  Doc.  51,  pt  2 33 


514  REPORT    OP   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

canal  has  been  opened  the  competition  for  the  New  York-Australian 
trade  will  be  between  the  isthmian  canal  and  the  Good  Hope  routes. 
The  distance  from  New  York  to  Sydney  via  the  Nicaragua  Canal  and 
Tahiti  will  be  9,676  nautical  miles,  and  by  way  of  St.  Vincent,  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Adelaide,  and  Melbourne  13,658,  the  difference  in 
favor  of  the  isthmian  route  being  3,982  miles.  Adelaide  is  1,816 
miles  nearer  New  York  by  the  Nicaragua  Canal,  and  Melbourne  is 
2,832  miles  nearer. 

A  10-knot  vessel  going  out  from  New  York  to  Sydney,  Australia, 
would  save  between  fourteen  and  fifteen  days  by  taking  the  American 
canal  route,  and  would  certainly  take  that  course  if  the  toll  were  not 
over  $1  a  ton  net  register.  Practically  all  vessels  going  to  Australia, 
whether  from  the  United  States  or  Europe,  call  at  Sydne}7,  because  it 
is  the  most  important  port  and  is  a  good  place  to  obtain  coal.  A 
steamer  from  New  York  to  Melbourne  would  save  2,832  miles  and  ten 
and  one-half  days  by  going  by  way  of  Brito,  Tahiti,  and  Sydney  instead 
of  by  the  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Adelaide.  A  toll  of  $1 
per  ton  could  profitably  be  paid  to  accomplish  this. 

There  is,  then,  no  probability  that  steamers  outbound  from  the  east- 
ern seaboard  of  the  United  States  to  Australia  will  take  the  Good 
Hope  route  in  order  to  avoid  American  canal  tolls  of  $1  a  net  ton. 
The  route  taken  by  the  vessel  on  its  return  will  be  determined  by  the 
destination  of  the  Australian  exports.  If  the  vessel  should  secure  a 
full  cargo  in  Australia  for  America,  it  would  return  by  the  Nicaragua 
Canal.  The  ability  to  secure  a  partial  cargo  for  the  United  States  and 
a  partial  cargo  for  Europe  would  probably  cause  the  American  canal 
to  be  used.  Upon  reaching  the  United  States,  the  freight  destined  for 
the  United  States  might  be  exchanged  for  European  cargo  with  which 
the  ship  would  proceed  to  Europe;  or  the  steamer  might  discharge  its 
entire  cargo,  that  for  Europe  being  transshipped  to  another  vessel. 
The  line  steamer  making  the  round  trip  from  New  York  to  Australia 
and  return  might  come  back  by  the  Suez  route  at  times;  but  the  return 
voyage  would  usually  be  by  way  of  the  American  isthmus.  If  the 
American  tolls  were  much  lower  than  those  of  the  Suez,  the  route  across 
the  Pacific  would  certainly  be  taken. 

Steamers  securing  a  full  cargo  for  Europe  in  Adelaide,  Melbourne, 
or  Sydney  would  probably  return  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  although 
cheaper  coal  in  American  stations  might  turn  the  scale  in  favor  of  the 
isthmian  canal.  The  distance  from  Sydney  to  Liverpool  via  Mel- 
bourne, Adelaide,  King  Georges  Sound,  Colombo,  and  Aden  is  12,234 
miles,  and  via  Tahiti  and  Brito  the  distance  is  12,406,  only  172  miles 
more  by  the  American  canal.  A  vessel  starting  from  Melbourne  for 
Liverpool  would  find  the  route  via  Sydney,  Tahiti,  and  Brito  1,322 
miles  more  than  the  one  via  Suez. 

A  ship  obliged  to  leave  Australia  in  ballast  or  with  but  little  freight 
would  seek  cargo  either  in  the  East  Indies,  New  Zealand,  Chile,  or 
elsewhere  as  the  needs  of  commerce  might  determine.  Those  ships 
seeking  freights  west  and  north  of  Australia  would  naturally  return 
by  the  Suez  Canal. 

TnE   PHILIPPINE   TRADE. 

The  effect  of  the  isthmian  canal  upon  the  routes  followed  by  the 
trade  between  our  eastern  seaboard  and  the  Philippines  will  be  to 
divert  a  considerable  share  of  the  traffic  from  the  Suez  to  the  Amer- 


EEPORT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION.  515 

ican  canal.  Steamers  now  use  the  Suez,  and  after  the  American  canal 
has  been  opened  the  choice  will  lie  between  the  two  canal  routes.  The 
distance  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  too  great  to  permit  that  route 
to  compete  with  the  canals  for  the  traffic  handled  by  steamers.  The 
distances  from  New  York  to  Manila  by  the  two  canals  are  nearly 
equal — 11,601  miles  via  Suez,  11,207  by  way  of  Nicaragua,  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  Yokohama,  and  11,274  via  Honolulu  and  Guam.  From  our 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  ports  the  distances  to  Manila  will  be  much 
less  by  the  American  canal  than  by  way  of  Suez.  As  explained  above 
in  the  chapter  on  the  vessel  tonnage  of  available  canal  traffic,  chartered 
vessels  outbound  from  New  York  will  doubtless  go  sometimes  by  one 
route  and  sometimes  by  the  other.  The  chief  attractions  of  the  Amer- 
ican canal  route  will  be  the  coasting  trade  of  both  seaboards  of  the 
United  States — the  shortest  route  from  Central  America  to  Manila 
being  by  the  great  circle  which  passes  close  to  San  Francisco — the 
large  volume  of  exports  from  the  United  States  to  Asia,  the  Asiatic 
coasting  trade  of  Japan,  Shanghai,  and  Hongkong,  and  the  cheap  coal 
obtainable  in  the  Caribbean  and  Japanese  coaling  stations.  The 
inducements  of  the  Suez  route  will  be  the  large  volume  of  exports 
from  the  United  States  to  Europe,  and  the  possibility  of  trading  at 
numerous  intermediate  ports  in  the  British,  Dutch,  and  French  East 
Indies.  Likewise  chartered  vessels  returning  to  the  United  States 
from  Manila  will  sometimes  come  by  way  of  Hongkong,  Shanghai, 
Yokohama  (or  other  Japanese  ports),  Puget  Sound,  San  Francisco, 
Central  America,  etc.,  and  sometimes  by  the  East  Indian  ports,  the 
Suez  Canal,  and  Europe.  Line  steamers  plying  under  the  American 
flag  between  our  eastern  seaboard  and  the  Philippines  would  proba- 
bly be  operated  through  the  isthmian  canal  and  would  participate  in 
the  trade  between  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  the  United  States. 
The  Philippine  Islands  are  so  nearly  antipodal  to  the  eastern  sea- 
board of  the  United  States  that  the  commerce  between  the  two  sec- 
tions will  be  divided  between  the  two  opposite  routes  unless  the  tolls 
charged  at  one  of  the  canals  should  be  much  higher  than  those  levied 
at  the  other.  A  toll  of  $2  at  Suez  and  $1  at  the  American  canal 
would  doubtless  cause  the  latter  route  to  secure  much  more  than  half 
of  the  total  traffic.  The  certainty  of  competition  between  the  Suez 
and  American  canal  routes  for  the  trade  between  our  eastern  seaboard 
and  the  Philippines  and  southern  China  suggests  the  desirability  of 
making  the  isthmian  canal  tolls  lower  than  those  charged  by  the  Suez 
Canal  Company  in  order  that  as  much  as  possible  of  the  commerce  of 
our  Antipodes  may  be  made  tributary  to  the  isthmian  canal.  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  the  larger  part  of  the  Suez  traffic  can  afford  to  pay  a 
high  toll  in  preference  to  changing  from  the  Suez  to  some  other  route, 
it  is  not  probable  that  the  Suez  Canal  Company  will  find  it  profitable 
to  make  radical  reductions  in  its  charges — a  reduction  of  50  per  cent, 
for  instance — in  order  to  hold  the  commerce  of  the  regions  situated  on 
the  margin  of  advantage  as  regards  the  use  of  the  easterly  or  westerly 
canal  routes;  consequently,  it  would  seem  that  the  adoption  of  mod- 
erate tolls  not  to  exceed  $1  per  ton  net  register,  American  measure- 
ment, for  the  use  of  the  American  canal  would  enable  that  waterway 
to  secure  a  large  share  of  the  commerce  carried  on  between  sections  so 
situated  that  their  trade  with  each  other  can  and  will  choose  between 
the  Suez  and  American  routes. 


516  REPOBT    OF   THE    ISTHMIAN    CANAL    COMMISSION. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  but  little  of  the  available 
canal  traffic  that  will  be  kept  from  using  the  waterway  by  a  toll  of  $1 
a  ton,  net  register.  The  European  trade  with  western  South  America 
and  the  commerce  of  our  eastern  seaboard  with  Australia  will  not  be 
driven  from  the  isthmian  canal  by  a  toll  of  that  amount;  but  it  seems 
probable  that  a  higher  charge  than  $1  a  net  ton  would  largely  restrict 
the  tonnage  using  the  canal. 

The  tendency  of  traffic  to  follow  round-the-world  lines  will  be 
emphasized  by  moderate  charges  for  the  use  of  the  American  canal. 
The  distance  between  Europe  and  the  eastern  shore  of  Asia  is  some- 
what farther  by  way  of  Central  America  than  by  way  of  Suez,  but 
there  are  commercial  reasons  why  a  portion  of  the  trade  between  these 
two  sections  should  pass  by  the  eastern  and  western  seaboards  of  the 
United  States  and  through  the  American  canal.  A  toll  of  $1  a  net  ton 
would  probably  not  much  restrict  the  operation  of  those  commercial 
forces. 

In  the  foregoing  discussion  a  toll  of  $1  a  net"  ton  has  been  made  the 
basis  of  reasoning  because  that  represents  a  maximum  beyond  which 
the  charge  ought  not  to  go.  A  tariff  much  higher  than  that  would  in 
all  probability  so  restrict  the  tonnage  passing  the  canal  as  to  reduce 
the  revenue  derived  from  the  tolls.  Such  a  restriction  would  unfortu- 
nately limit  the  industrial  and  commercial  value  of  the  canal.  The 
lower  the  tolls  the  greater  the  traffic  of  the  canal  and  the  larger  the 
industrial  and  commercial  benefits.  It  is  believed  that  a  toll  of  $1  a 
vessel  ton  net  register  would  yield  an  income  sufficient  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  operation  and  maintenance  and  a  moderate  return  on  the 
capital  invested.  Should  the  United  States  prefer  to  levy  tolls  suffi- 
cient only  to  cover  the  cost  of  operation  and  maintenance,  a  tariff  of 
40  to  50  cents  a  ton  would  probably  suffice. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 
Part  I. 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 3 

List  of  appendices 5 

List  of  plates 6 

Sections  of  act  approved  March  3,  1899,  authorizing  appointment  of  Commis- 
sion   9 

Letter  of  appointment  and  instructions  to  Commission 11 

Organization  of  Commission  by  committees 12 

Chapter  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Organization  of  Commission;  Law;  Instructions;  Committees 13 

Subjects  of  investigation;  Appointment  of  chief  engineers;  Employment  of 
assistants  and  laborers;  Directions  for  the  work 14 

Visit  to  Paris;  Other  visits  while  in  Europe;  Visit  to  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica; Nicaragua 15 

Managua;  Panama 16 

Visit  of  Mr.  Morison  to  Darien;  The  "Scorpion;"  Costa  Rica  and  San  Jose; 
Dimensions  and  unit  prices 17 

Other  questions  considered;  Visit  of  Mr.  Noble  to  Nicaragua;  Results;  Appen- 
dices; Special  report  on  industrial  and  commercial  value  of  canal 18 

Maps,  etc.;  History 19 

Chapter  II. 

HISTORY   OF  INTEROCEANIC   PROJECTS  AND  COMMUNICATIONS. 

Early  voyages 20 

Portuguese  explorations  along  the  African  coast;  Cape  of  Good  Hope  discov- 
ered; First  voyage  around  Africa  to  India;  Results  of  maritime  communica- 
tion with  Orient 21 

Columbus 22 

Other  expeditions  westward  for  discovery;  Balboa  discovers  the  Pacific;  Balboa 
hears  from  Indians  of  gold  southward;  Plans  for  expedition  southward  for 
gold 23 

Transports  material  for  ships  across  Isthmus;  Toil  and  sufferings  of  Indians; 
Transit  of  Isthmus;  Execution  of  Balboa 24 

Voyage  of  Magellan;  Discovers  strait;  World  circumnavigated 25 

Charles  V  is  interested  in  discovery  of  interoceanic  communication;  Gil  Gon- 
zales sent  to  Pacific;  Transports  his  vessels  in  pieces  across  Isthmus;  Dis- 
covers Lake  Nicaragua 26 


518  CONTENTS    OF   PAET    I. 

Page. 

Granada  founded  on  Lake  Nicaragua;  Machuca's  expedition  from  Lake  Nica- 
ragua down  San  Juan  to  sea;  Rapids  in  the  San  Juan;  Line  of  posts  across 
Isthmus;  Panama  founded ;  Construction  of  road  across  Isthmus 27 

Commerce  across  Isthmus;  Fairs  at  Cartagena,  Nombre  de  Dios,  and  Porto 
Bello;  Prosperity  of  Panama 28 

Tehuantepec;  Cortes  sent  expeditions  in  search  of  strait;  Transit  route;  Ship 
canal   29 

Survey  of  Isthmus  of  Panama;  Policy  of  Philip  II;  Atrato 30 

Paterson's  colony  at  New  Caledonia;  Paterson's  plans  for  interoceanic  com- 
munication; Settlement  abandoned 31 

Transit  routes;  Indians  hostile  to  Spaniards;  Ariza's  road  in  Darien 32 

Spaniard's  abandon  their  military  posts;  Examination  of  Tehuantepec  route; 

Report  of  Cramer;  Examination  of  Nicaragua  route  by  Galisteo 33 

Invasion  of  Nicaragua  by  British  forces;  Plan  of  campaign;  Capture  of  Cas- 
tillo Viejo  34 

Treaty  of  1783  between  England  and  Spain ;  Treaty  of  1 786 35 

Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Guatemala  of  1859  as  to  Belize ;  Treaty  between 
Great  Britain  and  Nicaragua  of  1860  as  to  Mosquito  Indians;  Mosquito 
Indians  organized  into  Republic  of  Nicaragua  in  1894;  Situation  at  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century ;  Von  Humboldt' s  statement 36 

Republic  of  Colombia  formed;  Formation  of  Federal  Republic  of  the  United 
Provinces  of  Central  America;  Republic  of  Central  America  makes  proposi- 
tions to  United  States , 37 

Response  of  Secretary  Clay;  Instruction  to  minister;  Congress  of  Panama; 
Central  America  makes  contract  for  construction  of  canal 38 

Central  American  and  United  States  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Canal  Company;  Con- 
tract with  a  Netherlands  company;  Further  negotiation  of  Central  American 
Republics  with  United  States 39 

Mr.  Biddle  sent  to  Central  America  and  Colombia;  Memorial  of  Aaron  Clark 
to  Congress,  'urging  action  with  reference  to  canal ;  Report  of  Committee  on 
Roads  and  Canals,  1839;  Mr.  Stephens  sent  as  agent  to  isthmian  countries..        40 

Examination  of  routes;  Tehuantepec  by  Orbegoso  and  Ortiz;  Nicaragua,  by 
John  Baily 41 

Panama,  by  J.  A.  Lloyd;  Republic  of  New  Granada  established  in  1831 42 

Makes  grant  to  a  French  company;  Results  of  explorations  of  Panama  route; 
Examined  by  Garella 43 

Increase  importance  of  maritime  communication;  Treaty  negotiated  with  New 
Granada  in  1846 44 

Resolutions  relating  to  interoceanic  communications  come  before  Congress; 
Report  of  Rockwell  committee;  Memorial  of  projectors  of  Panama  Railroad; 
Negotiations  for  treaty  with  Nicaragua 45 

Advantages  of  Nicaragua  route;  Hise  treaty;  Hise  succeeded  by  Squier;  Con- 
tract of  American  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal  Company  with  Nicaragua; 
Clay ton-Bulwer  treaty 46 

Terms  of  contract  with  canal  company;  Canal  company  incorporated  in  Nica- 
ragua; Organization  of  Accessory  Transit  Company;  Transit  route  established 
by  accessory  company 47 

Central  American  Transit  Company;  Colonel  Childs  appointed  to  survey  canal 
route;  Report  submitted  to  Colonel  Abert  and  Lieutenant-Colonel  Turnbull; 
Submitted  to  British  engineers  by  request  of  American  minister;  Pronounced 
practicable 48 

Value  of  Childs' s  report;  Contracts  of  companies  annulled  for  nonperformance        49 


CONTENTS    OF    PART   I.  519 

Page. 

New  Granada  makes  contract  with  French  company  for  railroad  at  Panama; 
New  contract  with  American  company;  Panama  Railroad  completed  in  1855; 
New  examinations  of  different  canal  routes;  Darien 50 

United  States  Government  aids  in  the  examinations;  General  results;  Senate 
requests  report  of  results  of  examination  in  Darien 51 

Report  of  Admiral  Davis;  President  Grant  calls  attention  to  subject  of  inter-      • 
oceanic  canal  in  his  first  message 52 

Congress  authorizes  further  explorations;  Appointment  of  Interoceanic  Canal 
Commission ;  Tehuantepec 53 

Nicaragua;  Lull  survey;  McFarland  report;  Panama;  Survey  made  by  Lull 
and  Menocal 54 

Darien;  Lull  and  McFarland;  Self  ridge;  Report  of  Interoceanic  Canal  Com- 
mission          55 

Colombia  grants  concession  to  L.  N.  B.  Wyse;  International  Scientific  Con- 
gress at  Paris  in  1879;  Transfer  of  concession  to  Panama  Canal  Company...        56 

Eads  selects  Tehuantepec  route  for  ship  railway;  Nicaragua  Menocal  survey; 
Treaty  negotiated  with  Nicaragua  in  1884;  Not  ratified;  Nicaragua  grants 
concessions  to  Menocal  and  associates;  Like  concessions  from  Costa  Rica  ...        57 

Maritime  Canal  Company ;  Nicaragua  Canal  Board 58 

Nicaragua  Canal  Commission 59 

Chapter  III. 

DIMENSIONS   AND   UNIT   PRICES. 

Dimensions  of  ships  now  in  use;  Recent  increase  in  ship  dimensions 62 

Depth  of  canal;  Beam  of  commercial  ships;  Beam  of  warships;  Width  of  locks; 

Length  of  lock  chambers;  Dimensions  of  prism  of  canal 63 

Prism  dimensions  of  foreign  canals;  Bottom  width  of  prism  adopted;  Prism 

dimensions  of  Kiel  Canal;  Prism  in  soft  earth  and  sand;  Prism  in  firm  earth; 

Prism  in  rock 64 

Channels  in  open  water;  Widening  on  curves;  Description  of  locks;  Twin  locks 

provided 65 

Guard  gates;  Foundations  of  locks  on  rock;  Walls  to  be  of  concrete 66 

Culvert  linings ;  Lock  gates ;  Approach  walls ;  Unit  prices 67 

Contingencies,  etc 68 

Chapter  IV. 

OTHER   POSSIBLE  ROUTES. 

General  description  of  American  Isthmus;  Tehuantepec  route 69 

Bay  of  Honduras;  Narrow  eastern  portion  of  Isthmus;  Atrato  River;  Routes 

terminating  on  Gulf  of  Panama . 70 

Atrato  routes;  Limits  of  field  work 71 

San  Bias  route;  Caledonia  route 72 

Divide  traced 73 

Observations  from  the  sea;  Examination  from  Pacific  side;  No  canal  without 

a  tunnel 74 

Design  of  tunnel;  Tunnel  tide  level,  San  Bias  Canal;  Caledonia  tunnel  tide-level 

canals '° 

Estimates  for  Sassardi,  Aglaseniqua,  and  Caledonia  locations 76,  77 

Harbors  the  only  advantage  over  Panama;  Darien  routes  within  limits  of  Pan- 
ama concessions;  Maps  and  other  drawings;  U.  S.  S.  Scorpion 78 


520  CONTENTS    OF   PART    I. 

Chapter  V. 

THE   PANAMA   ROUTE. 

General  description;  Lull  survey,  1875 .„ 80 

The  Wyse  concession;  The  old  company 81 

Liquidation 82 

Expenditure  and  results;  The  new  company 84 

New  company's  plan .". 85 

Physical  data  available 86 

Plan  for  the  United  States  differs  from  that  for  a  commercial  corporation; 

Chagres  River,  a  natural  obstacle 87 

Sea-level  plan  rejected ;  Water  supply  for  canal  with  locks 88 

Flood  discharge  of  the  Chagres 89 

Lake  Bohio 90 

Future  increase  of  water  supply;  Disposal  of  overflow;  Detailed  description..  91 
Entrance  and  harbor  at  Colon;   Colon  to  Bohio;  Bohio  locks;  Lake  Bohio; 

Obispo  guard  gates 92 

Culebra  cut 93 

Pedro  Miguel  locks;  Pedro  Miguel  level;  Miraflores  lock ;  Pacific  maritime  sec- 
tion; Bohio  dam _ 94 

Gigante  spillway 96 

Pena  Blanca  swamp;  Pena  Blanca  outlet;  Chagres  diversion 97 

Levees;  Gatun  diversion :  Panama  Railroad  diversion 98 

Total  estimated  cost  for  completing 99 

Length  and  curvature;  Alternative  location 1 99 

Time  of  transit ;  Advantages  of  the  Commission's  plan 100 

Value  of  excavation  already  done;  Plant  on  hand 101 

Value  of  plant;  Value  of  buildings;  Value  of  concession  of  lands;  Value  of 

Panama  Railroad 102 

Value  of  maps  and  records;  Total  value  of  the  Panama  Canal 103 

Chapter  VI. 

THE  NICARAGUA   ROUTE. 

Attractive  features;  Lake  Nicaragua;  Lake  Managua;  Fluctuations  of  Lake 

Nicaragua 104 

Characteristics  of  drainage  basin;  The  San  Juan   River;  Tributaries  of  San 

Juan  on  left  bank 105 

Tributaries  of  San  Juan  on  right  bank ;  San  Carlos  River 106 

Serapiqui  River;  Negro  River;  Fall  in  San  Juan  River 107 

Slopes  in  various  reaches  of  San  Juan;  Bed  of  upper  San  Juan;  San  Juan  in 

freshets;  San  Juanillo  River;  Coastal  plain 108 

Subsidence;  Rainfall 109 

Winds;    Transit  route;    Region    of    practicable    canal    routes;    Topography; 

Boundary 110 

Childs's  project,  1852;  Routes  examined  by  Childs Ill 

Dimensions  and  side  slopes;  Length  and  cost  of  the  canal 112 

Depth  of  canal  not  as  great  as  contract  required;  Report  referred  to  Colonel 

Abert  and  Major  Turnbull 113 

Lull's  project,  1873;  Expedition  under  Commander  Crossman,  U.  S.  N. ;  Par- 
ties under  Commander  Hatfield;  Lull  succeeds  Hatfield;  West  division 114 

Brito;  Eastern  division;  Lake  Nicaragua 115 

Canal  from  near  San  Carlos  River  to  Grey  town;  Dimensions;  Menocal  survey; 

Menocal  project,  1885 116 


CONTENTS    OF    PART    I.  521 

Page. 

Changes  in  Lull  project  on  west  side  suggested  by  Menocal;  Ochoa  dam 117 

Embankments  south  of  the  San  Juan;  Line  from  Ochoa  dam  eastward;  Divide 

cut;  Locks 118 

Railroad;  Maritime  Canal  Company's  project,  1889;  Organization  of  company; 

Project  essentially  the  same  as  Menocal's;  San  Francisco  embankment  line.  119 
San  Carlos  embankments;  Other  embankments;  Maximum  discharge  of  San 

Juan  at  Ochoa;  La  Flor  dam 120 

Locks;  Cost;  Report  of  board  of  consulting  engineers;  Nicaragua  Canal  board, 

1895 121 

Report  of  Nicaragua  Canal  board  and  estimate  of  cost;  Project  of  Nicaragua 
Canal  Commission,   1899;  Act  March  2,  1895;  Project  of  Nicaragua  Canal 

Commission ;  Safety  of  prime  importance 122 

Discharge  of  San  Juan  greatly  underestimated ;  Dam  at  Boca  San  Carlos 123 

With  La  Flor  dam,  duplicate  lock  expensive;  Project  of  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 
mission, 1901;  Greytown  Harbor  and  entrance;  Section  from  harbor  to  Lock 

No.  1 ;  Swam j)  section 124 

Material  in  other  places;  Embankments;  Diversion  of  San  Juanillo 125 

Section  from  Lock  No.  1  to  Lock  No.  2;  Embankments;  Waste  way  and  lock  .  126 

Length  and  cost 127 

Section  from  Lock  No.  2  to  Lock  No.  3;  Protection  against  floods  in  San  Juan; 

Tamborcito  cut;  Curves 127 

Recent  examinations;  Drainage;  Waste  ways;  Length  and  cost 128 

Section  from  Lock  No.  3  to  Lock  No.  4;  Curves  and  drainage;  Embankments; 

Length  and  cost 129 

Section  from  Lock  No.  4  to  San  Juan  River;  Special  slopes;  Summit  level 129 

Length  and  cost 130 

San  Juan  River  section;  Curvature  and  cost;  Curves;  Principal  cut-offs 130 

Lake  Nicaragua  section;  Length  and  cost 132 

Dredged  channel  in  lake;  Channel  on  west  side  of  lake 132 

Lake  Nicaragua  to  Lock  No.  5 132 

West  divide  cut;  Streams  taken  into  canal;  Length  and  cost 133 

Lock  No.  5  to  lock  No.  6 133 

Lock;  Length  and  cost 134 

Lock  No.  6  to  lock  No.  7;  New  channel  for  Rio  Grande  needed;  Lock;  Length 

and  cost 134 

Lock  No.  7  to  lock  No.  8;  Material,  wasteway,  and  lock 134 

Length  and  cost 135 

Lock  No.  8  to  the  Pacific;  Harbors 135 

Greytown  Harbor;  Sand  brought  down  by  San  Juan 136 

Map  of  1832 137 

Hydrographic  charts  of  Great  Britain;  Trend  of  coast;  Outlets  of  San  Juan; 

Sedimentary  deposits 138 

Effect  of  wave  action  on  coast;  Movement  of  sand  spit 139 

Eroison  or  accretion  dependent  on  direction  of  waves  and  sand  supply;  Reen- 
trant angle;  Apparent  recession  of  8  and  6  fathom  curves 140 

How  to  stop  westerly  drift  of  sand;  Construction  of  harbor  feasible;  Jetties  ..  141 
Dredging;  Maintenance  of  harbor;  Time  required  to  secure  18  feet  of  water; 

Cost  of  construction  an  maintenance 142 

Brito  Harbor:  Depth  of  water  at  mouth  of  Rio  Grande;  How  harbor  can  be 
constructed;  Cost  of  construction  and  maintenance;  Regulation  of  level  of 

Lake  Nicaragua . 143 

Conditions  of  the  problem ;  Maximum  and  minimum  elevations  not  precisely 

determinable ;  Discharging  capacity  of  San  Juan 144 


522  CONTENTS    OF    PART    I. 

Page. 
Discharge  of  lake  at  any  given  stage;  Slopes  of  canalized  river  corresponding 

to  various  discharges 145 

Regulation  of  gates;   Precipitation  in  wet  season;  Effect  of  rainfall  not  felt 

immediately 146 

October  rainfalls;  Satisfactory  control 147 

Maximum  rainfall  anticipated;  Rise  due  to  maximum  rainfall 149 

Results  based  on  assumption  that  rainfall  in  basin  is  proportioned  to  that  at 

Granada;  Salient  features 152 

Method  of  discussion  not  free  from  error 153 

Storage;  Not  possible  to  predict  elevation  of  lake 154 

Principles  of  control;  October,  month  of  heavy  rainfall 155 

Instructions  for  regulation;  Velocities;  Effect  of  tributaries  of  San  Juan 156 

Conchuda  dam  and  waste  way ;  Stoney  gates;  Capacity,  etc 157 

Plan ;  Conchuda  dam 158 

Cost;  Wasteways,  weirs,  and  free  board 159 

Wasteways  on  Pacific  side;  Retaining  walls;  Alternative  surveys;  Examina- 
tions and  borings 160 

Route  from  Upper  San  Juan  to  headwaters  of  the  Indio;  Explorations 161 

Sand  deposits  on  canal  route;  Silico  route;  Indio  route 162 

Sea  levels 163 

Railroad 164 

Work  done  by  the  Maritime  Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua 165 

Chapter  VII. 

EARTHQUAKES,    VOLCANOES,    CLIMATE,    HEALTH. 

Earthquakes;  Obscurity  of  subject;   Volcanic  regions  most  subject  to  earth- 
quakes; Volcanoes  safety  valves;  Entire  isthmus  in  volcanic  region 167 

Records  available 168 

Earthquakes  on  Nicaragua  line;  Earthquakes  on  Panama  line;  No  difference 

between  the  two  lines 168 

Mechanical  action  of  earthquakes;  Power  of  canal  works  to  resist;  Tidal  wave.  169 
Injury  to  be  expected;  Danger  from  a  fissure;  Climate;  Health;  Experience  at 

Panama  and  Nicaragua 170 

Lessons  from  Panama;  Precautions  for  preservation  of  health 171 

Chapter  VIII. 

RIGHTS,  PRIVILEGES,  AND   FRANCHISES. 

Requirements  of  law  as  to  investigation 172 

Sovereignty  of  United  States  over  canal  route  not  requisite;  Strip  of  territory 

required;  Breadth  of  strip;  If  rights,  privileges,  and  franchises  exist,  they< 

should  be  removed 173 

Treaties  to  be  examined;  Treaties  relating  to  the  Nicaragua  route;  Costa  Rica 

also  interested  in  this  route;  Treaty  between  United  States  and  Nicaragua, 

1867 174 

Frelin<dmysen-Zavala  treaty 176 

Treaty  between  Nicaragua  and  Great  Britain,  February,  1860 177 

Same,  January,   1860;   Treaty  between  Nicaragua  and   France,  1859;  Other 

treaties  made  by   Nicaragua 178 

Clayton-Bulwer  treaty 179 

Treaty  between  United  States  and  Great  Britain  February  5,  1900;  Policy  with 

reference  to  interoceanic  canal 180 

Concession  to  Nicaragua  Canal  Association 181 

Maritime  Canal  Company  of  Nicaragua  incorporated;  Concession  of  Maritime 

Canal  Company  declared  forfeited 182 


CONTENTS    OF    PART    I. 


523 


Page. 

Concession  to  Interoceanic  Canal  Company 183 

Concession  declared  forfeited;  Previous  concessions 184 

Contract  with  F.  A.  Pelas;  Contract  with  Nicaragua  Mail  Steam  Navigation 

and  Trading  Company;  Transfer  of  contract  to  Maritime  Canal  Company; 

Purchase  by  Atlas  Steamship  Company;  Caribbean  and  Pacific  Transit 

Company 185 

Contract  of  Atlas  Company;  Boundary  between  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica 186 

Treaty  between  United  States  and  Costa  Rica,  1852;  Treaty  between  Costa 

Rica  and  Spain,  1850;  Treaty  between  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua,  1869 187 

Other  treaties;  Policy  with  reference  to  interoceanic  canal;  Concession  to  Nic- 
aragua Canal  Association 188 

No  obligations  now  in  force  to  prevent  an  agreement  with  the  United  States 

relative  to  a  canal 189 

Protocols  with  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica 190 

Treaties  with  Colombia  or  New  Granada;  Treaty  negotiated  in  1846  securing 

transit  rights 191 

Ratified  in  1848;  Treaty  with  France,  1856;  Treaty  with  Spain,  1881;  Other 

treaties;  Contract  with  Panama  Company  for  railroad 192 

Transferred  to  Panama  Railroad  Company  of  New  York;  Panama  Railroad 

completed  in  1850;  Present  form  of  contract 193 

Contract  with  Wyse  for  canal;  Modification  of  Wyse  contract  in  1878 194 

International  Scientific  Congress  at  Paris  in  1879 195 

Panama   Canal  Company  organized;  Company  goes  into   liquidation;  New 

agreement  with  Colombia,  1890 ;  Contract  extended  to  1904 196 

Extension  to  1910 197 

No  treaties  exist  giving  United  States  the  right  to  occupy  Nicaragua,  Costa 

Rica,  or  Colombia  for  canal  purposes;  Terms  must  be  arranged  by  diplomatic 

negotiations;  Concessions  from  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  declared  forfeited; 

Cost  of  acquiring  privileges  to  be  considered;  Nature  of  title  required; 

Plans  formerly  before  Congress 198 

Unlimited  control  now  required;  Compensation  for  privileges  should  be  definite 

in  amount;  Amount  of  compensation;  Hise  treaty  with  Nicaragua 199 

Contract  between  Nicaragua  and  American  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ship  Canal 

Company ;  Frelinghuysen-Zavala  treaty 200 

Contract  between  Nicaragua  and  Maritime  Canal  Company;  Contract  between 

Nicaragua  and  Interoceanic  Canal  Company 201 

Contract  between  Costa  Rica  and  Maritime  Canal  Company 202 

Privileges  of  Panama  Railroad  Company  to  continue  to  1966;  Privileges  of 

canal  company  continue  to  2009;  Both  companies  prohibited  from  ceding 

privileges  to  foreign  government;  Nature  of  right  under  concessions 203 

Privileges  subject  to  annual  charges;  New  arrangement  necessary  if  United 

States  undertakes  work 204 

Synopsis  of  correspondence  with  M.  Hutin 205 

Correspondence  with  M.  Hutin,  in  extenso 212 

Same   ■> 235 

Estimate  by  M.  Hutin  of  value  of  Panama  company's  interests  227 

Chapter  IX. 

INDUSTRIAL   AND   COMMERCIAL   VALUE   OF   CANAL. 

Industrial  and  commercial  value  of  canal;  The  canal  and  American  industries.  243 
The  canal  and  the  trade  of  the  Pacific  coast  States;  The  coal  trade;  Effect  of 

canal  upon  railway  traffic 244 

The  use  of  the  canal  by  sailing  vessels;  The  canal  and  the  industries  of  Pacific 

countries 245 


524  CONTENTS    OF   PART    I. 

Page. 

Tonnage  of  available  canal  traffic,  1899 246 

Growth  of  traffic;  Probable  tonnage,  1914 247 

Estimated  traffic,  1924 , 248 

Tolls  and  traffic 249 

The  relative  commercial  advantages  of  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  routes 250 

Benefits  to  Europe  and  United  States  compared 251 

Chapter  X. 

MILITARY   VALUE. 


252 


Military  value  in  time  of  peace;  In  time  of  war;  Canal  one  link  in  chain  of 
communications;  Canal  operated  by  American  citizens  not  available  for  the 
enemy 

Canal  useless  to  the  United  States  unless  it  controls  the  sea;  Useless  to  enemy 
unless  he  occupy  it;  Defense  by  fortifications;  Defense  by  Navy;  Defense  by 
neutrality 253 

Vulnerability  of  canal;  Canal  managed  by  foreigners;  Canal  free  to  enemy's 
vessels;  Canal  managed  by  American  citizens  a  source  of  strength  if  neutral, 
a  source  of  weakness  if  not  neutral 254 

Chapter  XL 

COST  OF   MAINTENANCE  AND  OPERATION. 

Data;  Cost  of  maintenance  and  operation  of  Suez  Canal;  Of  Kiel  and  Manches- 
ter canals;  Of  St.  Marys  Falls  Canal 255 

Basis  of  estimate  of  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation  for  Isthmian  Canal; 
Estimates  of  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation 256 

Chapter  XII. 
Conclusions 257 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 
Part  II. 


Page. 
Order  to  print 2 

Appendix  B. 

HISTORICAL    NOTES    RELATIVE  TO  THE   UNIVERSAL  CANAL  COMPANY    (1880- 
1894)  UNTIL  THE   ORGANIZATION   OF  THE   NEW   COMPANY. 

Preliminary  remarks 3 

Chapter  I. — The  Universal  Interoceanic  Canal  Company. 

Brief  sketch  of  discoveries,  explorations,  and  plans  for  canal  until  1879 4 

International  congress  of  surveys  for  canal 6 

The  first  issue  of  shares 9 

The  international  survey  commission 9 

The  Couvreux  and  Hersent  contract — second  issue  of  shares 10 

Superior  advisory  commission  for  the  work 13 

Purchase  of  shares  of  Panama  Railroad  Company 13 

The  small  contracts 14 

The  large  contracts 16 

The  temporary  canal  with  locks 18 

Chapter  II. — Receipts  and  expenditures  of  the  Universal  Interoceanic  Canal 

Company. 
Receipts: 

Capital  of  the  company  and  loans - 21 

Expenditures: 

Expenditures  on  the  Isthmus -- 22 

Expenditures  at  Paris 22 

General  summing  up  of  expenditures 23 

Chapter  III. — The  liquidation. 

Mr.  Brunet  appointed  receiver 24 

Organization  of  the  survey  commission 25 

Mr.  Monchicourt  appointed  receiver 26 

Report  of  the  survey  commission 26 

Organization  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company 27 

Appendix  C. 

List  of  documents  received  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  from  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company 29 

525 


526  CONTENTS    OF   PART    II. 

Appendix  D. 

REPORT  ON  HYDROGRAPHY  OP  PANAMA  CANAL  ROUTE. 

Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 33 

Hydrography  of  Panama 34 

The  Chagres  River 34 

Alhajuela  station  on  Chagres  River 36 

Gamboa  station  on  Chagres  River 37 

Bohio  station  on  Chagres  River 40 

Minor  streams  on  the  Isthmus 43 

The  floods  of  the  Chagres  River 43 

Low  water  of  the  Chagres  River 45 

Rainfall  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 48 

Report  of  W.  W.  Schlecht,  hydrographer  for  Panama 52 

Alhajuela 53 

Rating  table  for  station  on  Chagres  River  at  Alhajuela 55 

Tributaries  between  Alhajuela  and  Gamboa 56 

Chagres  River  at  Santa  Barbara 57 

Gamboa 58 

Buena  Vista  and  Bohio 59 

Tributaries  between  Bohio  and  Gamboa 61 

Trinidad  and  Gatun  rivers 62 

Drainage  area  of  Chagres  River 62 

Sediment  observations 62 

Hydraulics  of  Chagres  River  at  Alhajuela  and  Bohio 63 

Rio  Grande 74 

Precaution  for  accuracy 65 

Rainfall 

Santa  Barbara,  Rio  Fea,  and  Rio  Puente 66 

Salamanca  and  Las  Minas 66 

Gorgona 67 

Santa  Barbara,  on  Chagres  River 67 

Rio  Puente 68 

Calamanca,  on  Pequeni  River 68 

Pedro  Miguel * 69 

Isthmus  of  Panama 69 

Appendix  E. 

Waste  weir  and  discharge  for  Lake  Bohio 71 

Appendix  F. 

Description  of  alternate  location  for  canal  between  Gatun  and  Bohio 79 

Appendix  G. 

TIMB  REQUIRED   FOR  TRANSIT   THROUGH   AN   ISTHMIAN   CANAL. 

Attainable  and  permissible  speed 81 

Experiments  in  France  and  Germany 81 

Observations  at  St.  Clair  Flats  Canal 83 

Observations  on  Lake  Huron 90 

Observations  at  Suez  Canal 92 

Observations  at  Kiel  Canal 93 

Schedule  of  speeds  proposed  as  a  basis  for  calculating  time  of  transit,  Panama 

and  Nicaragua  canals 96 


CONTENTS    OF    PABT    II.  527 

Page. 
Time  of  transit  through  Panama  Canal  without  allowance  for  meetings  or 

lockages 96 

Time  of  transit  through  Nicaragua  Canal  without  allowance  for  meetings  or 

lockages 97 

Time  consumed  by  lockage 97 

Delays  at  meeting  points 99 

Meetings  at  locks 102 

Average  delay  to  each  ship 102 

Time  of  transit  across  the  Isthmus 104 

Appendix  H. 

Discharge  of  the  canalized  San  Juan  Eiver 105 

Appendix  I. 

REPORT  OP  HYDROGRAPHIC  INVESTIGATIONS  IN  NICARAGUA. 

Stream  measurements 119 

Pacific  slope 120 

Grande  River 120 

Tola  River 120 

Lake  Nicaragua 124 

Viejo  River 125 

Nueva  River 126 

Quebrada  Honda 126 

Station  at  Tipitapa 127 

Station  at  Fort  San  Carlos 133 

Frio  River 136 

Dry  season  inflow 136 

San  Juan  River 140 

Station  above  Savalos 142 

Station  at  Castillo 144 

Tributaries  of  San  Juan  above  Boca  San  Carlos 147 

Ochoa  Station  on  San  Juan  River 153 

Machado  River 163 

San  Francisco  River 164 

Sarapiqui  River 164 

San  Juanillo  River 166 

Miscellaneous  tributaries  to  San  Juan  River 168 

Indio  River 171 

Negro  branch 171 

Rainfall 172 

Daily  rainfall  on  Lake  Nicaragua 174 

Daily  rainfall  at  Ochoa 180 

Daily  rainfall  at  Greytown 181 

Monthly  rainfall  at  all  stations 182 

Evaporation 186 

Observations  on  evaporation  pans 186 

Dry  season  evaporation  from  Lake  Nicaragua 186 

Control  of  Lake  Nicaragua 187 

Season  of  maximum  supply 191 

Season  of  minimum  supply 192 

Temperature  and  relative  humidity 195 

Sediment 197 

Wind  movement 200 


528  CONTENTS    OF    PART    II. 

Appendix  J. 

SURVEYS  OP   UPPER  SAN  JUAN   TO   HEADQUARTERS   OP  THE  INDIO. 

Page. 

Rio  Bartola  survey 205 

Machuca-Negro  survey 206 

La  Cruz  del  Norte  survey 207 

Appendix  U. 

Translation  of  contract  between  Government  of  Nicaragua  and  the  Atlas  Steam- 
ship Company  (September  30,  1897) 209 

Appendix  C  C  1. 

Treaty  between  France  and  New  Granada 213 

Appendix  C  C  2. 

Convention  between  Republic  of  Colombia  and  French  Republic 221 

Appendix  D  D. 

Treaty  between  Spain  and  Colombia 223 

Appendix  F  F. 

Contract  between  Colombia  and  Panama  Railroad  Company 225 

Amended  August,  1891 235 

Appendix  GG. 

Wyse  concession  op  March  20,  1878. 

Contract  for  construction  of  interoceanic  canal  across  Colombian  territory 237 

Appendix  H  H. 

Additional  contract  modifying  that  op  March  23,  1878. 

Extension  of  ten  years  for  opening  of  canal  across  Colombian  territory 247 

Appendix  1 1. 

Contract  of  Extension. 

Contract  granting  extension  to  Panama  Canal  Company 251 

Appendix  J  J. 

Contract  relative  to  extension  of  time  to  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  . . .      255 

Appendix  K  K. 

MEMORANDUM   OF   LEGAL   STATUS   OP   NEW   PANAMA   CANAL  COMPANY. 

Dissolution  of  old  Panama  company  and  appointment  of  receiver 257 

Act  of  July  1,  1893,  relative  to  liquidation  of  old  Panama  company 259 

Bondholders'  attorney 259 

The  receiver 261 

Charter  of  New  Panama  Canal  Company: 

Formation  and  object  of  company;  name;  principal  office;  duration 262 

Contributions;  capital;  shares;  payments 263 


CONTENTS    OF    PART    II.  529 

Charter  of  New  Panama  Canal  Company — Continued.  Page. 

Board  of  directors 266 

Technical  commission 268 

Commissioners 269 

Stockholders'  meetings 269 

Statements  of  condition;  inventories 271 

Annual  accounts;  sinking  fund;  interest;  reserve  fund;  dividends 271 

Modification  of  the  statutes;  dissolution 272 

Conferring  of  jurisdiction;  suits 273 

Temporary  provisions 274 

Publicatu  his 275 

Charter  approved  and  ratified 276 

Law  authorizing  old  Panama  company  to  issue  securities  repayable  with  prizes.  282 

Law  authorizing  sale  of  lottery  bonds  at  reduced  rates 283 

Appendix  M  M. 

CONTRACT  BETWEEN   NICARAGUA  AND   THE  AMERICAN  ATLANTIC  AND  PACIFIC 
SHIP  CANAL  COMPANY. 

Appendix  N  N. 

'REPORT   ON    INDUSTRIAL    AND    COMMERCIAL    VALUE   OF   CANAL. 

Chapter  I. — Scope  and  method  of  the  investigation. 

The  purposes  of  the  investigation 297 

The  industrial  and  commercial  sides  of  the  investigation 297 

Scope  of  the  investigation 297 

Sources  of  information 297 

Character  of  the  conclusions 298 

Authorities  used  in  preparation  of  industrial  and  commercial  maps 299 

Chapter  II. — The  isthmian  canal  and  the  industries  and  trade  of  the 
Southern  States. 

Geographical  relation  of  the  Southern  States  to  the  canal 300 

The  canal  and  the  cotton  industries 301 

The  iron  and  steel  industries  of  the  South 303 

The  exportation  of  Southern  lumber  and  forest  products 304 

The  fertilizer  industries  of  the  Southern  States 306 

The  canal  and  the  commerce  of  the  Gulf  ports 307 

Chapter  III. — The  canal  and  the  industries  and  trade  of  the  northeastern 
section  of  the  United  Slates. 

Geographical  limits  of  the  section 311 

Industrial  characteristics 312 

The  canal  and  the  textile  industries 313 

The  canal  and  the  commerce  of  the  North  Atlantic  ports  of  the  United  States.  315 

Chapter  IV. — The  canal  and  the  Central  West. 

Industrial  resources  of  the  Central  West 320 

Present  routes  of  shipment  from  Central  West 321 

The  canal  and  the  industries  of  Cleveland 321 

Cincinnati  and  the  canal 323 

The  canal  and  Indiana 324 

S.  Doc.  54,  pt  2—34 


530  CONTENTS    OF    PART    II. 

Page. 

The  canal  and  Illinois  and  Wisconsin 324 

The  canal  and  St.  Louis 325 

The  effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  transportation  facilities  of  the  Central  West..  325 

Chapter  V. — The  canal  and  the  Pacific  coast  States. 

Pacific  coast  States  separated  from  their  best  markets 327 

The  canal  and  California 328 

The  canal  and  the  lumber  and  grain  industries  of  Oregon  and  Washington...  331 

The  west-coast  fisheries 332 

The  hops,  wool,  and  mineral  industries  of  the  Pacific  coast .• 333 

Effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  trade  of  the  west-coast  ports 333 

Chapter  VI. — The  coal  supply  for  the  commerce  and  countries  of  the  Pacific — 
The  canal  and  the  coal  trade  of  the  United  States. 

Industrial  and  commercial  importance  of  coal 335 

Sources  from  which  the  coal  consumed  on  the  Pacific  is  now  obtained 337 

Puget  Sound  coal 339 

The  fuel  supply  of  California 341 

Prices  and  costs  of  coal  in  different  sections  of  the  United  States 343 

River  transportation  of  coal  from  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  and  Alabama.  346 

Coal  prices  along  the  Suez  route 34S 

Concerning  the  marketing  of  Appalachian  coal  west  of  the  canal 348 

Chapter  VII. — The  isthmian  canal  and  the  iron  and  steel  industries  of  the 

United  States. 

The  United  States  as  an  exporter  of  iron  and  steel  products 351 

Conditions  of  present  competition  of  the  United  States  with  Europe 353 

American  iron  and  steel  trade  with  Pacific  countries 354 

The  manner  in  which  the  isthmian  canal  will  affect  the  American  iron  and  steel 

industries  as  a  whole,  and  those  of  the  Southern  States  in  particular 354 

Chapter  VIII. — The  canal  and  the  shipbuilding  and  maritime  interests  of 
the  United  States. 

Importance  of  the  maritime  industries 355 

The  canal  and  shipbuilding 350 

The  ownership  of  ocean  vessels  by  exporters 358 

The  canal  and  the  American  merchant  marine 359 

Chapter  IX. — Concerning  the  use  of  an  isthmian  canal  by  sailing  ressels. 

The  place  of  the  sailing  vessel  in  the  commerce  of  the  world  and  of  the 

United  States 360 

The  future  use  of  sailing  vessels  by  special  classes  of  traffic 363 

Tonnage  of  steam  and  sailing  vessels  clearing  from  United  Kingdom  and 

Germany  for  Eastern  countries 364 

Merits  of  the  steamer  and  sailing  vessel  compared 365 

Would  sailing  vessels  use  a  canal  at  Panama  or  across  Nicaragua 367 

Saving  to  sailing  vessels  by  use  of  isthmian  canal  instead  of  Cape  route 370 

Chapter  X. — The  canal  and  the  traffic  of  American  railways. 

General  statement  of  the  possible  effects  of  the  canal  upon  railway  traffic 373 

Concerning  the  statistics  of  transcontinental  mil  way  traffic 374 


CONTENTS    OF    PART    II.  531 

Page. 

The  nature  of  the  competition  of  the  canal  with  the  railways 375 

The  canal  and  the  traffic  of  the  Atlantic  roads 376 

The  canal  and  the  traffic  of  the  Gulf  roads 377 

The  canal  and  the  traffic  of  the  railways  of  the  Central  West 378 

Effect  of  the  canal  upon  the  traffic  of  the  Pacific  railways 379 

Conclusions '  382 

Chapter  XI. — The  trade  and  industries  of western  South  America  mid  the 

effect  of  the  canal  upon  them. 

Area  and  population  compared  with  North  America 383 

The  trade  zones  of  South  America 384 

Inadequate  transportation  facilities  of  wrestern  South  America 385 

Dependence  of  western  South  America  upon  foreign  capital  and  large  organi- 
zations of  capital 386 

Disadvantages  of  the  United  States  in  trading  with  western  South  America; 

effect  of  the  isthmian  canal 387 

Geography,  resources,  and  industries  of  Chile 390 

The  canal  and  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Chile 394 

Tropical  section  of  western  South  America;  general  description 395 

The  Peruvian  coast;  its  industries  and  the  effects  of  the  canal  upon  them 396 

The  Andean  plateau 397 

Relation  of  canal  to  industries  and  trade  of  eastern  slope  of  Andean  plateau. .  401 

Industries  of  Pacific  slope  of  Ecuador  and  Colombia 403 

The  Cauca  Valley  in  the  Colombian  Andes 404 

Summary  of  the  effect  which  the  canal  will  have  on  western  South  America. .  405 

Effect  of  canal  upon  Atlantic  South  America  will  not  be  great 406 

Chapter  XII. — Japan  and  the  isthmian  canal. 

The  salient  characteristics  of  Japan's  resources 407 

Japan  as  a  manufacturing  and  commercial  country 409 

Analysis  of  Japanese  trade  with  reference  to  effects  of  the  canal 410 

Chapter  XIII. — China  and  the  isthmian  canal. 

Geographical  divisions  of  China 412 

Resources  and  trade  of  north  China,  Manchuria,  Hoangho  Valley,  and  Shan- 
tung  - 414 

Resources  and  trade  of  central  China,  Yangtse  Valley 416 

Resources  and  trade  of  southern  China 417 

The  foreign  trade  of  China 418 

Trade  of  United  States  with  China  and  effects  of  canal 419 

Chapter  XIV. — The  canal  and  the  industries  and  trade  of  Australasia. 

Australian  industries  require  large  foreign  trade 421 

The  canal  and  distances  to  Australia 422 

General  geography  of  Australia 423 

Pastoral  and  agricultural  resources 423 

Mineral  resources 424 

The  canal  and  the  commerce  of  Australia  with  the  United  States 425 

New  Zealand  and  the  canal 427 


532  CONTENTS    OF    PA  TIT    II. 

Chapter  XV. — The  canal  and  the  Philippines  and  Hawaii. 

I.    THE  PHILIPPINES. 

The  geography  and  industries  of  the  Philippines 428 

The  commerce  of  the  Philippines 430 

The  location  of  the  Philippines  with  reference  to  trade  routes  from  the  United 

States 434 

II.    THE    HAWAIIAN    ISLANDS. 

Soil  and  climate  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands 435 

Resources  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands 436 

The  canal  and  the  trade  of  Hawaii 437 

Chapter  XVI. — The  canal  ami  Central  America  and  western  Mexico. 

I.  CENTRAL    AMERICA. 

The  population  and  general  geography  of  Central  America 438 

The  Central  American  industries 439 

The  canal  and  the  foreign  trade  of  Central  America 441 

II.  WESTERN    MEXICO. 

Agricultural  resources  of  western  Mexico 44o 

Mineral  resources 444 

The  canal  and  the  commerce  of  western  Mexico 445 

Chapter  XVII. — Comparison  of  distances  by  the  isthmian  canal  and  other 

routes. 

Distances  via  the  Nicaragua  and  Magellan  routes  between  the  eastern  ports  of 
the  United  States  and  the  ports  of  the  west  coast  of  North,  Central,  and 
South  America 447 

Distances  from  Europe  to  Pacific  ports  via  the  Nicaragua  Canal  and  the  Straits 
of  Magellan 448 

Distances  from  Atlantic  American  ports  to  Yokohama,  Shanghai,  and  Hong- 
kong via  the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes 449 

Distances  from  American  Atlantic  ports  to  Manila  via  Nicaragua  and  Suez 
routes 450 

Distances  between  the  eastern  seaboard  of  the  United  States  and  Australia  via 

the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes 450 

Distances  from  Liverpool  to  the  East  by  the  Suez  and  Nicaragua  routes 451 

Comparisons  of  distances  from  New  York  and  Liverpool  to  Australasian  and 

Asiatic  ports  via  the  Nicaragua  and  Suez  routes 452 

Comparison  of  distances  from  American  and  European  Atlantic  ports  to  Pacific 
ports  via  the  Nicaragua  and  Panama  canals 453-154 

Chapter  XVIII. — Cargo  tonnage  of  the  existing  maritime  commerce  that 
would  use  an  isthmian  canal  in  1899. 

General  description  of  the  three  traffic  investigations  contained  in  the  report..  455 

Nature  and  limitations  of  the  information  available  from  official  statistics 455 

Four  tables  giving  the  value  and  cargo  tonnage  of  that  part  of  the  foreign  trade 

of  our  two  seaboards  that  would  have  passed  through  an  isthmian  canal  in  1899.  458 

Methods  employed  in  preparing  the  tables 4i>:> 

The  average  values  of  the  carg<  >  ton 4GS 


CONTENTS    OF    PART    II.  533 

<  Page. 
Tonnage  of  the  commerce  between  Europe  and  the  west  coast  of  South  and 

Central  America  and  British  Columbia  and  Hawaii 469 

Summary  of  the  cargo  tonnage  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  Atlantic  Ameri- 
can seaboard  with  Pacific  countries  and  of  Europe  with  Pacific  America  in  1899.  471 

Chapter  XIX. — Tonnage  of  the  vessels  employedin  the  commerce  that  ivould 
have  used  an  isthmian  canal  in  1899. 

Concerning  statistics  of  entrances  and  clearances 473 

Importance  of  the  Chilean  commerce 477 

Vessel  tonnage  of  commerce  between  Europe  and  western  South  America 478 

European  trade  with  western  Central  America  and  Mexico 478 

Trade  of  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States,  British  Columbia,  and  Hawaii 

with  Europe 479 

United  States  Atlantic  coast  tonnage  with  foreign  countries 480 

Traffic  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 484 

Coasting  trade  of  the  United  States  available  for  the  canal 485 

Summary  of  commerce  of  Europe  with  Pacific  America  and  of  commerce  of 

Atlantic  United  States  with  Pacific  countries :  485 

Chapter  XX. — Traffic  investigation    by  the    new  Panama    Canal  Com- 
pany— Comparison  of  results  of  the  three  investigations. 

Plan  of  the  investigation 486 

Tonnage  of  vessels  engaged  in  trade  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans..  488 

Concerning  use  of  American  canal  by  commerce  of  Europe  with  the  Orient . . .  489 

Evidences  of  increasing  number  of  round-the-world  voyages 491 

Tonnage  of  available  canal  traffic 493 

Comparison  of  the  tonnage  of  1888  and  1898 494 

The  substitution  of  steamers  for  sailing  vessels 495 

Comparison  of  the  results  of  the  three  traffic  investigations 495 

Chapter  XXL— Growth  of  canal  traffic  1899  to  1914  and  1914  to  1924- 

Rate  of  increase  shown  by  table  of  Panama  Canal  Company 498 

Growth  in  value,  1889-1899,  trade  of  United  States  Atlantic  coast  with  foreign 

countries  on  the  Pacific 498 

Increase  in  trade  between  Europe  and  western  coast  of  America 499 

Growth  in  trans-Pacific  trade  of  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States 500 

Probable  available  canal  traffic  in  1914 501 

Estimate  of  growth  of  traffic  during  first  decade  of  the  use  of  the  canal 502 

Suez  Canal  traffic 503 

The  estimate  for  1924 505 

Chapter  XXII. — The  question  of  tolls. 

Concerning  the  general  policy  of  tolls 506 

Suez  Canal  tolls 506 

Suez  Canal  tonnage  and  traffic  receipts 507 

Effect  of  tolls  upon  volume  of  traffic  of  Suez  Canal 510 

Isthmian  canal  tolls  and  the  Chilean  traffic 511 

Isthmian  canal  tolls  and  the  Australian  trade 513 

The  Philippine  trade 514 


INDEX   TO   SUPPLEMENTARY  REPORT   OF  ISTHMIAN  CANAL 

COMMISSION. 

[Senate  Document  No.  123,  Fifty-seventh  Congress,  first  session.] 


Page. 

Advantages  of  Panama  and  Nicaragua  routes,  comparison  of 

Cablegrams  from  president  of  board,  Panama  Canal  Company 

Detailed  statement  of  property  and  rights  to  be  sold: 

Lands  not  built  on 

Buildings 

Plant J t 

Work  done 

Panama  Railroad 

Maps,  drawings,  and  records 

Total  value  of  property -     . 

Estimated  cost  of  construction  and  maintenance  of  the  two  routes,  compari- 
son of 

Letter  of  transmittal  to  Congress - 

Letter  of  Secretary  of  State,  transmitting  report  to  the  President 1 

Letter  of  Admiral  Walker,  transmitting  report  to  State  Department 

Liabilities  of  Panama  Company b 

Recommending  Panama  route 

Steamships  owned  by  Panama  Company 

Title  of  Panama  Company,  statement  as  to  conditions  affecting  transfer  of 8 

535 


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